Computer Hardware

Pixel?

A pixel is the smallest element in an electronic image. It is simply a dot on the screen of a display device. The more pixels in an image, the better the image quality.

Ports

A port is a slot or hole that matches the cord or expansion card being connected to the port. Input and output devices plug into the ports located on your digital device. A connector plugs into a port. Common types of ports include USB, Thunderbolt, and HDMI. For example, a thumb-drive connector plugs into a USB port.

Servers

A server is a computer system in a network that is shared by multiple users. Servers are also referred to as host computers. Three common types of servers are network, web, and file servers. A network server is used to control access to resources such as printers and applications on a network. A web server is used to control access to resources on the web. Most web servers have a built-in firewall for security. A file server is used for data storage. File servers house various documents and information resources of an organization.

ASCII

ASCII, the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (pronounced AS-key), is a common encoding standard. ASCII code is capable of representing 26 uppercase and lowercase letters used in the English language, as well as numbers and many different symbols. ASCII can represent a total of 256 characters.

Embedded Computers

An embedded computer is a digital device that accepts input, processes data into information, provides output, and can store data— but it is part of a larger device or system. Examples of embedded computers can be found in digital watches, programmable thermostats, and even programmable coffeepots! Many embedded computers are found in modern cars, including those in the antilock brake and ignition systems. Embedded computers have relatively small operating systems called real-time operating systems (RTOS).

Cache

Cache is high-speed storage usually located directly on the CPU. Cache is smaller but faster than RAM. It is used to quickly access repeated instructions. The word cache is pronounced "cash."

Memory Cache and Disk Cache

Cache refers to types of memory: memory cache and disk cache. Memory cache is high-speed memory used by the CPU to store frequently accessed data and instructions. Memory cache is referred to by levels. L1 cache is small and integrated into the CPU. L3 cache is larger and next to the CPU. Computer advertisements often display the amount of L3 cache included. Disk cache is high-speed memory used by the hard drive to store frequently accessed data.

Clock Speed?

Clock speed, also referred to as clock rate, is the speed at which the processor performs the operations required to run a digital device and instructions executed by the digital device. Clock speed is measured in the number of machine cycles the processor can run per second. Cycles per second is referred to as hertz (Hz). Modern processors operate at clock speeds of billions of machine cycles per second or gigahertz (GHz).

Bits

Computers communicate using their own language. This language is called binary. Binary language consists of two digits: 0 and 1. Each 0 or 1 is called a binary digit, or a bit (b). Bits are the smallest unit of data a computer can process

Differentiating Computers

Differentiating computers is becoming increasing difficult. Tablet computers now often come with keyboards, making them look and work like laptop computers. 2-in-1s are essentially laptops with detachable keyboards. All-in-one computers function as extremely large tablet computers.

Bytes

Eight bits grouped together are called a byte. Each number, special character, and letter of the alphabet is represented by a unique combination of bits. For example, an ampersand (&) is represented as 00100110.

Ethernet

Ethernet ports and Ethernet cables are used for local area networks or for connecting devices in home networks. A common use in the home is to connect a modem to a router using Ethernet cable to access the Internet. Ethernet cable comes in different categories. CAT5 cable can transfer data at up to 100 megabits per second. CAT5e can transfer data at up to 1 gigabit per second, while CAT6 cable can transfer data at up to 10 gigabits per second.

Graphics Output

Graphics are the depiction of image data on a display or output device. Graphics are usually created by a separate processor within the computer known as the graphics processing unit (GPU).

HDMI Connectors

HDMI is a standard interface for audio-video connectivity. HDMI allows for the transmission of high-definition audio and video signals.

Hertz

Hertz is used to measure frequency, or how often something occurs. Hertz is abbreviated Hz. One hertz equals one cycle per second. The speed of most modern processors is measured in gigahertz (GHz), or billions of computer operations each second.

Computer System Design

In the red areas are the computer's two processors: the central processing unit, known as the CPU or the processor; and the graphics processing unit known as the GPU. Memory is depicted in light green. The system cache provides memory for data that the CPU is using repeatedly. The random access memory (RAM) holds data for the CPU's use. Note that the GPU has its own memory. Storage is shown in dark orange. This is the computer's hard drive that keeps data even after the computer is powered down.

How Much RAM You Will Need

It is important to consider the amount of RAM that comes with a digital device. For example, most smartphones come with at least 2GB of RAM installed. Most laptops come with at least 4GB of RAM installed. The amount of RAM directly impacts processing speed.

Defragment a Hard Drive: Windows 10

It is important to keep your hard drive running at peak efficiency. One thing you can do to maintain the efficiency of your hard drive is to use a disk utility that comes with Windows 10: the Defragmenter. Here are the steps to defragment a hard drive: 1. Open Disk Defragmenter by clicking the Start button, type "Disk Defragmenter", then select Disk Defragmenter. 2. Under Current status, select the disk you want to defragment. 3. To determine if the disk needs to be defragmented or not, click Analyze disk. 4. Click Defragment disk

Mainframes and Supercomputers

Mainframe computers are more powerful than servers. Mainframes are used by organizations to process large amounts of data. Mainframe computers are very expensive, costing from $100,000 to more than $1 million. Supercomputers are the most powerful type of computer. They can evaluate complex data very quickly. Many of the supercomputers in the United States are owned by the government. Supercomputers can cost $1 million or more

Native Resolution?

Native resolution is the maximum resolution of a display device. A laptop with 1920 (horizontal pixels) × 1080 (vertical pixels) has 2,073,600 total pixels. The first number is horizontal resolution, and the second is vertical resolution. A display is said to be pixel perfect when the incoming video signal has the same number of pixels as the native resolution of the display

Overclocking?

Overclocking refers to running the processor faster than recommended by the manufacturer. This can increase performance and speed, but also can void the manufacturer warranty. Some serious gamers and computer experts overclock. It requires additional CPU cooling.

History of RAM

Professor Robert Dennard of IBM developed dynamic random access memory (DRAM) in 1968, and it was released commercially by Intel in 1970. DRAM allowed processors to work at much higher speeds. Static random access memory (SRAM) is faster than DRAM and generally used in cache memory. Professor Dennard was awarded the Kyoto prize in 2013

What Is RAM?

RAM stands for random access memory and is a type of memory found on the motherboard of a digital device. RAM is electronic and has no moving parts. RAM is also called main memory, which means the memory is available to programs to execute tasks. RAM is a temporary storage area and is cleared when a device is powered off.

ROM

ROM, or read-only memory, is a storage area in a digital device that is installed by the digital device manufacturer. Most ROM cannot be altered or removed which is why it is called nonvolatile memory. Information that is commonly stored in ROM includes a digital device's boot instructions

SSD Capacity

SSD capacity is the amount of storage you have available to save data and information. Capacity is usually measured in gigabytes (billions of bytes). The more SSD capacity you need, the more money it is going to cost you. SSD capacity is one of the most determinant factors of price when buying a tablet or smartphone.

Identify the Capacity of a Hard Drive: Windows 10

The hard drive in your computer stores a large amount of data. Hard drive capacity is usually measured in gigabytes (GB). It is a good idea to check the capacity of your hard drive. Here is how: 1. Click the Cortana button or the Search box button. 2. Type "This PC" in the Ask me anything box and then click on the This PC app. 3. Look in the Devices and drives section at Local Disk (C:) to find the hard drive capacity and available space on the hard drive.

System Unit of a Computer

The system unit is that part of the computer that houses the motherboard, which is the circuit board that holds the computer's main microprocessor. This microprocessor is called the central processing unit. The location of the system unit depends on the type of computer. For example, in a desktop computer, the system unit is the chassis or tower unit. With a laptop computer, the system unit is housed beneath the keyboard. In a smartphone, tablet, or all-in-one computer, the system unit is housed beneath the monitor or screen.

Unicode

Unicode is a common encoding standard that is capable of representing all of the world's languages. Unicode uses at least 16 bits per character. Unicode has virtually limitless characters allowing for the large number of characters in certain foreign languages.

USB

Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a type of interface that enables communication between digital devices. USB allows for data transfer between devices and for devices to be electrically charged. USB drives are sometimes referred to as thumb drives, flash drives, or jump drives. USB drives use solid-state flash memory to store information on an internal memory chip. USB drives allow fast data transfer, are inexpensive, and are durable.

Video Card?

A video card is sometimes referred to as a graphics card or graphics adapter. The graphics adapter performs graphics processing and creates video output. A graphics card allows you to see video on a display device.

Resolution?

Resolution is the clarity of an image. The resolution of monitors and other display devices is measured in pixels. The more pixels in a display device, the higher the resolution.

2-in-1 Computers

2-in-1 computers are touchscreen laptops with keyboards that are either detachable or that can be flipped out of the way. This gives them the mobility of tablets while still using full operating systems. Like tablets, 2-in-1 computers have solid-state hard drives, making them very fast and providing long battery life, but this also means they typically have less storage capacity than laptops.

3.5-mm Audio Connectors and Uses

3.5-mm connectors are among the most popular for audio devices such as earbuds or headphones. These connectors are small and convenient and have been used for nearly 70 years. They became popular in the 1950s with the introduction of the transistor radio. In the 1980s, the Sony Walkman portable cassette player came with a 3.5-mm audio port, making this connection the standard for all headsets. When cell phones became popular, the 3.5-mm audio connection became commonplace, though it evolved and had more contacts incorporated to allow for a microphone as well as headphone capability.

Bus

A bus is a channel over which information flows. Think of a bus as a highway on which data travels in a computer. A bus has two parts: the address bus and the data bus. The address bus transfers information and instructions about where the data should go inside the digital device. The data bus transmits actual data. The most important bus is the one connecting the central processing unit to the memory. Some call this the system bus or the front-side bus.

The Four Basic Computing Functions

A computer is a digital device that completes four basic functions. First, computers accept input; computers accept data from many sources, including keyboards, cameras, microphones, and even other computers. Computers also compile and transform data into useful information; this is called the process function. Computers also provide output, which means the ability to display information. This output comes in many forms: images, video, and audio. Finally, a computer must be able to store data for future use.

Connectors

A connector is the specialized end of a cord, plug, or expansion card that connects into a port. On a cable, the connector is the end that connects to a port.

Single-Core Processor?

A core on a CPU refers to the components on the chip that are needed for processing. A single-core processor has only one core. Usually this means one ALU and one CU. Note that the number of cores isn't a measure of the computer's speed. It is just a description of the processor.

Traditional Hard Drive

A hard drive is the computer's primary storage device. A hard drive uses fixed disk platters to store data and information. The terms hard drive and hard disk are used synonymously. Hard drives are the primary storage device in a variety of digital devices including laptops and servers.

Multicore Processor?

A multicore processor has two or more cores that are responsible for processing. A multicore processor has the ability to execute two or more sets of instructions at the same time. This is called hyperthreading. Hyperthreading affords faster processing by allowing a new set of instructions to start before the prior set of instructions has finished being processed. Multicore processors allow for faster multitasking and overall processing of instructions.

Digital Device Processor?

A processor or central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer where most calculations take place. The processor is the most important component of a digital device. Without a processor, the digital device would not function. T he processor has two main components: the ALU (arithmetic logic unit) and the control unit. The ALU performs the following logic and mathematical tasks: arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division), comparison (equal to, less than, the same as, and more), and logic (AND, OR, NOT). The control unit locates, analyzes, and executes each program instruction residing in memory. Essentially, it tells the computer's memory, arithmetic logic unit, and input and output devices how to respond to a program's instructions.

Protocol

A protocol is a set of rules for communication between devices that determines how data is transmitted and received. Many protocols are used to help streamline the communication of all digital devices. For example, Wi-Fi uses the 802.11 protocol. This protocol ensures that devices enabled with Wi-Fi can connect to any Wi-Fi network.

Smartphones

A smartphone is a handheld computer with cellular networking capability. Common features of smartphones include: • Internet capable • Touchscreen • Front- and back-facing cameras • Speaker The main limitations of smartphones is their relatively small screen size and limited computing power. To maximize limited computing power, smartphones use mobile versions of applications (apps). Smartphones use durable, solid-state storage technology to maximize battery life.

All-in-One Computers

All-in-one computers provide the power of a desktop with elegance. Because the motherboard is housed within the monitor, there's no bulky chassis or tower system unit. All-in-one computers are designed to be stationary but don't take up much desk space. Many all-in-one computers have touchscreen interfaces, and all come with full, not just mobile, operating systems. All-in-one computers are used by those who like the power of a desktop computer, but also like the neat, clean look and smaller footprint. They're not as popular with computer experts or serious gamers because they're not as easy to upgrade as a traditional desktop computer that comes with a separate system unit (chassis).

Use Disk Cleanup: Windows 10

Another disk utility that comes with Windows 10 that you can use to maintain the efficiency of your hard drive is Disk Cleanup. Steps to use Disk Cleanup with Cortana: 1. Click the Cortana icon to open the search window. 2. Type Disk Cleanup. 3. In the Disk Cleanup dialog box, select the items you want to remove. 4. Click OK. Steps to run Disk Cleanup from the Programs menu: 1. From the Start button menu, choose All Programs→Accessories→System Tools→Disk Cleanup. 2. If prompted, choose the mass storage device that you want to clean up. 3. In the Disk Cleanup dialog box, select the items you want to remove. 4. Click OK, then Delete Files.

Storage Capacity

Bits and bytes are also used to represent the quantity of data the computer processes. Common quantities of information include: Kilobyte (KB)—About 1 thousand bytes—1 KB is equal to about one page of text. Megabyte (MB)—About 1 million bytes—1 MB is equal to about 875 pages of text. Gigabyte (GB)—About 1 billion bytes—1 GB is equal to 341 digital images (3 MB average file size). Terabyte (TB)—About 1 trillion bytes—1 TB is equal to about 349,000 digital images (3 MB average file size) or 40 single-sided Blu-ray discs. Petabyte (PB)—Equals 1,000 terabytes—1 PB is equal to about 358,000,000 digital images (3 MB average file size) or about 42,000 single-sided Blu-ray discs.

Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a short-distance wireless communication technology that uses short-wavelength radio waves to transfer data. Because it uses short-wavelength radio waves, Bluetooth signals easily pass through walls, furniture, and so on. Most Bluetooth transmissions remain strong up to approximately 35 feet and then start to reduce in signal strength

Bus Width

Bus width is the amount of data that can be transmitted at a given time. The wider the bus, the more information that can travel along it, which creates faster transmission speeds. Bus width is measured in bits. A 64-bit bus can transmit 64 bits of data.

Term Computer Hardware?

Computer hardware refers to the physical parts of a computer system. Examples of hardware include the system unit, also known as the tower or chassis; a printer or monitor; keyboard; and mouse. Communication devices such as routers and modems are also considered computer hardware.

Memory

Computer memory, also referred to as RAM, is found in microchips that are located on the motherboard. Memory can also refer to a variety of memory types including caches and registers. Memory composed of solid-state electronics is fast and energy efficient because there are no mechanical moving parts. Memory is sometimes referred to as volatile because its data are lost upon computer shut down. Storage retains data upon computer shutdown and is sometimes called nonvolatile.

Desktop Computers

Desktop computers are stationary devices that consist of a separate case called the system unit. Peripheral devices, such as a monitor, keyboard, and a mouse, are connected to the system unit. The system unit houses the main components of the computer. Some refer to the system unit as a desktop computer's chassis. Because of its size, a desktop's system unit allows for relatively easy hardware upgrades. Desktops also have a relatively large footprint. A footprint refers to the amount of space a device takes up on a desk, table, or other area. Who uses desktop computers? Desktop computers are great for families with small children or for businesses because they don't get carried around and dropped. Desktop computers are sold by many different companies, including Apple, HP, and Dell. Gamers and computer experts like desktops because desktops can be easily upgraded

Computer Storage

Digital devices need to store some information indefinitely. Storage devices allow for the storage of data and information that can be retrieved for future use. Data remain intact when the computer is turned off.

Machine Cycle?

Every time a processor executes an instruction from a program, it goes through the same four steps. This process is called the machine cycle. 1. Fetch—The processor fetches the instruction or data from RAM. 2. Decode—The processor decodes the instruction or data into a readable form the computer can understand. 3. Execute—The processor executes the instruction. 4. Store—The results of the processing are stored in RAM. Once the results are stored, the processor fetches the next instruction or piece of data.

Hard Drive Capacity

Hard drive capacity is the amount of storage you have available to save data and information. Capacity is usually measured in gigabytes (billions of bytes) and terabytes (trillions of bytes). Computer applications, such as Microsoft Office, and multimedia files take up a lot of storage capacity. The cost of one megabyte of storage on the first hard drive in IBM's RAMAC in 1957 would cost $200,000 in today's dollars. That same megabyte today costs as little as four/one-thousandth of a cent.

Different Processor Manufacturers

Intel Corporation—Founded in 1968, Intel is the world's largest manufacturer of processors. AMD—Founded in 1969, AMD's technology is featured inside gaming consoles and home entertainment systems including Microsoft's Xbox One and Sony's PS4™. NVIDIA—Founded in 1993 and, according to NVIDIA, NVIDIA "TEGRA K1 is the universe's most advanced mobile processor that has arrived. It is an otherworldly combination of 192 supercomputer-class graphics processing unit (GPU) cores, incredible graphics horsepower, and extraordinary power efficiency."

Internal and External Storage

Internal storage is storage that is integral to the computer. This is called the computer's hard drive. External storage devices reside outside the computer. Examples of external storage devices include external hard drives and USB or thumb drives. Optical drives, such as a laptop's DVD drive, and memory cards, such as a microSD card for a phone, are usually considered external storage. Though they're housed within the computer, they aren't actually part of the computer itself.

IrDA

IrDA stands for the Infrared Data Association, which establishes the protocols for infrared communication transfer. IrDA is a wireless connection that uses infrared (relatively long) radio waves to transmit data. Longer-wavelength waves don't easily pass through walls or furniture (line-of-sight only). IrDA devices are often used with a wireless mouse, keyboard, remote control, and so on.

Laptop Computers

Laptops are mobile hinged and folding computers with an integrated keyboard. Laptops come with a full operating system (OS) and remain a top-selling personal computer. Laptop computers are great for people who need a portable digital device that has more computing power than a tablet or phone. Most laptops come with the capability to add more memory. For example, if a new version of Microsoft Office requires more random access memory (RAM), most laptops can be upgraded. Because they can be carried around the house, to class, to the library, or to a coffee shop, laptops remain the most popular computer choice among students

Lightning Connectors

Lightning ports and connectors were developed by Apple for use in iPods, iPads, iPhones, and Apple Watch docks. The lightning connector is an 8-pin connector, and, with adapters, it can connect to USB, HDMI, or VGA connectors. Most iPhone users like the way that a lightning connector can be inserted in a lightning port in either direction (unlike the USB port).

Media Players

Media players allow you to listen to audio files such as music and podcasts, to read books, and to watch videos. Media players are often referred to as personal media players (PMPs) due to their transportability and customization. PMPs include the Amazon Kindle and Apple iPod. The term PMP is now being used to describe streaming media players such as Google Chromecast and Apple TV. These devices connect to the Internet and then stream movies, TV shows, and other content from the web to your TV

Megahertz and Gigahertz?

Megahertz is abbreviated MHz and is equal to one million cycles (or instructions) persecond. 1 MHz is one million instructions per second. Gigahertz is abbreviated GHz and is equal to one billion cycles (or instructions) per second. A 3.8 GHz processor is capable of executing 3.8 billion instructions per second.

MIDI Ports and Connectors

Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) allows digital musical devices to connect to and interface with computers. MIDI is capable of carrying digital music signals and is common in today's music scene.

Screensize?

Screensize is the actual viewable area of a display device. Screensize is measured diagonally from one corner of the screen's viewable area to the other. Screensize can be a major factor when determining which digital device to buy

Solid-State Drives

Solid-state drives (SSDs) are all-electronic storage devices. SSDs are used in a variety of products, including smartphones, cameras, and tablet computers. SSDs have no moving parts, which makes them faster and more durable than hard drives. SSDs tend to be more expensive than traditional hard drives.

Tablet Computers

Tablet computers are highly mobile, which makes them great for travel. Tablet computers use touchscreen technology as the main input method. Unlike laptops, tablets cannot be upgraded. Some tablet computers have a smaller operating system (OS) than laptop computers, making them less powerful. Because they are light yet powerful, tablets are popular for reading e-mail, gaming, and travel. Tablets are often used by doctors making their rounds or by servers taking orders in restaurants. B y adding a separate keyboard, a tablet gains much of a laptop's functionality. Be aware that the smaller OS in a tablet may limit what programs can be run on it.

The Boot Process

The boot process is the loading of an OS into the main memory of a device. The boot process consists of four steps: 1. The device is powered on and the CPU activates the basic input/output system (BIOS). 2. The Power-On self-test is executed. 3. The OS is loaded into RAM. 4. The OS checks the registry settings and loads saved configuration settings.

Computer Speed

The speed of a digital device's processor is determined by a number of factors. Three of the most important determinants of a computer's speed are clock speed, word size, and bus width.

VGA Connectors

Video Graphic Array connectors, often called VGA or HD-15 connectors, are analog connectors that were very popular for connecting monitors and televisions to computers. VGA connectors were largely replaced by Digital Visual Interface (DVI) connections and HDMI connections in the early 2000s. Although they are analog only, VGA connectors are capable of high resolution and frame rates.

Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi is a wireless local area network. The word Wi-Fi is a play on the old audio term hi-fi. A Wi-Fi transmission site is called a hotspot. Most computers, tablets, smartphones, and gaming platforms are Wi-Fi capable. Wi-Fi uses the 802.11 protocol with 2.4 GHz and 5.0 GHz radio waves.

Wireless Ports

Wireless ports allow for the transmission of data between both fixed and mobile devices using short-range radio waves or light waves. Most Bluetooth transmissions remain strong up to 35 feet away and then start to reduce in signal strength. Infrared (IR) requires line-of-sight transmission and is commonly used for TV controllers.

Word Size

Word size refers to the amount of data a processor can hold and process at one time. Today's processors generally have word sizes of 32 or 64 bits. A 64-bit processor can process information faster than a 32-bit processor can.

Types of Computers Computers

digital devices that come in many shapes, sizes, and design. Tablets, smartphones, laptops, netbooks, and gaming consoles are all computers. Examples of computers: • Laptops • Desktops • All-in-Ones • Tablets • Smartphones • Mainframes • Servers • Gaming consoles • Embedded devices Computers are found within countless other items. For example, if a car has a modern ignition system, the computer within the ignition system completes a systems check, unlocks the ignition, signals the fuel system (run by another computer), signals the starter system, and unlocks the transmission.