Comm Theory Exam 2
What is the central idea of the Communication Privacy Management Theory? What are the six principles?
*CPM's central idea is that people make decisions about whether to reveal or conceal private information based on specific rules.* Developed after 25 years of researching the process of self-disclosure. Six principles: information (tension between revealing and concealing private info, public-private dialectical tension); possession (the central feature of private info; ppl gotta make choices about who gets to know/possess this knowledge when, where, and how); boundaries (personal boundaries - those that contain individual info; collective boundaries - those that contain shared info) Boundary coordination - the ways that collective boundaries are maintained (boundary linkage = alliances between the owners of the info; boundary ownership = refers to the rights and responsibilities bourn by the owners of the information (don't tell bob I forgot to order the toner); boundary permeability = how much info is easily passed through the boundary, some are permeable and others may be impregnable (you might not want to talk about a bad dinner date with co-workers, but would with a friend...). Boundary turbulence - occurs when the rules for privacy management are not clear. What should (or shouldn't) I say?
What are the 5 decision criteria that help inform our decisions about sharing private information (Communication Privacy Management)?
*Cultural criteria Gender criteria - women reveal more than men Motivational criteria (tied to individual beliefs about purpose of communication) - sounds like message design logic (based on personality, the basis that we see communication as) Contextual criteria - based on context, how inclined are you to share info (ex: when ur @ work, u might be less inclined to share info) Risk-benefit criteria (ex: prof losing a family member - they have to risk sharing that info/experience with students with the hope that they'll understand and support)*
What is the Social Exchange Theory? What does it clarify and what does it consider?
*SET clarifies when and why individuals continue and develop some personal relationships while ending others. The theory also considers how satisfied you will be with the relationships that you choose to maintain.*
What does a fantasy theme start with? What is a fantasy chain? What does this result in? (Symbolic Convergence Theory)
A fantasy theme starts with a dramatizing message: a joke, pun, figure of speech, anecdote, etc. Continued embellishment of the fantasy theme can result in a fantasy chain, which is when the fantasy theme is developed through group interaction and enters group consciousness (i.e., a joke becomes a running joke...). Building fantasy chains results in group cohesion, a process termed symbolic convergence. The ways that fantasy chains combine within a group leads to a rhetorical vision, or a unified way of viewing the world
What does a group refer to? Why is it different from an aggregate? How is it distinct from an organization? What is a team?
A group refers to a *system of three or more individuals who are focused on achieving a common purpose and who influence and are influenced by each other (Rothwell, 1998).* A group is different from an aggregate, which is simply a set number of individuals. A group is distinct from an organization which typically involve formal hierarchies and structured channels of communication. In an organizational setting, *a team is an ongoing, coordinated group of people working together* (Dyer, 1987)
According to Anxiety and Uncertainty Management theory, the key to communication effectiveness is ____. What does this involve?
According to AUM, the key to communication effectiveness is mindfulness (Gudykunst, 2005; Miller & Samp, 2007). Mindful communication suggests thoughtful, conscious behavior rather than relying on stereotypes or knee-jerk reactions to a situation. Therefore, *being mindful allows us to engage in our anxiety and uncertainty management. We are aiming to understand the situation, reflect on our communication, and strive to increase our effectiveness.*
What are the assumptions of the Theory of Reasoned Action?
All behavior is intentional. The notion of a *behavioral intention* means your plan to act a particular way. There are two predictors of behavioral intention: attitudes and *normative beliefs*. Neutral peripheral messages leave the receivers feeling emotionally ambivalent; they really don't know or care about the cue Negative peripheral messages produce negative or disapproving emotional responses within the receiver
What is an attitude? Are they something people are born with? What are they presumed to do?
An attitude is a "relatively enduring predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably" toward something Because attitudes are enduring, they are neither fleeting nor based on whims. Attitudes are learned evaluations; they are not something people are born with. As such, attitudes are changeable. Attitudes are presumed to influence behavior, although this influence is not as strong as one might presume.
What is an inoculation message? (Inoculation Theory)
An inoculation message presents a weaker form of a contrary argument, much like a vaccine includes a weakened form of a virus. Once exposed to this weaker argument, people are less likely to change their attitudes when presented with a stronger form of the argument
What are some types of peripheral messages? (Elaboration Likelihood Model)
As with centrally routed arguments, peripheral messages can be evaluated as positive, neutral, or negative (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). Positive peripheral messages are those that are perceived favorably by the audience and create a positive affective state. Neutral peripheral messages leave the receivers feeling emotionally ambivalent; they really don't know or care about the cue. Negative peripheral messages produce negative or disapproving emotional responses within the receiver. Persuaders should focus on emotionally based peripheral messages if receivers cannot or will not consider an elaborated message
What is attributional confidence? What is anxiety? Is it the same as uncertainty?
Attributional confidence-appropriately discerning and reducing uncertainty about the other person's behavior. Anxiety is also present in intercultural encounters. It is an emotional state of apprehension, worry or fear of negative consequences. It is related but distinct from uncertainty.
According to PT, individuals can choose one of five strategies when communicating in a manner that could potentially threaten the face of another. What are these 5 strategies? (face work strategies)
Avoidance - speaker simply chooses not to communicate in a way that could create embarrassment or a loss or face for another Going off-record - speaker subtly hints or indirectly mentions the face-threatening topic. It leaves the message open to interpretation, thereby minimizing any face threat. Ex: you are upset you have to work the weekend since you were invited to the beach with friends. You can hint to your co-worker by saying, "I am so upset I need to work this weekend. I could be at the beach! Negative politeness - when the speaker tries to recognize the other's negative face needs; that is, the receiver's need of freedom and lack of restraint. Ex: "I am so sorry to ask, but I am really in need of a favor. Can you cover my weekend shift?" Positive politeness - the speaker *emphasizes the receiver's need for positive face, that is, the need to be liked.* By ingratiating the receiver with *flattery and compliments*, you hope to camouflage your face-threatening behavior. Ex: you might try being extra nice here to get your coworker to cover your shift Bald on record - the least polite strategy, no attempt to protect the other's face; very blunt Ex: "Jim, I need you to cover my shift this weekend"
Think about Politeness Theory. What are the weaknesses of this theory? Aim to come up with at least 2.
Being polite could downplay the importance of what you're after - could come across as weak Being too polite or too nice could be more harmful - sometimes you have to be straight up
What is Symbolic Convergence Theory based on? What are the central concepts of this theory?
Bormann (1982) based SCT on the notion that group members cooperatively create and sustain a shared consciousness, including shared meaning, through interaction. The most important concept of SCT is a fantasy theme, or a creative understanding of events that fulfills a psychological or rhetorical need (Bormann, 1982). According to SCT, fantasy does not refer to something desired or something fictional; rather, it refers to a creative understanding or events that fulfills a psychological or rhetorical need (Bormann, 1982). How symbolic convergence affects decision making
What are the assumptions of the Social Exchange Theory?
Broad theory used to explain and predict relationship maintenance Personal relationships are a function of comparing benefits gained vs. costs to attain those benefits People want to make the most of the benefits, while lessening the costs. This is known as the minimax principle By nature, humans are selfish, this as a human being, you tend to look out for yourself first and foremost *Built on the assumption that people evaluate the rewards and costs of a relationship with considering expectations and other alternatives
How does symbolic convergence affect decision making?
Building a sense of common identity and shared meaning fosters group members' creativity in decision making. Group consciousness and shared motivation also influence assumptions and preferred processes by which decisions are made. Group members might create fantasy themes about the decision-making process itself.
What are centrally routed messages? What are they much more likely to create? When is the only time these messages succeed? (Elaboration Likelihood Model)
Centrally routed messages include a wealth of information, rational arguments, and evidence to support a conclusion Centrally routed messages are much more likely to create long-term change for the recipient. Centrally routed messages succeed only when two factors are met: The target must be *highly motivated* to process all the information being given. The target *must be able to process the message cognitively.* So, willingness and ability are two different things. If you are willing to watch a debate, yet can't follow the arguments, messages won't be processed successfully via this route. You need both!
What are three antecedent conditions to groupthink?
Cohesion refers to the degree of connection, or sense of solidarity, between group members. Because groupthink emphasizes the preservation of group harmony, *a high degree of cohesion is necessary for groupthink to occur.* Structural flaws refer to problems with the way the group is organized Situational characteristics-groupthink is more likely to occur in times of high internal or external stress (i.e., groups working in pharmaceutical industry experiencing pressures from Federal Drug Administration requirements).
What does the Face-Negotiation Theory combine?
Combining face with cultural orientation
According to the Communication Accommodation Theory, when will convergence or divergence be used? How?
Communication accommodation theory predicts that when a person wants to be viewed as part of an in-group, he or she will accommodate by convergence: You will alter your speech and behavior so that it matches that of your conversational partner. Speech includes word choice, pronunciation, pitch, rate, and even gestures like smiling and gaze. Conversely, there are times when individuals don't want to be associated with a certain group. In this instance, you will alter your speech through divergence: *Rather than match your partner's communication patterns, you will seek to make your speech different. In addition to expressing disagreement or rejection of a speaker, divergence also illustrates one's cultural identity or differences in one's status (a doctor's use of medical terminology when talking to a patient).*
What is an example of revelation-concealment (external dialectical perspective)?
Connor: Ily maddie Maddie: ily 2 C: I know you do, but i also know we haven't been getting along as well as we usually do since we started discussing moving in together. i am sure you want to share with your friends, but is it okay if we keep these discussions between us until we figure this all out?
What is an example of conventality-uniqueness (external dialectical perspective)?
Connor: Ily maddie Maddie: ily 2 C: ik we usually spend xmas with ur fam, and i luv that. but i was hoping we could incorporate a different tradition this year. ya know, something just for us?
What is an example of openness-closedness (internal dialectical perspective)?
Connor: Maddie, I love being with you Maddie: I love being with you too C: I was hoping we could talk more about our childhoods. I think it is a big part of who we are and something we never really discussed M: Oh yeah you're rigjt. I look forward to sharing it with you but I need some time before I am ready to discuss that with you
What is an example of autonomy-connection (internal dialectical perspective)?
Connor: Maddie, I love being with you Maddie: I love being with you too C: I'm glad you want to move in together but I think we need time on our own before we get married someday
What is an example of predictability-novelty (internal dialectical perspective)?
Connor: Maddie, I love you Maddie: I love you too C: I love that on Saturdays we go to the movies, but I was hoping we could do something different this Saturday
What is an example of inclusion-seclusion (external dialectical perspective)?
Connor: Maddie, you know I love you Maddie: Yes, I do. and i hope you know that i love you too C: yes, i do. i love that we spend our anniversary alone, but since this is our 2 year, i was hoping we could invite friends and family, ya know, celebrate it a bit!
What is culture? What is cross-cultural communication? What is intercultural communication?
Culture is one's *identification with and acceptance into a group that shares symbols, meanings, experiences, and behavior.* Cross-cultural communication is the comparison of two or more cultural communities (Ting-Toomey, 1991). Intercultural communication involves the actual interaction between members of different cultures.
For Hofstede's dimension of uncertainty avoidance, what do individuals in cultures low in uncertainty avoidance do? High in uncertainty avoidance?
Cultures low in uncertainty avoidance have individuals that are more inclined to take *risks, innovate, and value thinking outside the box* - more emphasis placed on being independent (more like the US) Cultures high in uncertainty avoidance have individuals that maintain *strict codes of behavior, and support a belief in absolute truths (as an example, the workplace follows rules, precision and punctuality)*
For Hofstede's dimension of individualism-collectivism, what characteristics determine whether a culture is more individualistic or collective? Which is low context, which is high context? Give examples
Cultures that fall on the individualistic side share four characteristics: Such cultures consider the *individual to be the most important entity in any social setting*., Stress *independence* rather than dependence., Reward *individual achievement*, Value everyone's *uniqueness*. Employs a low-context communication style, which values *direct, explicit expression of ideas. - remember what it values (we like to get to the point). Ex: the United States* Cultures that fall on the collectivistic side also share four characteristics: *Views, needs, and goals of the group are more important than any individual views, needs, or goals. Obligation to the group is the norm*; behavior is guided by duty not by individual pleasure or rewards. *Self is defined in relation to others*, not as distinct from others. Focus placed on *cooperation* rather than competition. Employs a *high-context communication style*, privileging *relational harmony*, with messages more *indirect so as not to offend*. Ex: Japan, China
For Hofstede's dimension of power distance, how do cultures with low/high power distance view power?
Cultures with low power distance value minimization of power distances High power distance cultures accept power as a scarce resource
What does the Politeness Theory clarify? What does it determine? When is this most commonly utilized?
Developed by Brown and Levinson (1978, 1987), politeness theory (PT) clarifies how we manage our own and others' identities through interaction, in particular, using politeness strategies. *The theory determines when, why, and how interpersonal interaction is constructed through (or in the absence of) politeness.* Most commonly utilized when people have a specific goal
What are dialectical tensions? What are two kinds? (Dialectical Perspective)
Dialectical tensions, or interdependent, yet opposing needs, are experienced. They are either internal or external
What does each politeness strategy have?
Each strategy has consequences and (at times) complications (like a complaint, which might have both positive and negative face involved)
In what degrees an elaborated arguments be measured? What kind of response does each cause? (Elaboration Likelihood Method)
Elaborated arguments can be measured as strong, neutral, or weak. Strong arguments create a positive cognitive response in the minds of receivers while also positively aligning the receivers' beliefs with those views of the persuader (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). Most likely to create lasting change. Neutral arguments generate a noncommittal cognitive response from the receiver. No attitude change occurs. Weak arguments produce a negative cognitive response to the persuasive message. Can have reverse, or boomerang effect, thereby reinforcing the opposing point of view
What are some ways to prevent groupthink?
Encourage critical evaluation, avoid having leader state a preference, set up several independent subgroups to study the problem and propose solutions, discuss what is happening in the group with people outside of the group, invite outsiders into the group, assign someone to be the devil's advocate, monitor the group for symptoms, take time between the initial decision and the confirmation to analyze decision critically
Give an example that can be applied to threat and refutational preemption (Inoculation Theory)
Ex: (Threat) - Despite your positive feelings towards the HPV vaccine, there exists many reports and stories by the media aimed at attacking your feelings on the issue. There is a real possibility that you will come in contact with these in the near future. Some might be so persuasive that it may cause you to question your feelings towards getting the HPV vaccine. Ex: (Refutational Preemption) - Used 2 news reports; 2 messages from Center for Disease Control; used to demonstrate support for HPV Vaccine.
What are external dialects? What are 3 types?
External dialects, mirror the internal dialectical tensions, but appear when the couple interacts with others in their lives. The inclusion-seclusion dialectic emphasizes the tension partners experience when they want to spend time with friends, family, etc., versus wanting to spend their time alone as a couple. The revelation-concealment dialectic involves the tension between relationship partners who want to reveal aspects of their relationship to the outside world, while also wanting to keep some aspects private.Ex: you want to move in with ur partner but u guys have been fighting abt it. U tell ur friends ur talking abt moving in tg but don't tell them ur fighting The conventionality-uniqueness dialectic emphasizes the tension partners feel between wanting to behave in ways that are considered normative versus wanting to emphasize their relationship's uniqueness by doing something differently.
What is face? What are the two dimensions of face? (Politeness Theory)
Face refers to the desired self-image that you wish to present to others as well as the recognition that your interactional partners have face needs of their own Face has two dimensions: positive face includes a person's need to be liked, appreciated, and admired by select persons. Negative face assumes a person's desire to act freely, without constraints or imposition from others. Think of this both as your desire not to be put upon, and also as being aware of not doing this to others!
What does the Narrative Paradigm stress? What are the assumptions of this? What does a narrative include?
Fisher's (1984, 1987) narrative paradigm stresses the effectiveness of influence through narration-that is persuasion through storytelling. What makes humans unique and distinct from other creatures is our ability and drive to tell stories. (a narrative includes the symbolic words and actions people use to assign meaning) Individuals use narrative rationality-a logical method of reasoning by which a person can determine how believable another's narrative is. The world is a set of stories from which we choose, and thus constantly re-create, our lives
What is the comparison level of alternatives? How is this related to relationships? What happens when you perceive that the alternatives are greater than your outcome and greater than your CL? (Social Exchange Theory)
For any relationship to continue or end, individuals must also examine their comparison level of alternatives, or your alternatives to staying in the relationship. Only when you perceive that the alternatives (CLalt) are greater than your outcome and greater than your CL, or what you expect to receive, you will end your current relationship.
How is group communication different from other forms? What is there a balance between? What does a group role refer to?
Group communication is different from other forms of communication because there is a balance between two types of communication: Task communication-focused on achieving the instrumental goal of the group. Socioemotional communication-focused on developing, maintaining, and repairing the relationship between group members. A group role refers to a *pattern of communicative behaviors performed by one individual considering expectations held by other group members*
What are 4 structural flaws that could cause groupthink?
Group insulation-a group cut off from others outside of the group. Biased leadership-leaders with hidden agendas or personal stakes in the decision. Lack of procedural norms-not having a process in place for how to make a decision. Homogeneity- too much is problematic; group members who are very similar are less likely to challenge each other's ideas.
What is GroupThink? What does it explain/predict?
Groupthink is a "*dysfunctional way of deliberating that group members use when their desire for unanimity overrides their motivation to assess all available plans of action*" (Janis, see Miller, 2002, p. 193). It explains and predicts how *bad decisions* are made. It represents failure of group to demonstrate critical thinking
What are Hofstede's 5 cultural dimensions? What can they be used for?
Hofstede concluded that there are *five dimensions that can be used to differentiate and rank various cultures* Individualism-collectivism: this dimension addresses how people define themselves and their relationship with other Uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent to which *"people within a culture are made nervous by situations which they perceive as unstructured, unclear, or unpredictable"* (Hofstede, 1986, p. 308). Power distance refers to the extent to which *people with little power in society consider inequity normal and acceptable* (Hofstede, 1980). Masculinity-femininity focuses on the *relationship between biological sex and what is considered sex-appropriate behavior.* Long-term and short-term orientation
What are in-groups and out-groups? What communicates a person's in-group or out-group status? (Communication Accommodation Theory)
In-groups are social affiliations to which an individual feels he or she belongs. Out-groups are those social affiliations to which a person feels that he or she does not belong. According to Giles and Coupland (1991), language, speech, and nonverbal messages all communicate one's in-group and out-group status.
What does Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory predict?
Influenced by URT, *AUM predicts that communication effectiveness and intercultural effectiveness is a combined result of reducing intercultural anxiety and uncertainty.*
Without _____, a relationship cannot exist (Dialectical Perspective)
Interdependence
What does Interpersonal communication refer to?
It refers to both content and quality of messages relayed and the possibility of further relationship development. Idea is that there is a relationship
What predictor has been added to the Theory of Reasoned Action which changed the name to the Theory of Planned Behavior?
Like attitudes and normative beliefs, *perceived behavioral control* is also comprised of two elements: self-efficacy and controllability.
For Hofstede's dimension of long-term and short-term orientation, what is the difference between the two?
Long-term orientation is associated with thrift, savings, and perseverance. Short-term orientation centers on a desire for immediate gratification. Individuals spend money to impress others.
For Hofstede's dimension of masculinity-femininity, what is the difference between masculine cultures and feminine cultures?
Masculine cultures use the reality of biological sex in the creation of distinct roles for men and women. Feminine cultures have fewer rigid roles for behavior based on biological sex.
What does narrative rationality rely on? When does narrative fidelity occur?
Narrative rationality relies on good reasons which allow us to validate and accept (or reject) another's narrative based on the perceived truthfulness and consistency. When a persuasive narrative appears truthful and congruent with our own values, culture, character, and experiences, we say there is narrative fidelity (Fisher, 1987).
Is face the same for all cultures?
No. it is central, but it varies across cultures
What are some types of peripheral cues? What kind of change are they not likely to lead to? (Elaboration Likelihood Model)
Not likely to lead to long-term change Authority-persuader uses the perception of authority. Commitment-emphasis is on a person's dedication to a product, social cause, group affiliation, etc. Contrast-requires the communicator to set up uneven points of comparison (Cialdini, 1993, 1994). Liking-stresses affinity toward a person, place, or object. Reciprocity-try to influence by emphasizing a give and take relationship. Scarcity-preys on people's worry of missing out on something. Social proof-relies on peer pressure.
What are some assumptions of Anxiety/Uncertainty management theory?
One central assumption is that at least one person in an intercultural encounter is a stranger (Gudykunst, 2005). A second assumption is that when communicating with a stranger, uncertainty and anxiety abound. A third assumption is that 7 general factors predict the extent to which a person will experience anxiety and uncertainty in predicting a stranger's behavior in intergroup communication (see chart). AUM predicts it is *only when this anxiety and uncertainty are appropriately discerned and reduced that effective communication can occur.*
What is the Functional Group Decision Making approach (central purpose and what a function is)?
One of the central purposes of a group is decision making. A function refers to what communication does.
What are some predictions made by Social Exchange Theory?
Outcome > Comparison level, expectations = satisfied Outcome < Comparison level = dissatisfied Outcome > Comparison level of alternatives = stay Outcome < Comparison level of alternatives = terminate
What are three symptoms of GroupThink?
Overestimation of the group: When group members have an inflated view of the group's abilities. This can take two forms: Illusion of invulnerability-a belief the group can't/won't fail. Inherent morality-because the group is good, the resulting decisions must be good. Closed-mindedness: These symptoms demonstrate polarized thinking, which means viewing the world in extremes. (Stereotyping-demonizing out-group members. Collective rationalization-group members tend to justify their decisions by talking themselves into it.) Pressure toward uniformity: individual group members actively suppress critical thinking. (Self-censorship-individual group members suppress critical thinking. Illusion of unanimity-perceiving consensus, even if it hasn't been reached.)
What are assumptions of Politeness Theory?
PT assumes that all individuals are concerned with maintaining face; PT assumes that human beings are rational and goal oriented, at least with respect to achieving face needs; PT maintains that some behaviors are fundamentally face threatening (you will threaten someone else's face, just as another person will threaten yours at some point)
What is the minimax principle? (Social Exchange Theory)
People want to make the most of the benefits, while lessening the costs
What is persuasion defined as? What does it involves? What is the means to achieve that? What must the message recipient have?
Persuasion is typically defined as, "human communication that is designed to influence others by modifying their beliefs, values, or attitudes" Persuasion involves a goal and the intent to achieve that goal on the part of the message sender. Communication is the means to achieve that goal. The message recipient must have free will.
What are the central ideas of the Elaboration Likelihood Model? What are two routes or methods of influence?
Petty and Cacioppo (1986) view persuasion primarily as a cognitive event: Targets of persuasive messages use mental processes of motivation and reasoning to accept or reject persuasive messages. There are two routes or methods of influence: slow and steady: the central route to persuasion, and taking a shortcut: the peripheral route of persuasion
What are the two major components to an inoculation message? Describe them. (Inoculation Theory)
Pfau (1997) suggests that there are two major components to an inoculation message: threat and refutational preemption. Threat involves a forewarning of a potential persuasive attack on beliefs, making sure that the target of the persuasive effort is aware of this or her susceptibility to the attack. The second component of an inoculation effort is refutational preemption. The inoculation message should anticipate what the counter-persuasive effort will be by raising specific challenges and then contesting them. Research consistently shows that "matching" the content of refutations exactly to what occurs in the counterargument is unnecessary; any preemptive refutation seems to bolster the inoculation effect
What are three factors that influence a person's politeness strategies? (Politeness theory)
Prestige - if a person has more than you (more $/power), you're more polit Power - if they have more power (your boss, auto mechanic if your car is busted), you're more polite Risk - if what you are going to do runs the risk of hurting someone, you're more polite
What are three types of communication that exist in small groups? (Functional Group Decision Making)
Promotive communication is geared toward one of the requisite functions (i.e., goal oriented). Disruptive communication diverts, retards, or frustrates the ability of group to achieve the requisite functions (i.e., group member making silly jokes and being disruptive). Counteractive communication, or messages that return a disrupted group back to the requisite functions, is likely to be the most important for group decision making (MOST IMPORTANT FOR GROUP DECISION MAKING!).
What is self-efficacy and controllability? If your goal as a persuader is to convince someone to act in a particular way you need to provide what?
Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief that he or she can actually perform the behavior. Controllability recognizes that sometimes things simply are out of control, or are at least perceived that way. If your goal as a persuader is to convince someone to act in a particular way you need to provide attitudinal, social norm, and controllability incentives.
What is self-face concern and other-face concern? What is mutual-face concern and communal-face concern?
Self-face concern-individuals must consider their own positive and negative face needs. Other-face concern-partner's positive and negative face needs. Simply put, this means individuals must consider their own positive and negative face needs (self-face concern) as well as their partner's positive and negative face needs (other-face concern). Ting-Toomey's (2017) research also suggests that both *mutual-face concern (self and other) and communal-face concern (managing in-group identity needs when challenged by an out-group)*, must be considered.
What are the core components of Social Exchange Theory?
Social relationships bring both rewards and costs. Outcome = rewards - costs (What an individual perceives as a reward or cost in each relationship will, of course, vary. One hopes the rewards outweigh the costs, resulting in a positive outcome value) The comparison level
What does the Dialectical perspective argue?
That relationships are dynamic; it is impossible for a relationship to maintain a certain level of satisfaction or reach a constant status quo. Much like a spiraling trajectory, people continue to develop their relationships by managing a series of opposing, yet necessary, tensions or contradictions
What are the assumptions of the dialectical perspective?
That relationships can become more intimate or less intimate over time. Relational partners are always acting and reacting to one another. Change, or motion, is inevitable. The only guarantee in a relationship is that it will change Both partners in a relationship have essential yet opposing needs, or contradictions. Because these needs counteract each other, ongoing tensions result Totality emphasizes interdependence between relationship partners.
What is the comparison level? What does it represent? How is this related to Social Exchange Theory? What happens if you perceive more rewards than costs in your relationship, according to SET?
The comparison level represents what rewards a person expects to receive in a relationship. SET maintains that individuals compare their current outcome value with their comparison level, or what they expect to receive in a relationship If you perceive more rewards than costs in your relationship and these match or exceed your expectations for the relationship, SET predicts satisfaction.
What is the difference between Uncertainty reduction theory and Anxiety/uncertainty management theory?
The key difference between uncertainty reduction theory and anxiety/uncertainty management theory is context. Whereas URT focuses on interpersonal encounters, AUM focuses on *intercultural (or intergroup) encounters wherein people from different cultural backgrounds interact.* Specifically, AUM posits that *mindful awareness of intercultural anxiety and uncertainty* motivates intergroup participants to manage the reduction of this apprehension
What does the Functional Group Decision Making model answer the question of? What are the 5 requisite functions?
Their model argues that the answer to this question has to do with *whether or not the group has successfully accomplished five functions, which they call requisite functions* (Gouran & Hirokawa, 1998, 1996): Problem analysis-the group must take a realistic look at the nature, extent, and likely causes of the problem. Determine minimal standards-characteristics of an acceptable solution. Identify alternatives-group members use *brainstorming* to generate many possible solutions, maximizing the likelihood that a good solution is ultimately chosen. Evaluate and select-group members must assess the possible solutions generated in the previous function. Selecting the best alternative based on the analysis of available options completed in function four. All five functions need to be accomplished to maximize the likelihood of an effective decision and that no one function is more important than another
What is the connection between the Theory of Reasoned Action and the Theory of Planned Behavior?
Theory of planned behavior can be traced to an earlier theory, the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975).
Why are there differences in accommodation across different groups? Who typically uses divergence or convergence? When in doubt, what do individuals rely on to inform their decision to accommodate or not? (Communication Accommodation Theory)
There are *differences in accommodation across different groups* because these differences say a great deal about the importance of perceived *status, authority, and cultural and social identity within our multicultural society.* Euro-American male employees typically diverge; that is, they maintain their communicative style regardless of their conversational partner because it is commonly defined as the "standard" in both the United States and much of Europe. Conversely, minority employees (including women and members of racial and ethnic minorities), typically must converge to this "standard" to achieve status within the organization. When in doubt, individuals rely on social norms to inform their decision to accommodate or not.
What are internal dialectics? What are the three central types?
Three central tensions exist between relationship partners (Baxter, 1988), and are known as internal dialectics. The autonomy-connection dialectic refers to the tension between the desire to feel connected to one's partner versus the desire to maintain a sense of independence. (you may want more distance, you may want to feel more connected to them) The openness-closedness dialectic includes the pull between wanting to open and self-disclose while also wanting to maintain one's privacy. (wanting to be open but also wanting to maintain your privacy) The predictability-novelty dialectic is the tension between wanting stability or steadiness while also wanting opportunities for spontaneity.
What does Face-Negotiation Theory predict? What do members of individualistic cultures primarily focus on? What do members of collectivistic cultures want? What can these differences lead to?
Ting-Toomey (2005) predicts these cultural differences affect face management and lead to different communication patterns. Members of *individualistic cultures primarily focus on negative face-that is, they prefer to present themselves as confident, self-directed, and independent.* Members of *collectivistic cultures want to be seen as likeable and cooperative.* These communication differences can lead to *misinterpretation and disagreement.*
How do people preserve face (Politeness Theory)?
To create and maintain this desired self-image, individuals must use facework-specific messages that minimize face threatening acts
What are the 4 primary strategies for managing dialectical tensions? Why are they necessary?
To sustain a relationship The selection strategy involves choosing to favor one pole or need at the expense of another (a long distance couple who chooses to break-up as autonomy is easier). The cyclic alteration fulfill one pole or need now and will shift to fulfill the other pole later (back-and-forth strategy). Segmentation compartmentalizes the relationship such that certain issues coincide with one pole or need, and the other issues are appropriate for the opposite pole (close friends who agree on everything but politics. They utilize the closedness pole and talk about everything but politics...) Integration includes several variations and is predicated on incorporating aspects of both poles to create a more *fulfilling experience. This is the goal! It means you are aware of tensions and talk about them to manage the relational tensions.*
What could a goal be for the Inoculation Theory?
What if your goal is to persuade someone not to be persuaded?
When is the peripheral route of persuasion used? What does it lead to? What do peripheral messages rely on? Give an example
When motivation or ability is missing from the target audience, the persuader can use the peripheral route to persuasion. *Leads to short-term change, if any at all.* It is unreasonable to expect every persuasive target to be motivated or skilled enough to understand the barrage of influential messages put forth each day. Peripheral messages rely on a receiver's emotional involvement and persuade through more superficial means. Ex: ASPCA Ads (images of neglected and abused animals).
What is the idea behind Face-Negotiation theory? Within which context of communication is this found?
Within the context of intercultural communication, the concept of face and social identity emerges again. Ting-Toomey (1988, 1991, 2005, 2017) uses face to explain and predict the cultural differences associated with conflict management.
What does Interpersonal communication include?
includes those *messages that occur between two interdependent persons, with a focus on how interpersonal messages are offered to initiate, define, maintain, or further a relationship.*
What does the Communication Accommodation Theory state? How do people communicate social identity, according to this theory? How do people accommodate?
when *individuals interact with others, individuals will accommodate their speech and language patterns, either by matching their partner's speech or by differentiating their speech and language use. Communicating social identity through in-groups and out-groups* - Giles and Coupland (1991) assumed that individuals belong to a wide variety of social groups, (such as groupings based on ethnicity, race, gender, and religion), shaping each person's collective identity. Accommodation through convergence or divergence (individuals adjust their speech and conversational patterns either to assimilate with or to deviate from others
