Communications Exam 1

colonialism

(1) The system by which groups with diverse languages, cultures, religions, and identities were united to form one state, usually by a European power; (2) the system by which a country maintains power over other countries or groups of people to exploit them economically, politically, and culturally

enclaves

(1) The territories that are surrounded by another country's territory; (2) cultural minority groups that live within a larger cultural group's territory

Access to Communication Technology

As we've seen, technology plays a huge role in our everyday lives and often has a lot to do with our success as students and professionals These inequities are called the "digital divide" and have enormous implications for intercultural communication The implications for intercultural communication are enormous Recent communication technology has impacted our lives in ways our grandparents could not have imagined and requires that we reexamine even our most basic conceptions of self, others, and culture As Sherry Turkle (1995) observes, once we take virtuality seriously as a way of life, we need a new language for talking about the simplest things

maquiladoras

Assembly plants or factories (mainly of U.S. companies) established on the U.S.-Mexican border and using mainly Mexican labor

Ethical Imperative

Different ethical codes and ideas exist in different cultures With different ethical priorities, it becomes more complicated to decide what is or isn't ethical across cultures Some rules may be obvious whereas others are not so obvious Conflicts over ethics can arise

diasporic groups

Ethnic and/or national groups that are geographically dispersed throughout the world

nativistic

Extremely patriotic to the point of being anti-immigrant

Shifts in the demographic landscape (Merrill Lynch)

Age Growing number of older workers (baby boomers) Smaller number of younger workers (birth rate) Family Status The rise in single parent families Great increase of working moms Ethnic Makeup Our nation is becoming more diverse by 2050, "minorities" will represent 40% of the population

Cultural-Group Histories

Although people may share a single national history, each cultural group within the nation may have its own history Consider, for example, the expulsion of many Acadians from eastern Canada and their migration to and settlement in Louisiana We prefer to view history as the many stories we tell about the past, rather than one story on a single time continuum Ignorance of the histories of other groups makes intercultural communication more difficult and more susceptible to misunderstandings

identity tourism

A concept that refers to people taking on the identities of other races, genders, classes, or sexual orientations for recreational purposes

masculinity-femininity value

A cultural variability dimension that concerns the degree of being feminine—valuing fluid gender roles, quality of life, service, relationships, and interdependence—and the degree of being masculine—emphasizing distinctive gender roles, ambition, materialism, and independence

power distance

A cultural variability dimension that concerns the extent to which people accept an unequal distribution of power

uncertainty avoidance

A cultural variability dimension that concerns the extent to which uncertainty, ambiguity, and deviant ideas and behaviors are avoided

long-term versus short-term orientation

A cultural variability dimension that reflects a cultural-group orientation toward virtue or truth The long-term orientation emphasizes virtue, whereas the short-term orientation emphasizes truth

diaspora

A massive migration often caused by war, famine, or persecution that results in the dispersal of a unified group

melting pot

A metaphor that assumes that immigrants and cultural minorities will be assimilated into the U.S. majority culture, losing their original cultures

Critical Definitions: Culture as Heterogeneous, Dynamic, and a Contested Zone

A more recent approach to culture, influenced by cultural studies scholarship, emphasizes the heterogeneity of cultural groups and the often conflictual nature of cultural boundaries This notion of culture as heterogeneous and often conflictual originated with British cultural studies scholars in the 1960s You may sense that the concept of culture that emerged from this area of inquiry differs markedly from the concept expressed in social science or even interpretive research Viewing culture as a contested site or zone helps us understand the struggles of various groups—Native Americans, Asian Americans, Pacific Islanders, African Americans, Latinos/as, women, gays and lesbians, working-class people, and so on—as they attempt to negotiate their relationships and promote their wellbeing within U.S. society Viewing culture as a contested site opens up new ways of thinking about intercultural communication Our dialectical approach, though, enables us to accept and see the interrelatedness of these different views Our task in taking a dialectical approach is not to say whose views are right or wrong, but to recognize "the truth in all sides of the conflict and understanding the ways in which multiple realities constitute the whole of the cultural quandary"

apartheid

A policy that segregated people racially in South Africa

self-reflexivity

A process of learning to understand oneself and one's position in society

communication ritual

A set form of systematic interactions that take place on a regular basis

ethnography of communication

A specialized area of study within communication Taking an interpretive perspective, scholars analyze verbal and nonverbal activities that have symbolic significance for the members of cultural groups to understand the rules and patterns followed by the groups

communication

A symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed

ethnocentrism

A tendency to think that our own culture is superior to other cultures

global village

A term coined by Marshall McLuhan in the 1960s that refers to a world in which communication technology unites people in remote parts of the world

grand narrative

A unified history and view of humankind

performative

Acting or presenting oneself in a specific way so as to accomplish some goal

WHY STUDY INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION?

Both Mohamad's and Alex's experiences point to the benefits and challenges of intercultural communication This book will expose you to the variety of approaches we use to study intercultural communication We bring many intercultural communication experiences to the text Why is it important to focus on intercultural communication and to strive to become better at this complex pattern of interaction? We can think of at least six reasons; perhaps you can add more

THE PEACE IMPERATIVE

Both the history of humankind and recent world events lead us not to be very optimistic on this point Some of these conflicts are tied to histories of colonialism around the world, whereby European powers lumped diverse groups—differing in language, culture, religion, or identity—together as one state.Some of the conflicts are also tied to economic disparities and influenced by U.S. technology and media For example, according to many Canadians, a Canadian cultural identity is almost impossible because of the dominance of U.S. media Some of the conflicts have roots in past foreign policies However, we always need to consider the relationship between individual and societal forces in studying intercultural communication Some judgments are stated very explicitly One common cross-cultural ethical dilemma involves standards of conducting business in multinational corporations However, in many countries, like China, government officials are paid in this informal way instead of being supported by taxes

Biggest Trading Partners of U.S.

Canada Mexico China Japan Germany United Kingdom Korea Taiwan France Malaysia

Social Science Definitions: Culture as Learned, Group-Related Perceptions

Communication scholars from the social science paradigm, influenced by research in psychology, view culture as a set of learned, group-related perceptions Hofstede goes on to describe how these patterns are developed through interactions in the social environment and with various groups of individuals—first in the family and neighborhood, then at school and in youth groups, then at college, and so on Hofstede and other scholars studied organizational behavior at various locations of a multinational corporation; this study is discussed in detail later in the chapter Social scientists also have emphasized the role of perception in cultural patterns

Technical Imperative

Communication technology has brought the world much closer together, even without physical proximity Marshall McLuhan: "global village" Multiple selves/identities

multinational corporations

Companies that have operations in two or more nations

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMUNICATION AND CONTEXT

Context typically is created by the physical or social aspects of the situation in which communication occurs Not surprisingly, the social context is determined on the societal level The political context in which communication occurs includes those forces that attempt to change or retain existing social structures and relations We also need to examine the historical context of communication Harvard's reputation relies on history—the large endowments given over the years, the important persons who have attended and graduated, and so forth

WHAT IS CULTURE?

Culture is often considered the core concept in intercultural communication Intercultural communication studies often focus on how cultural groups differ from one another: Muslims differ from Christians; Japanese differ from U.S. Americans; men differ from women; environmentalists differ from conservationists; pro-lifers differ from pro-choicers; old differ from young, and on and on Perhaps it is more helpful here to think of the similarities-differences dialectic in trying to understand intercultural communication And yet some real differences exist between cultural groups Culture has been defined in many ways—from a pattern of perceptions that influence communication to a site of contestation and conflict We do not advocate a singular definition of culture because any one definition is too restrictive By and large, social science researchers focus not on culture per se but on the influence of culture on communication Although research studies help us understand different aspects of intercultural communication, it is important to investigate how we think about culture, not simply as researchers but as practitioners as well

How Communication Reinforces Culture

Culture not only influences communication but also is enacted through, and so is influenced by, communication Researcher Tamar Katriel (1990) examines "griping," a communication ritual that takes place among middle-class Israelis The instrumentality (or channel) in griping is face-to-face, and the scene (or setting) usually is a Friday night gathering in a private home It is possible to compare different ways in which cultural norms and forms such as griping enact aspects of the culture and construct cultural identity A related approach from cultural communication studies sees culture as performative These interpretive studies sometimes use cultural values as a way to explain cultural patterns As you can see, cultural values can be used to show how culture influences communication or to explain how communication reinforces cultural values

heterogeneous

Difference(s) in a group, culture, or population

Histories as Stories

Faced with these many levels or types of history, you might wonder how we make sense of them in our everyday lives According to communication scholar Walter Fisher (1984, 1985), storytelling is fundamental to the human experience It is important to recognize that a strong element in our cultural attitudes encourages us to forget history at times The desire to escape history is significant in what it tells us about how our culture negotiates its relation to the past, as well as how we view the relations of other nations and cultures to their pasts The paradox is that we cannot escape history even if we fail to recognize it or try to suppress it

Family Histories

Family histories occur at the same time as other histories but on a more personal level You might talk to members of your own family to discover how they feel about your family's history The continuity between past and present often is taken for granted

embodied ethnocentrism

Feeling comfortable and familiar in the spaces, behaviors, and actions of others in our own cultural surroundings

Negotiating Histories Dialectically in Interaction

First, it is important to recognize that we all bring our own histories (some known, some hidden) to interactions We can try to evaluate the role that history plays for those with whom we interact Second, we should understand the role that histories play in our identities, in what we bring to the interaction Sometimes it is unwise to ask people where they are "really from." Sometimes the past-present dialectic operates along with the disadvantage- privilege dialectic Two dialectical tensions emerge here: (1) between privilege and disadvantage, and (2) between the personal and the social Who we think we are today is very much influenced by how we view the past, how we live, and what culture we believe to be our own

dialogical approach

Focuses on the importance of dialogue in developing and maintaining relationships between individuals and communities

History and Intercultural Communication

Frances Fitzgerald (1972), a journalist who has written about the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, analyzes the U.S. cultural orientation to the future rather than the past This difference in orientation to the past framed the Vietnam conflict in a very narrow way for the United States This contrasts greatly with the Vietnamese view of history, especially in the context of their struggles against outside aggression over thousands of years You may think it odd to find a chapter about history in a book on intercultural communication In this chapter, we discuss how the past is a very important facet of intercultural communication The history that we know and our views of that history are very much influenced by our culture Many intercultural interactions involve a dialectical interplay between past and present We have found, in the classes we teach, that European American students often want to deemphasize history On a larger scale, we can see how history influences intercultural interaction in many different contexts How we think about the past very much influences how we think about ourselves and others even here in the United States For Judith, the Civil War was a paragraph in a history book; for her suitemates, that historical event held a more important meaning Early in this book, we set forth six dialectical tensions that we believe drive much intercultural interactionIn this chapter, we first discuss the various histories that provide the contexts in which we communicate: political, intellectual, social, family, national, and cultural-group histories Finally, we explore how history influences intercultural communication

Peace imperative

Histories of International/cultural/ethnic conflicts Arab-Jewish tension; colonialism, US-Iraq Different relation b/t communication and violence for different cultures US ideology holds that communication is an alternative to violence yet it is often used to legitimate and perpetuate violence as well (e.g. war propaganda, racist beliefs, etc.)

The Power of Texts

History is extremely important in understanding identity Political texts reflect the disparities of access to political participation in various countries at various times in history With regard to the language we use to understand history, think about the difference between the terms internment camp and concentration camp When U.S. Americans are taught history, they also learn a particular way of looking at the world from their history textbooks The relative availability of political texts and the ways that they reflect powerful inequities are reinscribed in the process of writing history But the seeming unity of the past, the linear nature of history, is merely the reflection of a modernist identity, grounded in the Western tradition

culture communication context & power

In Chapter 2, we touched on the history of intercultural communication studies, examined three theoretical approaches, and outlined an integrated dialectical approach to intercultural communication Then we examine how these two components interact with issues of context and power to enhance our understanding of intercultural communication

Relativity Versus Universality

In this book, we stress the relativity of cultural behavior—that no cultural pattern is inherently right or wrong The extreme relativist position holds that any cultural behavior can be judged only within the cultural context in which it occurs And yet, to accept a completely relativistic position seems to tacitly accept the horrors of Nazi Germany, South African apartheid, or U.S. slavery Philosophers and anthropologists have struggled to develop ethical guidelines that seem universally applicable but that also recognize the tremendous cultural variability in the world Communication scholar Bradford J. Hall (1997) reminds us that relativistic and universalistic approaches to ethics should be viewed not as a dichotomy, but rather as a compound of universalism and relativism A recent suggestion for meeting the ethical imperative is to employ a dialogical approach suggest that moving from an owner/manager model to a dialogical stakeholder model can help clarify some of the ethical issues The study of intercultural communication not only provides insights into cultural patterns but also helps us address the ethical issues involved in intercultural interaction Specifically we should be able to (1) judge what is ethical and unethical behavior given variations in cultural priorities, and (2) identify guidelines for ethical behavior in intercultural contexts in which ethics clash

Demographic Imperative

Increased Diversity Immigrants from diverse cultural backgrounds Broken myth of "melting pot."

Economic Imperative

Increasing economic interdependence of various world cultures Business transactions constantly going on between nations and cultures worldwide Nativism The increasing focus on Japanese business practices and investment Much more investment comes from the UK, for example, but nativists focus on the East as the big economic threat

How Culture Influences Communication

Intercultural communication scholars use broad frameworks from anthropology and psychology to identify and study cultural differences in communication Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck Value Orientations Researchers Florence Kluckhohn and Fred Strodtbeck studied contemporary Diné (Navaho) and descendants of Spanish colonists and European Americans in the Southwest in the 1950s Intercultural conflicts are often caused by differences in value orientations According to Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, there are three possible responses to each question as they relate to shared values The Nature of Human Nature As the table shows, there are three possible responses, or solutions, to basic questions about human nature A second solution reflects a perception of a combination of goodness and evil in human nature According to the third orientation, human nature is essentially evil Relationship Between Humans and Nature In most of U.S. society, humans dominate nature In societies that believe mainly in the domination of nature over humans, decisions are made differently Many Native Americans and Japanese believe in the value of humans living in harmony with nature, rather than one force dominating the other Relationships Between Humans Some cultural groups value individualism, whereas others are more group oriented The collateral orientation emphasizes the collectivist connection to other individuals (mostly family members) even after death Values may also be related to economic status or rural-urban distinctions These cultural values may influence patterns of communication Preferred Forms of Activity The most common "activity value" in the United States is the "doing" orientation, which emphasizes productivity The "growing" orientation emphasizes spiritual aspects of life Orientation to Time Most U.S. cultural communities—particularly European American and middle class—seem to emphasize the future Many European and Asian societies strongly emphasize the past, believing that knowledge and awareness of history has something to contribute to an understanding of contemporary life Hofstede Value Orientations Social psychologist Geert Hofstede (1984) extended the work of Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, based on extensive crosscultural study of personnel working in IBM subsidiaries in 53 countries Power distance refers to the extent to which less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept the unequal distribution of power The masculinity-femininity value is two-dimensional Uncertainty avoidance concerns the degree to which people who feel threatened by ambiguous situations respond by avoiding them or trying to establish more structure to compensate for the uncertainty Hofstede's original framework contained only four problem types and was criticized for its predominantly western European bias Those with a short-term orientation are concerned with possessing the truth (reflected in the Western religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam), focus on quick results in endeavors, and recognize social pressure to conform Limitations of Value Frameworks Identifying cultural values helps us understand broad cultural differences, but it is important to remember that not everyone in a given society holds the dominant value Value heterogeneity may be particularly noticeable in a society that is undergoing rapid change Another limitation of value frameworks is that they tend to "essentialize" people The cultural-individual dialectic reminds us that these value orientations exist on a continuum and are all present, to a greater or lesser extent, in all societies The differences-similarities dialectic reminds us that although people may differ with respect to specific value orientations, they also may hold other value orientations in common Thus, they may be more or less individualistic or group oriented depending on the context

Interpretive Definitions: Culture as Contextual Symbolic Patterns of Meaning, Involving Emotions

Interpretive scholars, influenced by anthropological studies, also view culture as shared and learned; however, they tend to focus on contextual patterns of communication behavior, rather than on group-related perceptions One of the most common examples of interpretive scholarship is ethnography of communication; these scholars look for symbolic meaning of verbal and nonverbal activities in an attempt to understand patterns and rules of communication Ethnography of communication scholar Donal Carbaugh (1988) suggests that it is best to reserve the concept of culture for patterns of symbolic action and meaning that are deeply felt, commonly intelligible, and widely accessible Communication theorist Gerry Philipsen extends Carbaugh's notion of culture by emphasizing that these patterns must endure over time, passed along from person to person These definitions of culture suggested by Philipsen are influenced by communication ethnographer Dell Hymes's (1972) framework for studying naturally occurring speech in depth and in context Culture is not only experienced as perceptions and values, and contextual, but the concept of culture also involves emotions WAlthough the notion of culture as shared, learned group patterns of perception or symbolic behavior has long been the standard in a variety of disciplines, more and more people are beginning to question its utility Indeed, these are important questions, and so the next section describes an alternative approach to Tiger Woods' media statement on his race/ethnicity: The purpose of this statement is to explain my heritage for the benefit of members of the media who may be seeing me play for the first time It is the final and only comment I will make regarding the issue My parents have taught me to always be proud of my ethnic background Please rest assured that is, and always will be, the case—past, present, and future The media has portrayed me as African-American; sometimes, Asian In fact, I am both Yes, I am the product of two great cultures, one African American and the other Asian On my father's side, I am African-American On my mother's side, I am Thai Truthfully, I feel very fortunate, and EQUALLY PROUD, to be both African-American and Asian The critical and fundamental point is that ethnic background and/or composition should NOT make a difference. It does NOT make a difference to me The bottom line is that I am an American . . . and proud of it! That is who I am and what I am Now, with your cooperation, I hope I can just be a golfer and a human being

Multiple identities

Kenneth Gergen (in The Saturated Self) The technological world has led to multiphrenia Splitting of the individual into multiple selves The modern era has introduced a proliferation of alternate performativeidentities (masks) Latin word persona (English word 'person')-originally meant the mask that an actor

Culture

Learned patterns of behavior and attitudes shared by a group of people

FROM HISTORY TO HISTORIES

Many different kinds of history influence our understanding of who we are—as individuals, as family members, as members of cultural groups, and as citizens of a nation Identifying the various forms of historical contexts is the first step in understanding how history affects communication

Megatrends in Economy (Merrill Lynch)

Megatrend #1: Changing Demographics Megatrend #2: The Technology Revolution Megatrend #3: Globalization Megatrend #4: Branding Megatrend #5: Consolidation Megatrend #6: Outsourcing

THE SELF-AWARENESS IMPERATIVE

One of the most important reasons for studying intercultural communication is the awareness it raises of our own cultural identity and background We gain insights in intercultural experiences overseas However, it is important to recognize that intercultural learning is not always easy or comfortable What you learn depends on your social and economic position in society If you are white and middle class, intercultural learning may mean an enhanced awareness of your privilege Self-awareness, then, that comes through intercultural learning may involve an increased awareness of being caught up in political, economic, and historical systems—not of our own making

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND HISTORY

One way to understand specific relationships between communication and history is to examine the attitudes and notions that individuals bring to an interaction; these are the antecedents of contact Finally, we can examine how various histories are negotiated in intercultural interaction, applying a dialectical perspective to these different histories

Nonmainstream Histories

People from nonmainstream cultural groups often struggle to retain their histories Nonmainstream histories sometimes stand alongside the grand narrative, but sometimes they challenge the grand narrative Racial and Ethnic Histories Mainstream history has neither the time nor the space nor the inclination to include all ethnic histories and racial histories When Tom's parents meet other Japanese Americans of their generation, they are often asked, "What camp were you in?" This question makes little sense outside of its historical context The injustices done by any nation are often swept under the carpet Although not an academic history, this collection of oral histories provides insight into the experiences of many Japanese Americans While Pearl Harbor may feel like a distant historical event, the internment of Japanese Americans has drawn important parallels to the treatment of Muslims after 9/11 Similarly, for Jewish people, remembering the Holocaust is crucial to their identity Ethnic and racial histories are never isolated; rather, they crisscross other cultural trajectories French writer Maurice Blanchot, in confronting the horrors of the Holocaust, the devastation of the atom bomb, and other human disasters, redefines the notion of responsibility, separating it from fault The displacement of various populations is embedded in the history of every migrating or colonizing people Gender Histories Feminist scholars have long insisted that much of the history of women has been obliterated, marginalized, or erased Although there is much interest in women's history among contemporary scholars, documenting such gender histories is difficult because of the traditional restrictions on women's access to public forums, public documents, and public records Sexual Orientation Histories In recounting his experiences as a young man whom the police registered as "homosexual," Pierre Seel (1994) recounts how police lists were used by the Nazis to round up homosexuals for internment How we think about the past and what we know about it help us to build and maintain communities and cultural identities In the U.S., Bayard Rustin is often forgotten, despite his enormous contributions to the civil rights movement Abraham Lincoln's sexual history has also been a major point of contention over a number of years This concern about national identity is reflected in the way that the president of Iran insisted that there are no gay people in Iran Diasporic Histories The international relationships that many racial and ethnic groups have with others who share their heritage and history are often overlooked in intercultural communication A massive migration, often caused by war or famine or persecution, that results in the dispersal of a unified group is called a diaspora History helps us understand the cultural connections among people affected by diasporas and other transnational migrations Colonial Histories As you probably know, throughout history, societies and nations have ventured beyond their borders Let's look at the significance of colonialism in determining language Many foreign language textbooks proudly display maps that show the many places around the world where that language is commonly spoken Other languages have been spread through colonialism as well, including Portuguese in Brazil, Macao, and Angola; Dutch in Angola, Suriname, and Mozambique; and a related Dutch language, Afrikaans, in South Africa The primary languages that we speak are not freely chosen by us Postcolonialism is useful in helping us understand the relationship between history and the present Socioeconomic Class Histories Although we often overlook the importance of socioeconomic class as a factor in history, the fact is that economic and class issues prompted many people to emigrate to the United States Yet it is not always the socioeconomically disadvantaged who emigrate The key point here is that socioeconomic class distinctions are often overlooked in examining the migrations and acculturation of groups around the world Religious Histories In the past, as well as today, religion is an important historical force that has shaped our planet Because many of these religious histories remain controversial, they are viewed differently, depending on with which side one identifies Although the Crusades may seem like a distant historical event, to some that event is much more immediate and its consequences far more pressing

immigrants

People who come to a new country, region, or environment to settle more or less permanently

HISTORY, POWER, AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Power is a central dynamic in the writing of history Let's look at what this means

Power in Intercultural Interactions

Power is also the legacy, the remnants of the history that leaves cultural groups in particular positions Nevertheless, the more you know, the better you will be positioned to engage in successful intercultural interactions

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMUNICATION AND POWER

Power is pervasive in communication interactions, although it is not always evident or obvious how power influences communication or what kinds of meaning are constructed Orbe goes on to describe how those people in power, consciously or unconsciously, create and maintain communication systems that reflect, reinforce, and promote their own ways of thinking and communicating Power also comes from social institutions and the roles individuals occupy in those institutions Power is dynamic Regardless of the woman's individual reason for not participating, other people are likely to interpret her behavior in ways that may not match her own reasons Dominant cultural groups attempt to perpetuate their positions of privilege in many ways The disempowered can negotiate power in varied and subtle ways Power is complex, especially in relation to institutions or the social structure A dialectical perspective looks at the dynamic and interrelated ways in which culture, communication, context, and power intersect in intercultural communication interactions From a communication perspective, it might not be at all clear that an intercultural struggle had taken place From a cultural perspective, however, with various contexts and power differentials in mind, a different view of this intercultural interaction emerges There are many historical contexts to consider here For example, Brussels is historically a Flemish city, located in Flanders (but near the border with Wallonia) There are social and economic contexts to consider as well So, although the Brussels-Capital Region is officially bilingual, this is the site of a number of struggles between French and Dutch Although he later secured a French train schedule, he continued to use the Dutch one so he could learn the Dutch names of many Belgian cities as well There are no simple lists of behaviors that are key to successful intercultural interaction Although the dialectical perspective makes the investigation of culture and communication far more complex, it also makes it far more exciting and interesting and leads to a much richer understanding

ethics

Principles of conduct that help govern behaviors of individuals and groups

Being Ethical Students of Culture

Related to the issue of judging cultural patterns as ethical or unethical are the issues surrounding the study of culture Developing Self-Reflexivity In studying intercultural communication, it is vital to develop self-reflexivity—to understand ourselves and our position in society Think about it: Many cultural attitudes and ideas are instilled in you, but these can be difficult to unravel and identify Learning About Others It is important to remember that the study of cultures is actually the study of other people Remember that you are studying real people who have real lives, and your conclusions about them may have very real consequences for them and for you Learn to listen to the voices of others, to cultivate experiential knowledge Developing a Sense of Social Justice A final ethical issue involves the responsibility that comes with the acquisition of intercultural knowledge and insights— that this educational experience is not just transformative for the individual but should also benefit the larger society and other cultural groups in the increasingly interdependent world Everett Kleinjans (1975), an international educator, stresses that intercultural education differs from some other kinds of education: Although all education may be potentially transformative, learning as a result of intercultural contact is particularly so in that it deals with fundamental aspects of human behavior We believe that as members of an increasingly interdependent global community, intercultural communication students have a responsibility to educate themselves, not just about interesting cultural differences but also about intercultural conflicts, the impacts of stereotyping and prejudice, and the larger systems that can oppress and deny basic human rights—and to apply this knowledge to the communities in which they live and interact One questionable practice involves people who study intercultural communication in order to proselytize others without their consent A final questionable practice concerns research on the intercultural communication of U.S. minority groups These students are then asked to report their findings to and interpret their community for the faculty member We feel there is a concomitant responsibility that goes along with this intercultural knowledge: to work toward a more equitable and fair society and world.In the final chapter, we'll address this issue again with practical suggestions for meeting this ethical challenge

Communication as Resistance to the Dominant Cultural System

Resistance is the metaphor used in cultural studies to conceptualize the relationship between culture and communication We can interpret these behaviors as resistance to the dominant cultural system

homogeneous

Similarity in a group, culture, or population

Political, Intellectual, and Social Histories

Some people restrict their notion of history to documented events Although these types of history seem more manageable than the broad notion of history as "everything that has happened before now," we must also remember that many historical events never make it into books Absent history is also the result of concealing the past If documents are not available, then we cannot know this history—even if others have experienced that history, remember that history, and have written about it Absent history, then, is not always caused by distant historical decisions; it can result from ongoing and contemporary decisions to deliberately withhold material from the public

Self-Awareness Imperative

Study of Intercultural Communication is a means of learning more about oneself As we learn about other cultures we begin to recognize that our attitudes and opinions about those cultures tell us more about ourselves

Why study intercultural communication?

Technological Imperative Demographic Imperative Economic Imperative Peace Imperative Self-Awareness Imperative Ethical Imperative

demographics

The characteristics of a population, especially as classified by race, ethnicity, age, sex, and income

The Contact Hypothesis

The contact hypothesis is the notion that better communication between groups of people is facilitated simply by bringing them together and allowing them to interact Gordon Allport (1979) and Yehudi Amir (1969), two noted psychologists, have tried to identify the conditions under which the contact hypothesis does and does not hold true This list of conditions can help us understand how domestic and international contexts vary Note that this list of conditions is incomplete However, the list is a starting place, and it is important to be able to identify which conditions are affected by historical factors that may be difficult to change and which can be more easily facilitated by communication professionals

HISTORY AND IDENTITY

The development of cultural identity is influenced largely by history Note how different cultural-group identities are tied to history

sexual orientation histories

The historical experiences of gays and lesbians

ethnic histories

The histories of ethnic groups

gender histories

The histories of how cultural conventions of men and women are created, maintained, and/or altered

racial histories

The histories of nonmainstream racial groups

diasporic histories

The histories of the ways in which international cultural groups were created through transnational migrations, slavery, religious crusades, or other historical forces

hidden histories

The histories that are hidden from or forgotten by the mainstream representations of past events

colonial histories

The histories that legitimate international invasions and annexations

National Histories

The history of any nation is important to the people of that nation.U.S. citizens are expected to recognize the great events and the so-called great people (mostly men of European ancestry) who were influential in the development of the nation National history gives us a shared notion of who we are and solidifies our sense of nationhood.Judith and Tom both studied French When Judith lived in Algeria, her French friends spoke of les Événements (the events), but her Algerian friends spoke of la Libération—both referring to the war between France and Algeria that led to Algerian independence Historical contexts shape language, which means we must search for salient historical features in communicating across cultural differences

cultural-group histories

The history of each cultural group within a nation that includes, for example, the history of where the group originated, why the people migrated, and how they came to develop and maintain their cultural traits

modernist identity

The identity that is grounded in the Western tradition of scientific and political beliefs and assumptions—for example, the belief in external reality, democratic representation, liberation, and independent subjects

Technology and Human Communication

The impact of technology on our everyday communication is staggering More and more people around the world are using technology to communicate with each other Increase in Information You may have found that the Internet provides access to information about other cultures and other peoples Through communication technologies like the World Wide Web, people also have access to increasing amounts of information about what is happening in their own and other countries In spite of this and other governments' attempts to limit their citizens' access to computer-mediated communication (CMC), the Internet is providing information, world news, and possibilities for interpersonal communication that were not available previously Increased Contact with People Who Differ Communication technology brings us in contact with people we might never have the opportunity to know otherwise However, such mediated communication across cultures does present unique challenges When we are talking to individuals face-to-face, we use nonverbal information to help us interpret what they are really saying—tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures, and so on Also, language may be a factor The decision reached was that subscribers could post messages in any language as long as there was an English translation Increased Contact with People Who Are Similar Communication technology also allows us to have more contact with people who are very similar to ourselves The Internet can also be used to strengthen a sense of identity, as is the case for some diasporic groups—ethnic and/or national groups that are geographically dispersed throughout the world, sometimes as refugees fleeing from war, sometimes as voluntary emigrants Identity, Culture, and Technology Advances in communication technology lead us to think differently about ourselves and our identity management Identity on the Internet not only is potentially fragmented but also involves more choice and management issues than in face-to-face interaction This capability has resulted in the opportunity for identity tourism— taking on the identities of other races, gender, classes, or sexual orientations for recreational purposes Although identity tourism provides intriguing possibilities for improving intercultural understanding, it also raises some important ethical questions The idea of identity tourism may seem somewhat scary, but the same lack of nonverbal cues can result in less prejudice and stereotyping in mediated intercultural interaction When these cues are absent, communication may be more open because people cannot use the information to form impressions that often negatively impact communication

symbolic significance

The importance or meaning that most members of a cultural group attach to a communication activity

contact hypothesis

The notion that better communication between groups is facilitated simply by putting people together in the same place and allowing them to interact

diversity

The quality of being different

THE ECONOMIC IMPERATIVE

The recent trend toward globalization—the creation of a world market in goods, services, labor, capital, and technology—is shown dramatically in the account of a journalist who asks a Dell computer manager where his laptop is made What is the ultimate impact of globalization on the average person? Some economists defend it, saying the losses are always offset by the gains in cheaper consumer prices The point is that, to compete effectively in this new global market, Americans must understand how business is conducted in other countries Cross-cultural trainers in the United States report that Japanese and other business personnel often spend years in the United States studying English and learning about the country before they decide to establish operations here or invest money Many management experts have examined other countries' practices for ways to increase U.S. productivity It will also behoove Americans to research how to do business in the huge emerging market that is 21st-century China The reasons involve both differences in business practices and cultural differences between East and West. Ambler and Witzel (2000) explain that business dealings in China, as in many Eastern countries,are relationship oriented, that businesses cannot succeed without respect and harmony Specifically, in China, three concepts are crucial: Qingmian (human feelings), which involves respect for the feelings of others He (harmony), which emphasizes the smooth functioning of a group or society Guanxi (relationship or connection), which underscores the importance of relationships in Chinese business (In Taiwan, it is known as "Kuan-hsi.") The high value placed on these concepts highlights other differences as well Sometimes there are cultural differences in work ethics Cultural differences in business practices have implications not only when people from different companies do business with each other but also when people from different cultures work on the same team Even when employees have good language skills, they naturally interpret written and verbal communication through the filter of their own culture Globalization presents many new issues Domestic diversity also requires businesses to be attentive to cultural differences Understanding cultural differences involves not only working with diverse employees but also recognizing new business markets, developing new products, and so on In this sense, then, business can capitalize on diversity

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION

The relationship between culture and communication is complex Let's see how these reciprocal relationships work

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

The second component, communication, is as complex as culture and can be defi ned in many different ways For example, the social science perspective emphasizes the various components of communication: There is a sender/receiver, message, channel, and context The interpretive perspective emphasizes the symbolic, processual nature of communication; the symbolic nature of communication means that the words we speak or the gestures we make have no inherent meaning To make things more complicated, each message has more than one meaning; often, there are many layers of meaning The interpretive perspective also emphasizes that the process by which we negotiate meaning is dynamic The critical perspective emphasizes the importance of societal forces in the communication process For example, when schoolchildren in the United States bring guns to school and kill schoolmates, the symbolism of these acts communicates something, and the acts themselves are material

Changing Immigration Patterns

The second source of demographic change is different immigration patterns Today, immigration has changed the social landscape significantly Sometimes more heterogeneous cultures are contrasted to more homogeneous cultures This heterogeneity presents many opportunities and challenges for students of intercultural communication We should also note the potential opportunities in a culturally diverse society To get a better sense of the situation in the United States today, let's take a look at our history Today, about 1.9 million Native Americans African American Immigrants African Americans represent a special case in the history of U.S. immigration The slave trade, developed by European and African merchants, lasted about 350 years, although slavery was outlawed in Europe long before it was outlawed in the United States Slavery presents a moral dilemma for many whites even today Scholar and theologian Cornel West (1993) agrees that we should begin by acknowledging the historical flaws of U.S. society and recognizing the historical consequences of slavery Relationships with New Immigrants Relationships between residents and immigrants—between oldtimers and newcomers—have often been filled with tension and conflict As waves of immigrants continued to roll in from Europe, the more firmly established European—mainly British—immigrants tried to protect their way of life, language, and culture The foreigners to which this citizen was referring were mostly from Ireland, devastated by the potato famines, and from Germany, which had fallen on hard economic and political times In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a nativistic (anti-immigrant) movement propagated violence against newer immigrants Nativistic sentiment was well supported at the government level By the 1930s, southern and eastern European groups were considered "assimilatable," and the concept of race assumed new meaning The notion of the melting pot began to break down as immigrants came in larger numbers from outside of Europe Although the notion of the melting pot could explain European immigrant experiences, the metaphor did not explain other immigrant experiences Economic conditions make a big difference in attitudes toward foreign workers and immigration policies The tradition of tension and conflict among cultures continues to this day Immigration and Economic Classes Some of the conflict may be related to the economic disparity that exists among these different groups The myth of a classless society is hardly benign It not only reinforces middleand upper-class beliefs in their own superior abilities but also promotes a false hope among the working class and the poor that they can get ahead It may be common knowledge that the gap between the wealthy and everyone else is growing wider, but the extent of the current gap is staggering Religious Diversity Immigration also contributes to religious diversity, bringing increasing numbers of Muslims, Buddhists, Confucians, Catholics, and others to the United States For example, stereotypes about Islam are widespread in U.S. popular culture Muzrui goes on to present evidence to debunk each of these stereotypes These increasingly diverse ethnic, racial, economic, and religious groups come into contact mostly during the day in schools, businesses, and other settings, bringing to the encounters different languages, histories, and economic statuses In any case, the United States is hardly a model of diversity; many countries are far more diverse ethnically Fortunately, most individuals are able to negotiate day-to-day activities in spite of cultural differences Demographic diversity in the United States has given us tremendous linguistic richness and culinary variety, varied resources to meet new social challenges, as well as domestic and international business opportunities

multiphrenia

The splitting of the individual psychologically into multiple selves

Global village (McLuhan)

The technological age has vastly expanded the potential for interaction -- via telephone, television, email, fax, etc. Technology allows us:- to experience other cultures that are not our own, and -to develop complex relationships with them Now with Internet, it is literally globalized

identity management

The way individuals make sense of their multiple images concerning the sense of self in different social contexts

cultural values

The worldview of a cultural group and its set of deeply held beliefs

THE TECHNOLOGICAL IMPERATIVE

Today, with the explosion of computers and other communication technologies, we truly live in the global village envisioned by media expert Marshall McLuhan (1967) Perhaps the most revolutionary advancement has been the Internet

Changing U.S. Demographics

U.S. demographics are projected to change dramatically during your lifetime— the next 50 years The nation's elderly population will more than double in size from 2005 through 2050, as the baby boom generation enters the traditional retirement years What is also interesting is the racial distribution in the various geographical regions There is increasing diversity in the U.S. workforce as well

Anglocentrism

Using Anglo or white cultural standards as the criteria for interpretations and judgments of behaviors and attitudes

The Power of Other Histories

We live in an era of rapid change, which causes us to rethink cultural struggles and identities More recently, communication scholar Dave Tell (2008) has analyzed how a grand narrative about the murder of Emmett Till arose The difficulty in maintaining the grand narrative is evident in a study done by Teresa Housel (2007) In the wake of continuous wars and global conflicts, global warming, failed promises of liberation, new diseases such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and bird flu, and other events that challenge what we know and what has changed, the master narrative no longer seems as believable to many In her work on the constructions of white identity in South Africa, communication scholar Melissa Steyn (2001) notes how the grand narrative in South Africa served white interests and led to the establishment of apartheid In place of the grand narrative are revised and restored histories that previously were suppressed, hidden, or erased Lumumba's words created a different sense of history In this way, the grand narrative of Belgian colonialism has been reconfigured and no longer stands as the only story of the Belgian Congo

Antecedents of Contact

We may be able to negotiate some aspects of history in interaction, but it is important to recognize that we bring our personal histories to each intercultural interaction First, people bring childhood experiences to interactions Third, the languages that people speak influence their interactions Finally, people tend to be affected by recent, vivid events Perhaps recent histories, such as the racially motivated riots in Los Angeles in the mid-1990s, are more influential in our interactions than the hidden or past histories, such as the massacre in 1890 of some 260 Sioux Indians at Wounded Knee in South Dakota or the women's suffrage movement around the turn of the 20th century

2000 US demographic profile(Race)

Whites 75.1% Latino 12.5% African American 12.3% Asian 3.6% Multi-racial 2.2% Native Americans 1.0% Total (281 million)

THE DEMOGRAPHIC IMPERATIVE

You have probably observed that your world is increasingly diverse Sports are a very visible part of this increasing diversity This increasing diversity comes from changing U.S. demographics and more global interaction of people