COMMUNICATION FINAL EXAM Chapter 10-17

Problem-Cause-Solution Order

A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the cause of the problem and the third main point presents a solution to the problem.

Monroe's Motivated Sequence

A method of organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action. The five steps of motivated sequence are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action.

What is a preview statement?

a statement in the introduction of the speech that identifies the main points to be discussed in the body

Pronunciation

accepted standard of sound and rhythm for words in a given language

False Cause

an error in casual reasoning in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second. This error is often known by its Latin name, post hoc, ergo proper hoc, meaning "after this, therefore because of this"

Event

anything that happens or is regarded as happening

Object

anything that is visible, tangible, and stable in form

What does it mean to say you should use language appropriately in your speeches?

appropriateness to occasion, the audience, the topic, and a speaker

Inflections

changes in the pitch or tone of a speaker's voice

Pitch

highness or lowness of a speaker's voice

Pause

momentary break in the vocal delivery of a speech

Gestures

motions of a speaker's hands or arms during a speech

What is the difference between denotative and connotative meaning?

one the dictionary meaning, the other is the emotions triggered by a word

Vocalized Pause

pause that occurs when a speaker fills the silence between words with vocalizations such as "uh," "er," and "um"

What kinds of visual aids might you use in a speech?

photographs, graphs, charts, the speaker

Articulation

physical production of particular speech sounds

What guidelines are given in the chapter for preparing visual aids?

prepare visual aids well in advance, keep visually simple, make sure visual aids are large enough, is a limited amount of text, use fonts effectively, use color effectively, and use images strategically

Conversational Quality

presenting a speech so it sounds spontaneous no matter how many times it has been rehearsed

Analogical Reasoning

reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second

Reasoning from Principle

reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion

Reasoning from specific instances

reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion

Casual Reasoning

reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects

What can you do to make sure your ideas don't pass over the heads of your listeners?

relate the subject directly to the audience, don't be too technical, avoid extractions, personalize your ideas, and be creative

What are the major functions of a speech conclusion?

signal the end of the speech, reinforce the central idea

Why is it important for informative speakers to be creative in thinking about ways to communicate their ideas?

so that your speech does not sound like an oral encyclopedia article; boring

Rate

speed at which a person speaks

Derived Credibility

the credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says or does during the speech

Ethos

the name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as credibility

Pathos

the name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as emotional appeal

Reasoning

the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence

What does it mean to say that informative speakers should personalize their ideas?

to represent one's ideas in human terms that relate in some fashion to the experience of the audience

Why is it important to establish your credibility at the beginning of your speech?

to show that you were called on to speak on a given topic to your listeners

What is the role of emotional appeal in persuasive speaking? Identify 3 methods you can use to generate emotional appeal in your speeches?

Emotional appeal are intended to make listeners feel sad, angry, guilty, fearful, reverence, or the like. 1.Use emotionally charged language 2. Vivid examples 3. Speak with sincerity and conviction

What are 4 tips for using evidence effectively in a persuasive speech?

1.) Speakers should use specific evidence 2.) current evidence 3.) evidence from credible sources 4.) make clear point of the evidence.

Pie Graph

A graph that highlights segment of a circle to show simple distribution patterns.

Line Graph

A graph that uses one or more lines to show changes in statistics over time or space.

Bar Graph

A graph that uses vertical or horizontal bars to show comparison among two or more items.

Bibliography

A list of all the sources used in preparing a speech

Comparative Advantages Order

A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions.

Problem-Solution Order

A method or organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main points presents a solution to the problem.

Speech to gain passive agreement

A persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy.

Speech to gain immediate action

A persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy.

Question of Fact

A question about the truth or falsity of an assertion

What are questions of fact?

A question about the truth or falsity of an assertion.

Question of Value

A question about the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action.

Question of Policy

A question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken. (usually include the word "should")

rhetorical question

A question that the audience answers mentally rather than out loud

preview statement

A statement in the introduction of a speech that identifies the main points to be discussed in the body

Cliche

A trite or overused expression

Chart

A visible Aid that summarizes a large block of information, usually in list form.

Graph

A visual aid used to show statistical trends and patterns.

Why is important to outline your speeches?

Outlines are essential to effective speech. By outlining you make sure you keep your ideas together, that your thoughts flow from one to another, and that the structure of your speech is coherent.

What is the difference between an informative speech and a persuasive speech?

PERSUASIVE: Affecting your listeners' attitudes, beliefs, or actions. INFORMATIVE: Using ethical methods to communicate your ideas.

Explain the difference between passive agreement and immediate action as goals for persuasive speeches on questions of policy.

Passive Agreement -should abolish electoral college, something your audience can't really do Immediate Action - give time to Big Brothers or Big Sisters, something you are urging them to do now

What is reasoning from principle? How is it different from reasoning from specific instances?

Reasoning from principle involves moving from a general principle to a specific conclusion. It is the exact opposite of reasoning from specific instance.

What is reasoning from specific instances? Why is it important to supplement reasoning from specific instances with testimony or statistics?

Reasoning from specific instances involve processing from a number of particular facts to a general conclusion. Because you can never give enough specific instances in a speech to make your conclusion irrefutable, you should supplement them with testimony or statistic.

Repetition

Reiteration of the same words or set of words at the begginning or end of successive clauses or sentences

Alliteration

Repetition of the initial consonant sound of close or adjoining words

Why is it important to effective public speaking?

Speech delivery is nonverbal communication. Expresses the speakers ideas clearly, engagingly and without distracting the audience

credibility

The audiences perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic

goodwill

The audiences perception of whether the speaker has the best interests of the audience in mind

Need

The first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: Is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy?

Antithesis

The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel structure

Denotative Meaning

The literal or dictionary meaning of a word or phrase

Connotative Meaning

The meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word of phrase

Mental Dialogue with Audience

The mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech

Burden of Proof

The obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary.

What is the target audience for a persuasive speech?

The part of the audience you most want to persuade. its importnat to know who they are, consider budget, age, interest, to know likelyhood of taking action, and to shoot for best techniques

Rhythm

The pattern of sound in a speech created by the choice and arrangement of words

Visual Framework

The pattern of symbolization and indentation in a speech outline that shows the relationships among the speakers idea

Target Audience

The portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade

Persuasion

The process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions.

Plan

The second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: If there is a problem with current policy does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem.

Parallelism

The similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences

Practically

The third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: Will the speaker's plan solve the problem? Will it create new and more serious problems?

Generic "He"

The use of "he" to refer to both women and men

Imagery

The use of vivid language to create mental images of objects, actions, or ideas

What are the questions of policy? Give an example of a specific purpose statement.

To persuade my audience that the US Congress should pass legislation curbing the spread of phony pharmaceuticals.

What are questions of value? Give an example of a specific purpose statement.

Usually topical "To persuade my audience that bicycle riding is the ideal form of land transportation."

What factors should you consider when planning to use PowerPoint in a speech?

Where to use PowerPoint to strengthen your speech and enhance ideas

What does it mean to say that audiences engage in a metal dialogue with the speaker as they listen to a speech? What implications does this mental give-and-take hold for effective persuasive speaking?

While they listen, they assess the speaker's credibility, delivery, supporting materials, language, reasoning, and emotional appeals. You must anticipate objections and answer them in your speech.

Why is speaking to persuade more challenging than speaking to inform?

Why is speaking to persuade more challenging than speaking to inform?

Abstract Words

Words that refer to ideas or concepts

Concrete Words

Words that refer to tangible objects

What is a preparation outline?

You state your specific purpose and central idea

Concept

a belief, theory, idea, notion, principle, or the like

Bandwagon

a fallacy that assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable

Slippery Slope

a fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented

Ad Hominem

a fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute

Either-Or

a fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist

Red Herring

a fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion

Informative Speech

a speech designed to convey knowledge and understanding

Contrast

a statement of differences amount two or more people, events, ideas, etc

Comparison

a statement of the similarities among two or more people, events, ideas, etc

Description

a statement that depicts a person, event, idea or the like with clarity and vividness

Process

a systematic series of actions that leads to a specific result or product

Creating Common Ground

a technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes or experiences of the audience

Invalid Analogy

an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike

Fallacy

an error in reasoning

Hasty Generalization

an error in reasoning from specific instances, in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence

What should you concentrate on when responding to questions during the session?

approach questions with a positive attitude, listening carefully, direct answers to the entire audience, be honest and straightforward, stay on track

Nonverbal Communication

communication based on a person's use of voice and body, rather than on the use of words

What is nonverbal communication?

communication based on a person's use of voice and body, rather than on the use of words

Monotone

constant pitch or tone of voice

What are the elements of good speech delivery?

conveys speakers ideas clearly, interestingly, and without distracting the audience directness, spontaneity, animation, vocal & facial expressiveness & lively sense of communication

Appeal to Noveltry

fallacy which assumes that something new is automatically better than something old

Appeal to tradition

fallacy which assumes that something old is automatically better than something new

What steps should you take when preparing for a question-and-answer session?

formulate answers to possible questions and practiced the delivery of your answers

What are the major advantages of using visual aids in your speeches?

listeners are more interested, grasp ideas more easily, and retain it longer when presented visually as well as verbally

Why must informative speakers be careful not to overestimate what the audience knows about the topic?

listeners can become lost

Volume

loudness or softness of a speaker's voice

What are the 4 types of informative speeches discussed in the chapter?

speeches about objects, processes, events, and concepts

Logos

the name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The two major elements of this are evidence and reasoning.

Why is it important for a public speaker to use inclusive language?

to be respectful to the listeners, to avoid stereotypes based on age, race, gender, disability, and other factors

Personalize

to present one's ideas in human terms that relate in some fashion to the experience of the audience

Why should you nearly always include a preview statement in the introduction of your speech?

to tell the listeners what they should listen for in the rest of your speech

Dialect

variety of language distinguished by variants of accent, grammar, or vocabulary

Manuscript Speech

written out word for word and read to audience

What are 4 aspects of bodily action you should concentrate on in your speeches?

1) personal appearance 2) movement 3) gestures 4) eye contact

What are the 5 steps of Monroe's motivated sequence?

1. Attention 2. Need 3. Satisfaction 4. Visualization 5. Action

What are the 3 basic issues you may deal with when discussing a question of policy? What will determine the amount of attention you give to each of these issues in any particular speech?

1. Need- there is a need for something, if defending current policy, there is no need 2. Plan- plan for solving problem 3. Practicality- will the plan work, one way is to show that a similar plan works elsewhere

What are 4 methods of organization are used most often in persuasive speeches on questions of policy?

1. Problem-Solution 2. Problem-Cause-Solution 3. Comparative Advantages 4. Monroe's Motivated Sequence

What are the 8 aspects of voice usage you should concentrate on in your speeches?

1. Volume - loudness or softness 2. Pitch - highness or lowness 3. Rate - speed 4. Pauses - momentary break in delivery 5. vocal variety - changes in volume, pitch, rate 6. pronunciation - accepted standard of sound and rythm 7. articulation - physical production of speech sounds 8. dialect - variety of a language noted by variation of accent, grammar, or vocabulary

What 4 usages of inclusive language have become so widely accepted that no speaker can afford to ignore them?

1. avoid generic "he" 2. avoid use of "man" when refering to both men and women 3. avoid steriotyping jobs and social roles by gender 4. avoid identifying personal traits that are unrelated to the topic 5. use names that groups use to identify themselves

What are the 5 steps you should follow when practicing your speech delivery?

1. go through preperation outline outloud 2. prepare speeking outline 3. practice speech aloud several times 4. polish & refine delivery 5. dress rehersal in conditions as close to ones in class as possible

What are 2 ways to bring your speeches to life with vivid, animated language?

1. imagery 2. rythem

What are 3 things you should do to use language clearly in your speeches?

1. use familiar words 2. choose concrete words 3. eliminate clutter

What are 4 guidelines for your speaking outline?

1.) Follow the Visual Framework used in the preparation outline 2.) Make sure the outline is legible 3.) Keep the outline as brief as possible

What are 3 ways you can enhance your credibility during your speeches?

1.) Speakers can enhance their credibility by explaining their competence 2.) establishing common ground with the audience 3.) delivering speeches fluently, expressively, and with conviction.

What are the 8 guidelines discussed in this chapter for writing a preparation outline?

1.) State the specific purpose of your speech 2.) identify the central idea 3.) label the introduction, body, and conclusion 4.) use a consistent pattern of symbolization and identification 5.) state main points and sub points in full sentences 6.) label transitions, internal summaries, and internal previews 7.) attach a bibliography 8.) give your speech a title if you want

What 2 factors exert the most influence on an audiences perception of a speakers credibility?

1.) competence 2.) character

What are the 4 objectives of a speech introduction?

1.) get the attention and interest of your audience 2.) reveal the topic of your speech 3.) establish your credibility and goodwill 4.) preview the body of the speech

What are 4 tips for your conclusion?

1.) keep an eye out for possible concluding material as you research 2.) conclude with a bang 3.) don't be long-winded 4.) don't leave it to chance

What are 6 tips for your introduction?

1.) keep it brief 2.) lookout for possible introductory materials as you do your research 3.) be creative 4.) do not worry about the exact wording 5.) work it out in detail 6.) don't start talking too soon

What are 4 methods of speech delivery?

1.) reading from a manuscript 2.) reciting from memory 3.) speaking impromptu 4.) speaking extemporaneously

What are 7 methods you can use in the introduction to get the attention and interest of your audience?

1.) relate topic to the audience 2.) State the importance of your topic 3.) startle the audience 4.) question the audience 5.) begin with a quotation 6.) or tell a story

What are 4 ways to reinforce the central idea when concluding your speech?

1.) summarize your speech 2.) end with a quote 3.) make a dramatic statement 4.) refer to the introduction

What are 2 ways you can signal the end of your speech?

1.) through what you say, such as, in conclusion; 2.) manner of delivery, crescendo ending decrescendo 1. Crescendo ending - builds to a zenith of power and intensity. 2. dissolve ending - fading step-by-step to a dramatic final statement.

Thesaurus

A book of snynonyms

Speaking Outline

A brief outline used to jog a speakers memory during the presentation of a speech

What is a speaking outline?

A brief outline used to jog a speakers memory during the presentation of a speech

Font

A complete set and type of the same design. Choose fonts that are clear and easy to read, avoid using all caps because they are difficult to read, don't use more than two fonts on a single slide, one for the title or major heading and another for subtitles or other text. Use the same fonts for all your slides.

crescendo ending

A conclusion in which the speech builds to a zenith of power and intensity

dissolve ending

A conclusion that generates emotional appeal by fading step by step to a dramatic final statement

Preparation Outline

A detailed outline developed during the process of speech preparation that includes the title, specific purpose, central idea, introduction, main points, sub points, connectives, conclusion and bibliography of a speech

Simile

An explicit comparison, introduced with the word "like" or "as" between things that are essentially different yet have something in common

Metaphor

An implicit comparison, not introduced with the word "like" or "as" between two things that are essentially different yet have something in common

What is analogical reasoning? Why is analogical reasoning frequently used in persuasive speeches on questions of policy?

Analogical reasoning compares two similar cases to draw the conclusion that what is true in once case will also be true in the other. When arguing for a new policy, you should find out whether it has been tried elsewhere. You may be able to claim that your policy will work because it has worked in like circumstance.

What are 4 criteria for using language effectively in your speeches?

Appropriateness to the: 1. occasion 2. audience 3. topic 4. speaker

What is casual reasoning? Why is the relationship between causes and effects not always clear?

Causal reasoning tries to establish the relationship between causes and effects. The fact that one event happens after another does not mean that the first is the cause of the second.

What is credibility?

Credibility is the audience's attitude toward or perception of the speakers.

Delivery Cues

Directions in a speaking outline to help a speaker remember how she or he wants to deliver key parts of the speech

Clutter

Discourse that takes many more ideas than are necessary to express an idea

What is evidence? Why do persuasive speakers need to use evidence?

Evidence consist of examples, statistics, and testimony used to prove or disprove something. Careful listeners are skeptical of unsupported claims and generalizations. Strong evidence is particularly important when the speak is not recognized as an expert on the topic and when the target audience opposes the speaker's point of view.

Why is the motivated sequence especially useful in speeches that seek immediate action from listeners?

Follows process of human thinking and leads listener step by step to desired action.

What are the 10 logical fallacies discussed in this chapter?

HG, FC, IA, B, RH, AH, EO, SS, ATP, ATN

How does a persuasive speech on questions of fact differ from an informative speech? Give an specific purpose statement example of each.

Informative- speaker is nonpartisan Persuasive- partisan, acts as an advocate Usually organized topically, providing a reason. "To persuade my audience that William Shakespeare did not write the plays attributed to him."

Inclusive Language

Language that does not stereotype, demean, or patronize people on the basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation or other factors.

How does language help out sense of reality?

by giving meaning to events

Extemporaneous Speech

carefully prepared and rehearsed speech that is presented from a brief set of notes

Vocal Variety

changes in a speaker's rate, pitch, and volume that give the voice variety and expressiveness

Impromptu Speech

delivered with little or no immediate preparation

How might you use each to convey your message most effectively?

denotative meaning can be used to be precise; connotative meaning can be used to give words intensity and emotional power

What are 3 methods you can use to avoid abstractions in your informative speech?

description, comparison, contrasts

Eye Contact

direct visual contact with the eyes of another person

What guidelines are given in the chapter for presenting visual aids?

display where listeners can see them, avoid passing around, display only while discussing, explained clearly, talk to your audience not your aid, practice, and checked the room and equipment

Kinesics

study of body motions as a systematic mode of communication

What 2 things should you watch out for in making sure your speech is not overly technical?

subject matter and language use

Evidence

supporting materials use to prove or disprove something

What should you do as an informative speaker to relate your topic directly to the audience?

take special steps to relate to your audience, you should tie it in with their interests and concerns

Credibility

the audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic. two main factor's influencing a speaker's credibility are competence and character

Terminal Credibility

the credibility of a speaker at the end of a speech

Initial Credibility

the credibility of a speaker before he or she starts to speak