Comprehensive Final

Indicate the general characteristics of nervous tissue

(A) Nervous tissue is the main component of the nervous system, which regulates and controls body functions (B) Nervous tissue is composed of two types of cells (1) Neurons are specialized cells that generate and conduct electrical impulses (2) Supporting cells are nonconductive cells that support, insulate, and protect the neurons

Layers of the eye

- outer layer: sclera (white part of eye, continuous with dura mater posteriorly), cornea (anterior, clear, connected to sclera) - middle layer/uveal tract: choroid (vascular layer), ciliary body (thick ring of mm that moves lens), iris (continuous anteriorly with ciliary body) - inner layer: retina (photoreceptors- process images)

functions of hypothalamus

-Master control of autonomic nervous system (influences heart rate, blood pressure, digestive activities, and respiration) -Master control of the endocrine system (secretes hormones that control secretory activities in the anterior pituitary gland) -Regulation of body temperature (shivering and sweating) -Control of emotional behavior (Pleasure, aggression, fear, rage, contentment, and the sex drive) -Control of food intake (Monitors nutrients and produces sensations of hunger) -Control of water intake (Monitor blood solute concentrations) -Regulation of sleep-wake (circadian) rhythms

Structure and function of gap junctions

-connexins (membrane protein) form tiny fluid-filled tunnels called connexions that connect neighbouring cells; plasma membranes are separated by a very narrow intercellular gap -allows ions and small molecules to diffuse from the cytosol of one cell to another through the connexins; transfer of nutrients and wastes; cell communication, enable nerve or muscle impulses to spread rapidly among cells

Structure and function of desmosomes

-contain plaque that attaches to intermediate filaments and have transmembrane glycoproteins that extend into the intercellular space between adjacent cell membranes and attach cells to one another -contributes to stability of cells and tissue; prevent epidermal cells from separating under tension and cardiac cells from pulling apart during contraction

Structure and function of tight junctions

-weblike strands of transmembrane proteins that fuse together the outer surfaces of adjacent plasma membranes to seal off passageways between adjacent cells -inhibit passage of substances between cells and prevent contents of these organs from leaking into the blood or surrounding tissues

Put the following steps in bone fracture repair into their correct order.

1. Hematoma forms 2. Fibrocartilaginous callus forms 3. Bony callus forms 4. Bone remodeling occurs

Active transport mechanisms

1. Primary active transport- movement of solute against its concentration gradient using ATP. Ex: Na+/K+ ATPase antiporter pump removes 3 Na + from the cytoplasm and brings 2 K+ into the cytoplasm against the concentration gradient. 2. Secondary active transport- An ATPase pumps drives a solute out of (or into) the cell against its concentration gradient. Movement of this solute with its concentration gradient back into the cell is used to power the transport of another solute against its concentration gradient. Ex: Symporters use sodium ion gradient to bring glucose, chloride ions, and bicarbonate ions into the cell. 3. Phagocytosis- "cell eating" bringing large molecules or particles into the cell via a phagosome; ATP required. Ex: ingestion of bacteria and cell debris by phagocytes. 4. Pinocytosis- "cell drinking" bringing substances in the ECF into the cell via a transport vesicle formed from a protein-coated pit; ATP required. 5. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis- Bringing a specific substances into a transport vesicle formed from a protein-coated pit; ATP required. Ex: Nutrient transport. 6. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis- Bringing a specific substance into a transport vesicle using receptors on the plasma membrane; ATP required. Ex: Cholesterol, iron, and hormone transport. 7. Exocytosis- Release of a substance from the cell via an exocytic transport vesicle; ATP required.

Place the steps of sensory transduction in their correct order.

1. Stimulus detected by receptor. 2. Mechanically gated sodium channels open. 3. Axolemma depolarizers to threshold. 4. Voltage gated sodium channels open. 5. Action potential propagates towards CNS along peripheral process.

What does Ca2+ indicate for the (Ca) atom?

2 electrons have been donated by Ca

The following are specific events in the relaxation of a muscle fiber. Choose the order in which they occur. 1. Calcium ions are pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) 2. Acetylcholinesterase degrades remaining acetylcholine (ACh) 3. Troponin and tropomyosin block actin active sites 4. Sarcolemma returns to resting membrane potential

2, 4, 1, 3

The numbers listed below represent the number of electrons in the first, second, and third energy levels, respectively. On this basis, which of the following is an unstable or reactive atom?

2, 8, 1

Atom "X" has 13 protons. How many electrons are in its' valence shell?

3

The Na+/K+ ATPase pumps move _____________ sodium __________ the cell and ____________ potassium ___________ the cell with each ATP that is hydrolyzed.

3, out of, 2, into

Which of the following is the correct order of epidermal layers from superficial to deep?

4. Stratum corneum 3. Stratum lucidum 5. Stratum granulosum 1. Stratum spinosum 2. Stratum basale

inorganic compounds

A compound that does not contain the element carbon or contains carbon bound to elements other than hydrogen.

Define acid

A substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. Proton donator.

Respiratory system

A system of organs, functioning in the process of gas exchange between the body and the environment, consisting especially of the nose, nasal passages, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.

Which of the following is NOT a general function of the Parasympathetic division?

A. Reduction in heart rate B. Stimulation of defecation and urination C. Constriction of the respiratory passageways D. Sexual arousal E. All of the above are general functions E

function of mitochondria

ATP production/cellular respiration

The __________ refractory period occurs when Na+ channels are either open or inactivated, before their return to their resting state. No Na+ can cross the membrane during this time.

Absolute

Describe the structure and function of accessory eye structures

Accessory structures protect, lubricate, and move the eyes. Includes the eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus, and extrinsic eye muscles.

The overproduction of human growth hormone after puberty causes ___________________.

Acromegaly

Define action potentials, and describe how they are different from graded potentials.

Action potentials ar large, rapid depolarizations and depolarizations of plasma membrane that can occur at high frequencies and travel long distances along axons or other excitable membranes. -produced by action potentials -very small numbers of ions cross the membrane, one action potential does not change Na+ and K+ gradients -all or none, and not graded by stimulus size

What is the difference between anaerobic vs. aerobic?

Aerobic Respiration- happens in many plants (eukaryotes). Oxygen is required. Involves the exchange of gases between the organism and the outside environment. Process of respiration takes place in the cytoplasm and the mitochondria. Glucose breaks down or complete oxidation into carbon dioxide and water. All higher organisms such as mammals perform this type of respiration. Anaerobic respiration- happens in human muscle cells (eukaryotes), bacteria (prokaryote), and yeast. No requirement of oxygen in this process. Exchange of gases is there but oxygen gas does not take part. Takes place in the cytoplasm only. Glucose breaks down into ethyl alcohol, carbon dioxide, and energy. Lower organisms such as bacteria or other prokaryotes and yeast follow this type of respiration.

Indicate common characteristics of connective tissue, and list and describe its structural elements

All connective tissue arises from an embryonic tissue called mesenchyme. Connective tissue ranges from avascular to highly vascularized. Connective tissue is composed mainly of nonliving extracellular matrix that separates the cells of the tissue. Structural Elements of Connective Tissue 1. Ground substance is the unstructured material that fills the space between the cells and contains the fibers. 2. Fibers of the connective tissue provide support. Collagen fibers are extremely strong and provide high tensile strength to the connective tissue. Elastic fibers contain elastin, which allows them to be stretched and to recoil. Reticular fibers are fine, collagenous fibers that form networks. 3. Each major class of connective tissue has a fundamental cell type that exists in immature and mature forms.

Which of these is controlled by the nervous system?

All of these are controlled by the nervous system

Protein

An organic compound that is made of one or more chains of amino acids and that is a principal component of all cells

Chambers of the eye

Anterior chamber, posterior chamber, vitreous chamber

Outline the causes and consequences of astigmatism

Astigmatism is a common vision problem caused by an error in the shape of the cornea. With astigmatism, the lens of the eye or the cornea, which is the front surface of the eye, has an irregular curve. This can change the way light passes, or refracts, to your retina. This causes blurry, fuzzy, or distorted vision.

Given the following information from the periodic table for (Ca) give the following information: 20 Ca 40.078

Atomic number 20 20 electrons 20 neutrons Calcium

Match the following nerves with the major structures innervated.

Axillary nerve- deltoid and teres minor muscles plus skin over deltoid. Radial nerve- triceps brachii, forearm extensors and skin of posterior thumb, 2nd, 3rd, and lateral Musculocutaneous Nerve- biceps brachii and skin covering lateral arm. Median Nerve- wrist and digital flexors, some intrinsic hand muscles and skin over anterior thumb, 2nd Ulnar Nerve- forearm flexors, intrinsic hand muscles and skin of 5th digit and medial side of 4th digit.

Sympathetic preganglionic neurons may synapse with postganglionic neurons in which of the following ways? (More than one answer may be correct.)

Axon may ascend or descend through the chain to synapse at a higher or lower ganglion Axon may synapse in the first ganglion it reaches Axon may continue without synapsing through the chain ganglion to synapse within a prevertebral (collateral) ganglion Axon may pass through both trunk and prevertebral (collateral) ganglia without synapsing, and then synapse in the adrenal medulla

Trace the olfactory pathway, beginning at the olfactory epithelium.

Axons from the olfactory epithelium collect into bundles that synapse in the olfactory bulb. Axons leaving the olfactory bulb then travel along the olfactory tract to the olfactory cortex, hypothalamus, and portions of the limbic system.

Which of the following is NOT an exocrine secretion?

Blood

cardiovascular system

Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood.

digestive system

Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells.

Carbohydrates

Broken down to glucose to provide energy.

Repetitive motion, pressure over a joint or irritation by other factors can cause __________, which is inflammation of fluid-filled pockets in connective tissue within or around joints.

Bursitis

Which of the following is FALSE?

C. Whenever positive and negative ions are separated from each other, a potential difference exists. E. None of the above are false B. There are more negatively charged proteins inside cells than outside cells. A. K+ crosses plasma membranes more easily than Na+ D. A gradient in the ion concentrations represents potential energy. E. NONE OF THE ABOVE ARE FALSE

Which of the following cranial nerves is responsible for the production of tears during Parasympathetic activation?

CN VII; Facial

Troponin has three subunits, and so three different things can bind to it. Name ONE of the things that binds to a troponin subunit.

Calcium

Which of the following is NOT a sympathetic ganglion?

Cardiac

Which of the following is NOT part of the brain stem?

Cerebellum

Receptors - Cholinergic receptors

Cholinergic receptors are receptors on the surface of cells that get activated when they bind a type of neurotransmitter called acetylcholine. There are two types of cholinergic receptors, called nicotinic and muscarinic receptors - named after the drugs that work on them.

lymphatic system

Composed of a network of vessels, ducts, nodes, and organs. Provides defense against infection.

organic compounds

Compounds that contain carbon

Functions of the brain stem

Conduct sensory implulse from the spinal chord to higher centers of tehe brain, conduct morot impluses from the cerebrum to spinal cord, control heartbeat, respiration and blood vessel diameter

Which of the following is NOT a function of the hypothalamus?

Conscious control of skeletal muscle movement

Define gland

Consists of one or more cells that make and secrete a particular product, called secretion

integumentary system

Consists of the skin, mucous membranes, hair, and nail

Which of the following is NOT a function of skeletal muscle?

Control pupil size

In a _________________ neural circuit, several neurons relay information to a single neuron.

Converging

Difference between cranial and spinal nerves

Cranial nerves are the nerves that emerge directly from the brain (including the brainstem). In contrast, spinal nerves emerge from segments of the spinal cord. Cranial nerves relay information between the brain and parts of the body, primarily to and from regions of the head and neck.

Which of the following is TRUE?

Cuboidal epithelia is frequently found lining ducts and sweat glands.

Define depolarization, and describe the events that follow it.

Depolarization is the when the inside of the cell becomes positive due to sodium ions rushing in. After depolarization, repolarization occurs when potassium ions rush out of the cell causing the inside of the cell to become negative again.

function of nucleus

Directs all the cells activities; contains the cells DNA

major body cavities

Dorsal Cavity and the ventral cavity.

Which meningeal layer creates the falx cerebri?

Dura matter

Given the following information from the periodic table for (Cl) give the following information: 17 Cl 35.430

Element symbol for chlorine 17 protons 18 neutrons 7 electrons in the valence shell

Given the following information from the periodic table for (K) give the following information: 19 K 39.10

Element symbol for potassium 19 electrons 20 neutrons 1 electron in valence shell

urinary system

Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.

active transport

Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference.

"Type A" axons are small, unmyelinated fibers that conduct impulses at approximately 2 meters per second.

False

All postganglionic fibers of the autonomic system release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

False

Denaturing the organic portion of the bone matrix will make your bones less brittle.

False

Dense irregular connective tissue contains parallel collagen bundles and is found in tendons and ligaments.

False

During sarcomere contraction, the A and H bands narrow but the I band remains the same width.

False

During thermoregulation, lower than normal body temperatures will cause blood vessels in the dermis to dilate in order to conserve heat.

False

Glycolysis is the aerobic breakdown of glucose to produce two molecules of pyruvic acid that occurs in the mitochondria of a muscle cell.

False

Human Growth Hormone is responsible for closing the epiphyseal growth plates at the end of puberty.

False

In a muscle fiber, high calcium levels within the sarcoplasm will cause muscle fiber relaxation.

False

Intercalated discs, found in smooth muscle, contain gap junctions and tight junctions to allow cells to contract as a unit.

False

Most organs receive dual innervation, meaning that they receive impulses from both Somatic and Parasympathetic neurons.

False

Squamous cell carcinoma is a cancer that originates from malignant cells of the stratum basale.

False

Temporal summation of graded potentials occurs when several postsynaptic potentials arrive close to the same time from several different presynaptic neurons.

False

Terminal hairs are lightly pigmented and cover the majority of the body surface, especially in women and children

False

The basal nuclei, located within the diencephalon of the brain, is composed of white matter.

False

The effect of a neurotransmitter (excitatory versus inhibitory) on the postsynaptic membrane depends on the properties of the neurotransmitter, not on the properties of the receptor.

False

The hypodermis is a part of the skin that is made up of loose connective tissue and adipose tissue.

False

The large ventral (anterior) rami of spinal nerves innervate the skin and muscles of the back.

False

The patellar reflex is a contralateral, polysynaptic somatic reflex.

False

The perimysium surrounds the entire muscle, the epimysium surrounds each fascicle, and the endomysium surrounds each individual muscle fiber.

False

The reticular lamina of a basement membrane (which separates epithelial from connective tissue) is secreted by the epithelial layer of tissue.

False

The substantia nigra is a darkly pigmented region of the midbrain whose neurons release the neurotransmitter serotonin.

False

The sympathetic nervous system features long pre-ganglionic neurons first then short post-ganglionic neurons

False

Match the following cells with their descriptions

Fibroblast- produce extra cellular matrix Mast cell- release mediators like histamine when stimulated Macrophage- works as a phagocyte Adipocyte- cell containing lipid inclusions

Match the following cerebellar terms with their definitions.

Folia- ridges on cortical surface Vermis- structure that connects right and left hemispheres Arbor vitae- white matter Peduncles- connection to brain stem

Define synapse. Distinguish between electrical and chemical synapses by structure and by the way they transmit information.

Functional junction that mediates information transfer between neurons or between neurons and effector cells. Electrical Synapse - Neurons that are electrically coupled via protein channels (gap junctions) and allow for the direct transfer of ions. Only in brains, eyes, and cardiac. Chemical Synapses - Specialized for release and reception of chemical neurotransmitters. Make up the bulk of synapses.

Consequences and causes of glaucoma

Glaucoma is a condition that damages your eye's optic nerve. It gets worse over time. It's often linked to a buildup of pressure inside your eye. The increased pressure in your eye, called intraocular pressure, can damage your optic nerve, which sends images to your brain. If the damage worsens, glaucoma can cause permanent vision loss or even total blindness within a few years.

Define graded potentials, and list five important properties they possess.

Graded potentials are changes in membrane potential that vary in size. -short distance signals that rely on local flow of ionic currents -are graded or proportional in size to the stimulus (tend to be small .5-1mV) -decrease with distance from the stimulus site (because charge leaks back out through membrane) -can be depolarizations or hyperpolarizations -can summate with each other.

Which of the following is FALSE?

Graded potentials cannot increase the polarity of a cell membrane. They're only able to depolarize the membrane in order to attempt to reach threshold.

Trace the gustatory pathway from taste buds to the gustatory cortex and subcortical areas.

Gustatory pathway: The first order afferent fibers carrying taste information are doun in the three cranial nerve pairs. First order afferents synapse with second order neuronsin the solitary nucleum of the medulla oblongata. From the solitary nucleus, impulses are carried vis two routes: a. Second order axons pass via the medial lemniscus to the thalamus, in the thalamus second order neurons synapse with third order neurons and third order neurons carry sensory information to the gustatory cortex in the R and L insula—providing conscious perception of taste b. OR other second order neurons pass to the hypothalamus and limbic system structures—this allows us to appreciate what we are eating and play a role in apetite/satiety

The acetabular labrum enhances the depth of the socket in the _______ joint.

Hip

State the effects of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions on the gastrointestinal tract

In general, sympathetic stimulation causes inhibition of gastrointestinal secretion and motor activity, and contraction of gastrointestinal sphincters and blood vessels. Conversely, parasympathetic stimuli typically stimulate these digestive activities.

Trace the visual pathway to the visual cortex, and briefly describe the steps in visual processing.

In order for perception to occur, the physiological signal that starts in the retina must travel to the visual cortex. The visual pathway to the brain begins with the optic nerve fibers (ganglion cell axons) from the retina. The retinal ganglion cells merge in the back of the eyeball to become the optic nerve, which crosses at the optic chiasma to become the optic tracts. The optic tracts send their axons to neurons within the lateral geniculate body of the thalamus. Axons from the thalamus project through the internal capsule to form the optic radiation of fibers in the cerebral white matter. These fibers project to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobes. Visual processing begins in the retina and occurs when the action of light on photoreceptors hyperpolarizes them, which causes the bipolar neurons from both the rods and cones to ultimately send signals to their ganglion cells.

Calcitriol (the active form of Vitamin D)

Is produced in response to Parathyroid Hormone

Define water

It is the most important nutrient, involved in almost every vital body process, such as digesting, absorbing foods, and energy production.

Describe the location, structure, and afferent pathways of smell and taste receptors

LOCATION: Smell- olfactory epithelia, in the nasal cavity. Taste- taste buds on the tongue STRUCTURE: Smell- olfactory sensory neurons, bowling pin shaped. Taste- Gustatory epithethial cells, flask shaped. PATHWAYS: Smell- Through ethmoid. Synapse in olfactory bulbs glomeruli. Mitral cells are the output of olfactory bulbs. Taste- Taste bud -> through VII, IX, X -> synapse in solitary nucleus in medulla oblongata -> Pons -> Synapse in thalami nucleus -> gustatory cortex.

Which of the following would be considered an "essential" organ during sympathetic activation, and would therefore receive increased blood flow as a result?

Lung tissue

Match the following muscle terms with their descriptions.

M line- made from the protein myomesin; center of each sacromere Thin filaments- extend from each z-disc to the each sides H-zone, but not into the H-zone. Z disc- anchors the thin filaments and titin strands; marks the end of a sacromere. Zone of Overlap- region where both thick and thin filaments exist. Thick filaments- attached to the M-line; extend the entire length of the A band. H Zone- surrounds the M-line; lighter mid-region where thin and thick filaments do NOT.

The hormone _______________ is produced by the pineal gland of the diencephalon.

Melatonin

Relate plasma membrane structure to active and passive transport mechanisms.

Membrane proteins that aid in the passive transport of substances do so without the use of ATP. During active transport, ATP is required to move a substance across a membrane, often with the help of protein carriers, and usually against its concentration gradient.

Which neuroglia (glial cell) is responsible for "scanning" their area of the CNS and can develop phagocytic properties if they encounter an invader or cellular debris?

Microglia

Causes and consequences of cataracts

Most cataracts develop when aging or injury changes the tissue that makes up the eye's lens. Proteins and fibers in the lens begin to break down, causing vision to become hazy or cloudy. Some inherited genetic disorders that cause other health problems can increase your risk of cataracts.

Outline the causes and consequences of hyperopia

Most commonly, farsightedness is caused by a cornea (the clear layer at the front of the eye) that isn't curved enough or by an eyeball that's too short. These two problems prevent light from focusing directly on the retina. Instead, light focuses behind the retina, which makes close-up objects look blurry.

Which of the following is NOT a function of connective tissue?

Movement

Regardless of whether it's skeletal, cardiac or smooth muscle, a muscle cell is called a/an ___________________.

Myocyte

Define adrenergic fibers

Nerve fibers that release norepinephrine are referred to as adrenergic fibers

Know the general characteristics of nervous tissue

Nervous tissue is characterized as being excitable and capable of sending and receiving electrochemical signals that provide the body with information. Two main classes of cells make up nervous tissue: the neuron and neuroglia

The four elements making up about 96% of the body's mass are represented by the symbols:

O, C, H, N

Define repolarization

Occurs immediately after depolarization and is the movement of positively charged ions back to the outside of the cell, returning the cell back to its original polarized state. A cell must repolarize before it can depolarize again.

Match the following anatomical regions with their functional designations.

Olfactory cortex- found in the temporal lobe Primary motor cortex- in the price trail gyrus Visual cortex- found in the occipital lobe Primary sensory cortex- in the post central gyrus

Which of the following is NOT true?

Organs that are innervated by the cervical plexus will demonstrate referred pain in the thoracic and lumbar areas of the torso.

When chrondrocytes' matrix becomes calcified the cells die and ____________ cells take their place.

Osteoblasts

Which of the following cells is correctly paired with its function?

Osteoclast / breaks down bone matrix

The ___________ is the structural unit of compact bone

Osteon

List possible causes and symptoms of otitis media, deafness, and Meneires syndrome.

Otitis media- an inflammation or ear infection of the middle ear cavity. Exudes build up putting pressure on the tympanic membrane and preventing proper movement of the ossicles. The adenoids enlarge as the auditory tube is obstructed by the increased inflammation which prevents drainage into the nasopharnyx. Increasing pressure can cause the tympanic membrane to rupture. CAUSES- URT infections viral or bacterial infections. SYMPTOMS- ear ache, pressure in the ear, mild hearing loss, feeling of fullness, nausea or fever. Deafness- Meneires Syndrome- SYMPTOMS Tinnitus, unilateral hearing loss, vertigo, weakness, falls, nausea, sweating, unability to focus, nystagmus, and pressure in the ear. TREATMENT- drugs or surgery to implant shunts that help drain the endolymph.

Describe the structure and general functions of the outer, middle, and inner ear

Outer ear- The outer ear consists of the visible portion on the side of the head, known as the pinna [1], and the external auditory canal (ear canal) [2]. The purpose of the pinna is to catch sound waves, amplify them slightly, and funnel them down the ear canal to the tympanic membrane (eardrum) [3]. Middle Ear- Inside the middle ear, three small bones (ossicles) form a chain and conduct sound vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear. Once in the fluid-filled inner ear, sounds are converted into nerve impulses and sent to the brain. These revolutionary hearing aids are comfortable, rechargeable, and virtually invisible. Inner ear- The inner ear (also called the labyrinth) contains 2 main structures — the cochlea, which is involved in hearing, and the vestibular system (consisting of the 3 semicircular canals, saccule and utricle), which is responsible for maintaining balance

Compare and contrast the functions of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions

Parasympathetic - SLUD, Cranoisacral. Long pre, Short post-ganglionic fibers. Axon Branches: less than 4. Intramural ganglia. Limited branching:Local response Sympathetic - E division, Fight or flight. Thracolumbar. Long Post, short pre-ganglionic fibers. Axon Branches: 20+. Chain Ganglia/Paravertebral ganglia, Prevertebral/Collateral ganglia: Celiac, Superior & inferior mesenteric ganglia, aorticorenal and renal ganglia. Short pre-ganglionic fibers: extensive branching causes mass activation

State the effects of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions on the external genitalia

Parasympathetic; erection Sympathetic; ejaculation

Explain how we are able to differentiate pitch and loudness and localize a sounds source.

Pitch is detected by activation of certain hair cells. Loudness is detected by release of more neurotransmitter, generate more action potentials. Localization is interpreted by relative intensity and relative timing of both ears.

Match the following terms with their definitions:

Polysynaptic reflex- reflex involves inter neurons, creating multiple synapses. Contralateral reflex- receptors and effector are on opposite sides of the body. Monosynaptic reflex- sensory neuron synapses directly with the motor neuron. Ipsilateral reflex- sensory information is received on the same side as the motor response. Spinal reflex- integration takes place in the spinal cord, and not the brain. Somatic reflex- effectors are skeletal muscles.

presbyopia

Presbyopia is caused by a hardening of the lens of your eye, which occurs with aging. As your lens becomes less flexible, it can no longer change shape to focus on close-up images. As a result, these images appear out of focus.

State the effects of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions on the blood vessels

Pressure increases because blood vessels constrict under sympathetic stimulation. The parasympathetic division directs the body toward a "rest or digest" mode, generally decreasing heart rate and blood pressure.

Match the following cerebral regions with their functions

Primary somatosensory cortex: receives sensory information from touch, temperature and pressure receptors. Gustatory cortex: receives sensory information from taste receptors. Primary motor cortex: directs voluntary movement. Somatosensory association area: performs further processing information from the primary sensory cortex.

What is cellular respiration?

Process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen

Match the following tracts in the cerebrum with their functions:

Projection fibers: link the cerebral cortex with other areas of the brain and spinal cord. Association fibers: short fibers connecting one cerebral gyrus with another. Commissural fibers: short fibers connecting one cerebral gyrus with another.

skeletal system

Protects and supports body organs and provides a framework the muscles use to support movement. Made up of bones and joints

functions of the thalamus

Relay station ("triage center") for sensory impulses; control of awareness and consciousness

All of the following are TRUE regarding neurotransmitters except

Removal of neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft is not essential

The return of the sarcolemma to resting electrical conditions by the efflux (exit) of K+ through open voltage-gated channels is called _____________________.

Repolarization

reproductive system

Reproduce offspring- produce male sex cells (sperm) and female sex cells (oocytes)

passive transport

Requires NO energy, Movement of molecules from high to low concentration, Moves with the concentration gradient

The myofibril is the contractile organelle of skeletal muscle, and the ____________ is the functional unit.

Sacromere

Merocrine glands

Secrete products via exocytosis

endocrine system function

Secretes hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and metabolism by body cells

Passive Transport mechanisms

Simple diffusion- movement of solute with its concentration through the plasma membrane unaided by a transport protein; energy source is the solutes own kinetic energy. Ex; oxygen, carbon dioxide, lipids Facilitated Diffusion- movement of solute with its concentration gradient with the help of a carrier or channel protein; energy source is the solutes own kinetic energy. Ex; sodium ions, potassium ions, calcium ions, glucose, amino acids Osmosis- Movement of solvent (water) from a solution of lower solute concentration to one of higher solute concentration through a selectively permeable membrane. Ex; water absorption from the intestinal lining, water reabsorption from the kidneys, water movement between the ECF and blood vessels.

_____________________ muscle must be stimulated by the nervous system to contract. (one word, specific type of muscle)

Skeletal

Which organs or tissues are activated, increased or receive increased blood flow during a sympathetic nervous response? Select all that apply!

Skeletal muscles of limb Pupil size Sweat glands Production of hormones- epinephrine and norepinephrine Lypolysis (catabolism occurring from adipocytes) Heart rate

The somatic sensory division of the PNS is responsible for transmitting information from _________ to the _________.

Skeletal muscles/ brain

Which of the following is NOT regulated by centers in the medulla oblongata?

Sleeping

Which of the following are part of the rotator cuff?

Supraspinatus Infraspinatus Teres minor Subscapularis

Choose all of the structures that can be found in the reticular layer of the dermis.

Sweat glands Blood vessels Hair follicles Sebaceous glands

Which of the following are distinguishing features of synovial joints? More than one answer may be correct

Synovial fluid Articulate cartilage Reinforcing ligaments Joint cavity Rich nerve and blood supply

The final relay point for most ascending sensory information (but not olfactory information) that will be projected to the higher centers of the cortex is the ______________.

Thalamus

Organization and parts of Central Nervous System

The CNS is comprised of the brain, cerebellum and spinal cord. Remaining neurons, and associated cells, distributed throughout the body form the PNS. The nervous system has three broad functions: sensory input, information processing, and motor output.

Resting membrane potential in a skeletal muscle cell is maintained primarily by ________.

The Na/K pumps

Compare the somatic and autonomic nervous systems

The autonomic nervous system (ANS): - Involuntary movements/actions - Two neurons make up pathway (pre/postganglionic) - Two divisions (sympathetic and parasympathetic) - Many receptor organs including the heart, lungs, glands, etc. - Stimulation brings about various bodily reactions - Chain of ganglia along its pathway The Somatic Nervous System (SNS): - Voluntary movements/actions - Single neuron makes up pathway from spinal cord to skeletal muscle - No subdivisions - Stimulation only causes skeletal muscle reactions - No ganglia along its pathway - Skeletal muscle is the only receptor organ

Describe the autonomic nervous system controls

The autonomic nervous system control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions such as heart rate digestion respiratory rate pupillary response, urination, an sexual arousal. The system is the primary mechanism in control of fight or flight response.

Autonomic nervous system compared to peripheral nervous system

The autonomic nervous system regulates a variety of body process that takes place without conscious effort. The autonomic system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that is responsible for regulating involuntary body functions, such as heartbeat, blood flow, breathing, and digestion

Know the structures which protect the brain and the spinal cord

The brain and spinal cord are protected by bony structures — the skull and spinal column. Meninges are membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. Together, the cranium and bones that protect the face are called the skull. Between the skull and brain is the meninges, which consist of three layers of tissue that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. From the outermost layer inward they are: the dura mater, arachnoid and pia mater.

Describe the sound conduction pathway to the fluids of the inner ear

The eardrum vibrates. The vibrations are then passed to 3 tiny bones in the middle ear called the ossicles. The ossicles amplify the sound. They send the sound waves to the inner ear and into the fluid-filled hearing organ (cochlea).

Explain how the balance organs of the semicircular canals and the vestibule help maintain equilibrium.

The equilibrium sense responds to various head movements and depends on input from the internal ear, vision, and information from stretch receptors of muscles and tendons. The sensory receptors for static equilibrium are the maculae. The receptor for dynamic equilibrium is the crista ampullaris, found in the ampulla of the semicircular canals and activated by head movement. Information from the balance receptors goes directly to reflex centers in the brain stem, rather than to the cerebral cortex.

General fiber pathways for parasympathetic nervous system

The parasympathetic nervous system consists of many pathways that connect its craniosacral components with the peripheral tissues. Each parasympathetic pathway consists of two neurons, the presynaptic (preganglionic) and postsynaptic (postganglionic) neurons, which are connected by the axons of the presynaptic neurons.

Describe the cite of the of CNS origin for parasympathetic nervous system

The parasympathetic nervous system, or craniosacral division, has its origin in neurons with cell bodies located in the brainstem nuclei of four cranial nerves—the oculomotor (cranial nerve III), the facial (cranial nerve VII), the glossopharyngeal (cranial nerve IX), and the vagus (cranial nerve X)

State the effects of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions on the lungs

The parasympathetic system causes bronchoconstriction, whereas the sympathetic nervous system stimulates bronchodilation. Reflexes such as coughing, and the ability of the lungs to regulate oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, also result from this autonomic nervous system control.

Describe the chemical composition of the plasma membrane

The principal components of the plasma membrane are lipids (phospholipids and cholesterol), proteins, and carbohydrate groups that are attached to some of the lipids and proteins.

Define cell

The smallest structural and functional unit of an aorganism

State the effects of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions on the heart

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) releases the hormones (catecholamines - epinephrine and norepinephrine) to accelerate the heart rate. The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) releases the hormone acetylcholine to slow the heart rate.

State the effects of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions on the adrenal medulla

The sympathetic nervous system coordinates the body's automatic fight-flight response by stimulating the adrenal medulla to secrete catecholamines and by directly stimulating cardiac output and blood flow to muscles while diverting blood flow away from visceral organs. When the sympathetic division is activated in response to stress or a threat, the medulla releases two substances, epinephrine, and norepinephrine, into the blood stream.

General fiber pathways for sympathetic nervous system

There are four different paths an axon can take before reaching its terminal. In all cases, the axon enters the paravertebral ganglion at the level of its originating spinal nerve.

A _________ consists of one T tubule and a pair of terminal cisterns (the enlarged tubules of the sarcoplasmic reticulum).

Triad

While examining a human standing in anatomical position select the INCORRECT statement:

Trick question; all of the answers are correct.

A toxin that increases the release of neurotransmitter at synapses or the prevents the closing of postsynaptic sodium channels would lead to the overstimulation of the postsynaptic neuron.

True

Acetylcholinesterase promotes muscle relaxation by breaking down acetylcholine.

True

All neuron-to-neuron synapses in the ANS are cholinergic.

True

An IPSP produces a graded hyperpolarization at the postsynaptic membrane.

True

Autonomic innervation of the effectors of the skin is by neurons of the sympathetic division only.

True

Bones are adaptable, living tissue, and therefore their masses and shapes reflect the forces applied to them.

True

Bundles of myelinated axons (also known as a fascicle) are enclosed in a connective tissue membrane called the perineurium.

True

Characteristics of electrical synapses include speedy communication and bidirectional flow of ions.

True

Childhood osteomalacia, also known as rickets, is a reduction in bone mineralization that causes bone deformities.

True

Continuous conduction of action potentials is slower and less efficient than saltatory conduction. One of the reasons for this is that more membrane surface area must be depolarized during continuous conduction, which requires expending more ATP to restore resting conditions.

True

Each skeletal muscle cell runs the length of the entire muscle and is attached to the tendons at each end using connective tissue membranes.

True

Each spinal nerve is joined by a gray ramus carrying axons from the sympathetic paravertebral ganglia.

True

Excitation-contraction coupling refers to all of the events happening between generation of an action potential in the sarcolemma and the start of the muscle contraction.

True

For bone to remain normal, a balance must exist between the actions of osteoblasts and osteoclasts during bone remodeling.

True

Fractures of the femoral neck or between the greater and lesser trochanters are more common than hip dislocations, especially in the elderly.

True

Hydrogen bonds form between polar covalent molecules and explains the attraction between individual water molecules.

True

Hyperpolarization is an increase in the membrane potential of a neuron (the interior of the cell becomes more negative), which reduces the probability of producing a action potential.

True

Luxations are typically accompanied by sprains, inflammation, and joint immobilization.

True

Motor nerve axons branch out to innervate each and every skeletal muscle fiber.

True

Nebulin is a non-elastic protein that anchors the thin filaments to the Z discs.

True

Postganglionic axons that synapsed with their preganglionic neurons in either the paravertebral or collateral ganglia reach their target cells via the gray rami and spinal nerves.

True

Skeletal muscle is voluntary, striated, multinucleate and organized into parallel fibers.

True

T tubules are narrow tubes that are continuous with the sarcolemma and filled with interstitial (extracellular) fluid.

True

Tendons connect muscle to bone, and ligaments connect bone to bone.

True

The amplitude (size) of a graded potential is determined by the stimulus strength, in other words, by the amount of neurotransmitter released at the synapse.

True

The demand for ATP is so high in a contracting muscle, it would be impossible to have all the necessary energy available as ATP before a contraction begins

True

The different types of connective tissue have varying amounts and types of extracellular matrix.

True

The limbic system is a functional grouping of structures that plays a role in establishing emotional states and facilitating memory storage and retrieval.

True

The structure of a body part (cell, tissue or organ) determines its function.

True

The two subdivisions of the ventral body cavity are separated by the diaphragm.

True

When calcium enters into a neuron's axon terminal through voltage-gated channels in the cell membrane, acetylcholine is released from the synaptic knob/terminus into the synaptic cleft

True

The visual association area allows you to

Understand that it's your mother's face, not some other person.

The ________________(give name not number) nerve is the exception to the rule that cranial nerves only innervate structures in the head and neck.

Vagus

Trace the pathway of light through the eye to the retina, and explain how light is focused for distant and close vision.

Visible light is made up of those wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that excite the photoreceptors. Light is refracted (bent) when passing from one transparent medium to another of different density. Concave lenses disperse light; convex lenses converge light and bring its rays to a focal point. The greater the lens curvature, the more light bends. As light passes through the eye, the cornea and lens bend and focus it on the retina. The cornea accounts for most of the refraction, but the lens allows active focusing for different distances. Focusing for distant vision requires no special movements of the eye structures. Focusing for close-up vision requires accommodation (bulging of the lens), pupillary constriction, and convergence of the eyeballs. Cranial nerve III controls all three reflexes. Refractory problems include presbyopia, myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism.

Outline the causes and consequences of myopia

When your eyeball is too long or the cornea -- the protective outer layer of your eye -- is too curved, the light that enters your eye won't focus correctly. Images focus in front of the retina, the light-sensitive part of your eye, instead of directly on the retina. Nearsightedness (myopia) is a common vision condition in which you can see objects near to you clearly, but objects farther away are blurry. It occurs when the shape of your eye causes light rays to bend (refract) incorrectly, focusing images in front of your retina instead of on your retina.

The amount of ________________ bone marrow in our bones increases as a person ages.

Yellow

Match the following zones with their correct description.

Zone of Resting Cartilage: cartilage that anchors epiphyseal plate to epiphysis of bone Zone of Proliferating Cartilage: chondrocytes divide and secrete extra cellular matrix Zone of Hypertrophic Cartilage: large, maturing chondrocytes arranged in columns Zone of Calcified Cartilage: osteoclasts dissolve calcified extracellular matrix and osteoblasts replace it by

Anatomy

a field in the biological sciences concerned with the identification and description of the body structures of living things

Define axon

a long narrow outgrowth of a neuron by which information is transmitted to other neurons

Define dendrites

a short branched extension of a nerve cell, along which impulses received from other cells at synapses are transmitted to the cell body.

Define base

a substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. Proton accepter

Define mitosis

a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth.

Define phagocytes

a type of cell within the body capable of engulfing and absorbing bacteria and other small cells and particles.

Which of the following is TRUE?

a. the greater the range of motion at a joint, the weaker it becomes

Neurotransmitters released in the ANS

acetylcholine, norepinephrine, epinephrine

Which of the following choices is TRUE regarding an action potential in a muscle fiber?

action potentials propagate across the sarcolemma and down every T-tubule

Describe the clinical importance of drugs that mimic or inhibit adrenergic or cholinergic effects.

allows specific drugs to be prescribed to obtain the desired inhibitory or stimulatory effects on selected target organs; atropine is administed before surgery to prevent salivation and to dry up respiratory system secretions

Which of the following is FALSE?

b. The parietal association area is responsible for an individual's personality

The dorsal body cavity contains the:

brain and spinal cord

Which of the following is a UNIQUE characteristic of cardiac muscle?

branched cells

Define sugar

can be directly fermented, simple carbohydrate

Which of the following is NOT a function of bone?

carbohydrate storage

effectors of autonomic nervous system

cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands

David sprained his left wrist and has therefore damaged his left _________________ region.

carpal

function of spinal nerves

carries information to and from brain through spinal cord, 31 pairs of spinal nerves

Which of the following statements is FALSE?

cartilage is highly vascular

General characteristic of epithelia

cellularity, polarity, attachment, vascularity, and regeneration. Cellularity as the name suggests means that the epithelium is made up almost entirely of cells.

A professional fighter got hit in his buccal region or have damaged their:

cheek

Which of the following is the correct sequence, from simplest to most complex, in the levels of structural organization of the human body?

chemical level, cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level, organismal level

The levels of organization, in order, are:

chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

Which of the following is TRUE regarding the Sympathetic division of the ANS?

contains ganglia extending from the cervical to sacral region

What component of the homeostatic mechanism determines if the information received puts the body out of its normal range?

control center

Choose the FALSE STATEMENT:

d. Epithelial tissues are never exposed to the external environment.

Calcium homeostasis

depends primarily upon the action of PTH, calcitonin and vitamin D

Hair follicles originate in the ______________ layer of the skin.

dermis

Which of the following particles plays a role in creating chemical bonds?

electron

______________________ is the specific name for the simple squamous epithelium found lining the blood vessels of the body.

endothelium

Which tissue type has the fastest regeneration rate?

epithelial tissues

Anatomical Position

erect, feet forward, arms at side with palms facing forward, head facing forward

Principle of Complementarity

function always reflects structure; what a structure can do depends on its specific form

Each posterior spinal nerve root has an enlargement, called the posterior (dorsal) root ___________, which contains the cell bodies of __________ neurons, while the anterior root of each spinal nerve contains the axons of ________ neurons.

ganglion, sensory, motor

According to your textbook, which of the following is NOT an essential life process?

healing

Function of cytoplasm

holds organelles in place, where chemical reactions take place

The neck is ______________ to the head.

inferior

11 organ systems of the body

integumentary system, skeletal system, muscular system, lymphatic system, respiratory system, digestive system, nervous system, endocrine system, cardiovascular system, urinary system, and reproductive systems.

The ANS receives input from __________________ located in blood vessels, visceral organs, and muscles in order to monitor the internal environment.

interioreceptor

"Atom Y" has 11 protons. What type of bond is it MOST LIKELY to form with another atom?

ionic

What type of bond was broken based on the following reaction? NaOH → Na+ + OH-

ionic bond

__________________ corpuscles are spiral-shaped discs that adapt quickly to deep pressures and vibrations.

lamellated

Organic molecules are often ___________________ and are formed by ____________________ bonds.

large; covalent

What is inflammation?

local defensive response to tissue injury of any kind, including trauma and infection

pH scale

measurement system used to indicate the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution; ranges from 0 to 14

What type of skin cancer is the MOST dangerous?

melanoma

In the epidermis, ________________ cells function in the sensation of light touch, along with adjacent sensory neurons in dermis.

merkel

What organ system allows for movement of the body and produces a great amount of heat?

muscular

Autonomic motor neuron axons leave the spinal nerve via the _________________ and return to the nerve via the __________________.

myelinated white rami, unmyelinated gray rami

Which of the following is FALSE?

myofilaments are made of bundles of myofibrils

Most variables are regulated and maintained within a _______________ ___________, close to a normal value.

narrow range

Define hyperpolarization

occurs when there is an increase in polarity across the cell membrane (an increase in both the number of positive charges on the outside surface of the membrane and the number of negative charges not he inside surface of the membrane)

________ are responsible for myelination in the CNS, while _________ are responsible for myelination in the PNS.

oligodendrocytes / Schwann cells

In endochondral ossification

osteoblasts replace calcified cartilage in primary then secondary ossification centers with compact bone

Which of the following cells has a completely different structure & differentiation pathway than the others?

osteoclasts

The dermal _________, found in the papillary layer, create epidermal ridges. Together, these form the basis of fingerprints

papillae

What type of cut would a surgeon perform to amputate someone's arm at the shoulder?

parasagittal

Locations of ganglia in parasympathetic nervous system

parasympathetic ganglia are located close to or within the organs they innervate. Preganglionic fibers arise from the brain stem and sacral region of the spinal cord. The eye, face, and mouth are served by cranial verves III, VII, and IX.

The ___________ nerve innervates the diaphragm.

phrenic

Mary is sick and has a slight fever around noon. She falls asleep and wakes up 3 hours later and has a temperature of 104! What type of feedback loop occurred here?

positive feedback

Which of the following is TRUE regarding the Parasympathetic division?

preganglionic fibers are long, compared to postganglionic

Which of the following does NOT play a role in mass activation of the sympathetic division of the ANS?

preganglionic fibers leave the cord between T1 and L2

General functions of skin

protection, regulation, and sensation

What two sub-atomic particles have a mass of 1 atomic mass unit (amu) each?

protons and neutrons

When someone complains of abdominal pain, what system do medical practitioners use to narrow down the options of possibly affected organs/tissues?

quadrant system

What component of the homeostatic mechanism picks up the message from the stimulus?

receptor

Components of a reflex arc (neural path)

receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, effector

Articulate cartilage

reduces wear and tear from friction

Define cholinergic

referring to or associated with "acetylcholine" or the parasympathetic nervous system. Nerve fibers that release acetylcholine are referred to as cholinergic fibers

functions of reflex arc

reflex arc is a neural pathway that controls a reflex. In vertebrates, most sensory neurons do not pass directly into the brain, but synapse in the spinal cord. This allows for faster reflex actions to occur by activating spinal motor neurons without the delay of routing signals through the brain.

function of cranial nerves

relays information, a nerve that carries sensory input and motor output for the head and neck region, there are 12 cranial nerves

What organ system allow for exchange of gases?

respiratory

rods vs cones

rods - 120 million, on the periphery, sense dark and light only, have rhodopsin and a high recovery time cones - 6 million, in the fovea, sense color, 3 kinds (RGB), trichromatic theory, less numerous, lower recovery time

Explain how the taste and smell receptors are activated

smell receptors activate when volatile (gaseous state) as the chemical enters nasal cavity, dissolves in the fluid coating the olfactory epithelium and taste receptors activate is when chemical dissolves into saliva, diffuses into taste pore, and contacts gustatory hairs

Follow the auditory pathway from the spiral organ tot the temporal cortex.

spiral organ->bipolar cell->vestibulocochlear->synapse in medulla->through mid brain->synapse in inferior colliculus->Gen. Nuc.Thalamus->temporal cortex.

All of the following organs are part of the digestive system EXCEPT

spleen

Which of the following is TRUE about neurotransmitters and their receptors?

stimulation of alpha-1 receptors causes smooth muscle contraction

What layer of the epidermis is the thickest and contains only dead cells?

stratum corneum

The spinal column is ______________________ to the spinal cord.

superficial

The cephalic region is __________ to the gluteal region.

superior

Locations of ganglia in sympathetic nervous system

sympathetic chain ganglia: Also called the paravertebral ganglia, these are located just ventral and lateral to the spinal cord. The chain extends from the upper neck down to the coccyx, forming the unpaired coccygeal ganglion.

The chemical symbol O = C = O means :

the atoms are bonded by two double covalent bonds

Physiology

the branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their parts.

Define sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

Homeostasis is defined as __________.

the maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment

Nervous system

the network of nerve cells and fibers that transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body.

Define autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes.

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. Derived of neurons and cells

function of cerebrum

thinking, personality, sensations, movements, memory

Efferent Pathways of ANS

two-neuron chain (cell bodies in lateral horns of spinal cord)

What organ system excretes waste products from the blood and regulates the pH and ion concentrations in the blood?

urinary

________________ - gated channels open and close in response to changes in membrane potential.

voltage

Which of the following are NOT correctly paired?

voltage-gated K+ channel / receptor for acetylcholine

Electrons that are removed from fuel molecules during aerobic catabolism are transferred to oxygen, producing ________________.

water