Contemporary Christian Belief

Evil (Augustine's definition)

"privation of good." Evil is a lack of goodness or a departure from the way things ought to be.

Validity

- That property of an argument where it is impossible to have true premises and a false conclusion (has to do with the form of an argument)

The idea that belief in God is "properly basic"

-A "basic" belief is one that is not supported by other beliefs. -A belief is "properly" basic, if one does not violate any intellectual duties in believing it without supporting beliefs. -The believer may begin with belief in God. This doesn't mean this belief is not grounded or warranted. -Belief in God is analogous to belief in other minds.

The relevance of "proper function" of cognition to belief in God; and the impact of sin on cognitive function

-Beliefs are formed through operation of cognitive faculties. -Our cognitive faculties were designed to form true beliefs, which they do when functioning properly. -Humans are "cognitively fallen" due to sin. Our ability to reason has been profoundly hampered, especially regarding moral-spiritual matters. -Disbelief in God is due to malfunctioning cognitive faculties (because of sin), not lack of evidence. -We must experience "cognitive redemption" to restore proper function and reawaken the sensus divinitatis.

The relevance of "proper function" of cognition to belief in God; and the impact of sin on cognitive function PART 2

-Implication regarding the doctrine of salvation: God must first regenerate a person before he can respond to God in fath. Faith is a gift from God. -God does just this is in the minds of his elect, enabling them to use their cognitive faculties as originally designed. -God also blesses believers with special experiences of himself giving further warrant for their belief in him. -This was the view of Calvin and the other Protestant reformers regarding the doctrine of election. Hence, the title "reformed" epistemology.

The theistic argument from mind

-This theistic proof reasons from the fact of human consciousness to the existence of a sufficient cause: God. -It is also known as the argument from rationality or the anthropological argument.

The philosophical problem of evil

1. An all-powerful, all-knowing, all-good God would not allow evil to exist 2. Evil exists 3. Therefore, God cannot be all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good.

Basic Belief

1. Belief in God is "properly basic". 2. Belief in God is grounded in experience. 3. Belief in God is warranted by proper function of cognitive faculties. 4. We must experience "cognitive redemption" to restore proper cognitive function, regarding beliefs about God. (Reawakening the Sensus Divinitatis)

The arguments for mind-body dualism

1. Category Mistake Argument-Mind and body have distinct properties. a. Physical states describable in physical terms (size, location, etc.) but mental states are not. b. Thoughts are private (introspectively known), but body 2. Argument from Subjectivity-The subjective character of experience cannot be captured in third-person descriptions. 3. Argument from Intentionality-Mental states are about something. They refer to things, transcending the physical. 4. Argument from Near-Death experience

The Kalam cosmological argument for the existence of God, including one argument for each premise

1. The universe had a beginning. A. From the impossibility of an actual infinite series: a. An actual infinite series cannot exist. (library books paradox) b. A beginningless series of events in time is an actual infinite series. c. Therefore, a beginningless series of events in time cannot exist. 2. The beginning of the universe was caused. a. "ex nihilo nihil fit" = out of nothing, nothing comes. b. Absolute nothingness cannot give rise to anything. c. Therefore, some being must have caused the beginning of the universe. 3. The cause of the beginning of the universe was personal. A. A personal being is conscious, volitional, and intentional. B. Creating the world demanded conscious deliberation. C. Creator mades choices and acted for an end. D. Therefore the creator is personal. 4. Therefore, there exists a personal creator of the universe.

The fine-tuning argument for the existence of God; also, any two objections and Collins' replies to each

1. The universe is "fine-tuned"- it exhibits a precise balance of physical parameters necessary for life. The Core Argument 1. The fine-tuning of the universe is not improbable under theism 2. The fine-tuning of the universe is very improbable under the atheistic single-universe hypothesis 3. The fine-tuning data provide strong evidence in favor of theism. 1. There could be a more fundamental law of nature under which the parameters of physics must be the way they are. Reply: This is pure speculation. It only moves the improbability of fine-tuning up one level. 2. The many-universes Hypothesis: Our universe might be one of many, which have varying physical parameters. Reply: Other things being equal, we should always prefer hypotheses for which we have independent evidence or that are natural extrapolations from what we already know.

Necessary Being

A being that does not depend on anything to exist.

Argument

A group of propositions, one of which is said to follow the rest.

Theodicy

A justification of God's permission of evil.

Sensus Divinitatis

A natural tendency to believe in God.

Induction

Aims to reason from the premises to the conclusion with probability

Contingent Being

All contingent beings are dependent on something.

Deduction

An argument which purports to reason from the premises to the conclusion with certainty.

Near-Death Experience

An out-of body experience of something that occurs past death. Wiki defines as: "personal experiences associated with impending death, encompassing multiple possible sensations, including"

Why naturalism/atheism is self-defeating, according to Alvin Plantinga

Atheism implies naturalism, and naturalism implies Darwinism. According to Darwinism, all human traits resulted from natural selection. Natural selection does not guarantee that human cognition is aimed at truth. Therefore, if naturalism is true, we have no reason to believe that naturalism is true!

Paul Vitz's "defective father" hypothesis and how this relates to atheism

Atheism is precipitated by a broken relationship with one's father.

How the new atheism differs from traditional atheism

Attitude - the new atheists are much more brazen and aggressive than other modern atheists. Scientific emphasis - they tend to insist on scientific justifications for religious beliefs.

Proper Cognitive Function

Beliefs are formed through operation of cognitive faculties (i.e., psychological processes, reasoning abilities, etc.) Our cognitive faculties were designed to form true beliefs, which they do when functioning properly. Humans are "cognitively fallen" due to sin. Our ability to reason has been profoundly hampered, especially regarding moral-spiritual matters. Disbelief in God is due to malfunctioning cognitive faculties (because of sin), not lack of evidence.

Presuppositionalism

Believing based on assumption. The view that belief in God and the Bible must be assumed, rather than justified by rational evidences (Van Til, Dooyeweerd, Frame).

Mind-Body Dualism

Body: Our physical being. Soul/mind/spirit: Our spiritual body. Two distinct substances that casually interact.

Evidentialism

Christianity may be directly proven through rational evidences. We can prove Christianity is true.

Theodicy to solve the Problem of Evil: Higher Order Goods Theodicy (Hick's "Soul-making" Theodicy)

Evil provides the opportunity for individuals to become better people. Some of the best moral goods demand the existence of Evil. James 1:2 - "Consider it pure joy, my brothers, whenever you face trials of many kinds, because you know that the testing of your faith develops perseverance. Perseverance must finish its work, so that you may be mature and complete, not lacking anything." Christian theism goes further: The death of Christ is seen as both the supreme evil and supreme good. The worst thing becomes the best thing. Tragedy is made the means to triumph. If God can plan and redeem the worst of all evils and purposefully use it to accomplish the greatest good, then why can't he similarly redeem ALL other evils?

Theodicy to solve the Problem of Evil: Free Will Theodicy

Evil results from free human choices. God wanted us to be self-determining, and this freedom was misused by us. Replies: (a) Why couldn't God guarantee that we always freely choose good? (b) Why doesn't God block or diminish the harmful effects of bad choices?

The objections to exclusivism "The Arrogance and Irrationality Objections"

Exclusivists are arrogant in believing their religion is the one true way. They believe themselves to be intellectually or morally superior to other religious devotees. And exclusivists are irrational in believing what many reasonable people reject. Reply: The central idea behind these objections is this principle: The "Principle of Rational Belief": For any belief you hold, if: you disagree with others and (b) you cannot convince most reasonable people of its truth then you are irrational (and arrogant) in holding that belief and should give it up. But this principle refutes itself, since many people believe it is false. It rules out too many legitimate beliefs (including many scientific hypotheses), so it must be rejected.

General Revelation

God's Revelation of Himself to all people. Especially through the natural order.

Revelation

God's communication of Himself to humans (and other creatures)

Special Revelation

God's revelation of himself via unusual or extraordinary means. (Bible, miracles, experiences...)

Cumulative Case Apologetics

How does the evidence warrant belief. Christianity is supported by a preponderance of the evidence.

Theodicy to solve the Problem of Evil: Natural Law Theodicy

In order to have an orderly world, God had to set up lawlike regularities, and with free beings this has painful consequences. Replies: (a) Couldn't God have made the laws differently? (b) Why doesn't God diminish the painful consequences (or block them altogether in the case of infants and animals)?

Reasons one might be attracted to fideism and problems with this view

It alleviates the tension created by the paradoxes of the Christian faith. It relieves one from the burden of rationally defending one's beliefs. REPLIES: Additional scriptural support of natural theology.

Reasons to study apologetics, including any two biblical passages that enjoin us to do apologetics (including 1 Pet. 3:15)

It is a biblical mandate to be able to defend your faith when the situation arises. 1 Peter 3:15 - Be ready to explain your faith. Jude 3 - Contend for the faith. Acts 19:8-10 - Paul debates and argues persuasively for three months.

The biblical explanation for atheism, according to Spiegel PART 2

John 3:19-21 - "This is the verdict: Light has come into the world, but people loved darkness instead of light because their deeds were evil. Everyone who does evil hates the light, and will not come into the light for fear that their deeds will be exposed. But whoever lives by the truth comes into the light, so that it may be seen plainly that what they have done has been done in the sight of God." Upshot: Unbelief is a consequence of disobedience: - Sin corrupts us cognitively, especially our thinking about moral and spiritual matters. - Sin damages the sensus divinitatis (our natural, innate awareness of God), compromising a person's ability to perceive the clear evidence for God.

Natural Theology

Knowledge of God, gained through general revelation. (Nature as well as human experience and reason.)

Revealed Theology

Knowledge of God, gained through special revelation, particularly the Bible. This especially includes the Bible, but includes other forms of special revelation as well (e.g., via dreams, visions, miracles, etc.).

The argument for religious pluralism and its problems

Major Claims of Religious Pluralism: The "ultimate reality" (UR) transcends human understanding. Many religions provide legitimate means of contact with the UR. Different religious beliefs are the result of the different concepts and categories we apply to the UR. The primary argument for religious pluralism appeals to the plurality of religious beliefs. Responding to Religious Pluralism The primary argument for religious pluralism is invalid (plurality of views does not imply they are all correct).

Intentionality

Mental states are about something. They refer to things, transcending the physical.

Fideism

More extreme. God is known only by faith (not reason). Natural Theology is useless. Reason is inept in the theological matters.

The new atheists' primary arguments and how Spiegel responds to each: "The Objection from Evil"-how could an all-powerful, perfectly good God allow evil? "The objection from Science"-Belief in God (and the virgin birth, the resurrection of Jesus, the divine inspiration of the Bible, etc.) cannot be verified or explained scientifically.

Objection from Evil-See Theodicies Objection from Science-This demand is an example of Scientism, which: is self-refuting (since it can't be verified scientifically) rules out the possibility of knowledge of moral truths, beauty, and the meaning of life. Also, Science is itself based on unprovable articles of faith: GROSP, causality, uniformity of nature, that thought reflects reality, etc.

The "Multiple Universe" Hypothesis

Our universe might be the one of many, which have varying physical parameters. Basically, this states that somewhere there exists a "universe generator" that creates an infinite number of universes. Eventually, then, it is assumed that there would be a universe that has the fine-tuned parameters necessary for life.

The objections to exclusivism "No Difference in Spiritual Fruits"

People of many religions live virtuously and do good works. So the ultimate source of their devotion is likely the same. Replies: (a) Even false religions have insights and can motivate good works. (b) Devotees of false religions can sometimes experience God.

Moral Evil

Results from free choices of human beings. (murder, rape, theft, etc.)

Natural Evil

Results from natural processes that produce various kinds of suffering. (disease, famine, natural disasters...)

The biblical explanation for atheism, according to Spiegel

Romans 1:18-20 - "The wrath of God is being revealed from heaven against all the godlessness and wickedness of people, who suppress the truth by their wickedness, since what may be known about God is plain to them, because God has made it plain to them. For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities—his eternal power and divine nature—have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that people are without excuse." Ephesians 4:17-18 - "So I tell you this, and insist on it in the Lord, that you must no longer live as the Gentiles do, in the futility of their thinking. They are darkened in their understanding and separated from the life of God because of the ignorance that is in them due to the hardening of their hearts."

Why religious pluralism is incoherent

Since many religions contradict one another, they cannot all be true: Hinduism says there is a substantial, unchanging self. Buddhism denies this (the self is only a continuous process). Taoism says we should resist human institutions and return to the natural way of things. Confucianism says we should use human institutions to rectify human problems. Christianity says Jesus Christ is uniquely God-incarnate. Other religions deny this. Christianity says God is tri-personal, distinct from ourselves. Islam and Judaism says he is one person, distinct from ourselves. Hinduism says God is not distinct from ourselves. So not all of these religions can be true. And if Christianity is true, the others are essentially false.

Theodicy to solve the Problem of Evil: Punishment Theodicy

Suffering is the result of God punishing evil-doers. Replies: (a) This doesn't account for the suffering of children and animals. (b) This doesn't explain the presence of evil in the first place.

Soundness

That property of an argument which is valid and has true premises (has to do with the content of an argument)

Antony Flew—who he was and the three major reasons why he came to believe in God

The Existence of the Cosmos—the universe is contingent and needs a causal explanation Cosmic Fine-Tuning—the laws of nature are fine-tuned for the possibility of life. The Emergence of Life—How do we explain the origin of life from non-living, inert matter?

Apologetics

The reasoned defense of the Christian religion. Thus, the Christian's "apology" is not "I am sorry for being a Christian" but to defend his/her faith

Classical Apologetics

The spirit must draw you into it. Enlightenment of the mind to see truth. The Holy Spirit enables faith, but reason and evidence are tools used by the Holy Spirit to persuade unbelievers and confirm the faith of believers.

Subjectivity

The subjective character of experience cannot be captured in third-person descriptions.

The major claims of presuppositionalism and problems with this view

The traditional views (Evidentialism, Classical Apologetics, Cumulative Case Apologetics) assume human authority. The God of the proofs is not the God of the Bible. The traditional views ignore the noetic effects of sin. The proper way to Christian belief is to presuppose God's existence and that the Bible is His Word. Evidences do not prove but (at best) confirm our faith. The Christian can show the inconsistency of other philosophies and belief systems. 1. Evidences are sanctioned in scripture 2. Evidences do not save but prompt assent which is necessary for saving faith (personal trust—fiducia) 3. Though morally depraved and hampered by sin cognitively, humans are still rational. Non-Christian mathematicians and physicists discover truths, so why can't someone reasonably conclude that God exists, that the Bible is the word of God or that Jesus rose from the dead? 4. Presuppositionalism concedes Enlightenment criticism of natural theology. It is actually presuppositional apologists who concede that enlightenment philosophers such as Kant successfully demolished the theistic proofs.

Cosmic "Fine-Tuning"

The universe seems to be finely tuned for life to be possible. The universe is "fine-tuned" in that it exhibits a precise balance of physical parameters necessary for life.

Physicalism

The view that everything in the world, including humans, can be described entirely in terms of physics. Only matter/energy exists. Physical states causes physical states.

Religious Pluralism

The view that many different religions lead to the ultimate reality.

Religious Exclusivism

The view that only one religion is true. (Leads to Ultimate Reality.)

Religious Inclusivism

The view that there is one true religion, but all religious devotees are covert followers of the true religion.

The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics

Things tend toward disorder.

The principle of Confirmation

When considering two competing hypothese, an observation counts as evidence in favor of the hypothesis under which the observation is most probable, (or least improbable.)

Theodicy to solve the Problem of Evil: Counterpart Theodicy

Without evil there would be no goodness. Replies: (a) Things can be non-good without being evil (or without the presence of extreme wickedness and suffering). (b) This implies that God wasn't good until something evil existed.

The names of the leaders of the new atheist movement

o Richard Dawkins, The God Delusion o Sam Harris, Letter to a Christian Nation o Christopher Hitchens, God is Not Great o Daniel Dennett, Breaking the Spell