Contrast two theories of altruism

The empathy-altruism theory

- some actions are truly altruistic because they are motivated by the genuine desire to increase another's welfare. - Batson's understanding - it is the helper's motives that determine whether a behaviour is altruistic or not. - the perception of a situation and the emotion that follows determines whether an individual will help or not. Altruism can only happen if another person's perspective is taken - observing another person's situation may either produce empathic concern (positive emotion) or personal distress (negative emotion) - "empathy" evokes altruistic motivation to reduce another person's distress whereas personal distress evokes an egoistic motivation to reduce one's own distress - According to Batson, 3 factors facilitate perspective taking 1. the observer has had similar experiences 2. the observer is attached to the victim 3. the person is instructed to imagine what it is like to be in the victim's position - perspective taking will produce the altruistic motive to reduce the other person's distress - criticism of Batson's theory problems in finding out whether the motive is really empathic concern (altruistic) or just wanting to reduce personal distress (egoistic) Cialdini - the negative state relief model (alternative explanation "altruism" could rather be seen as a strategy to avoid feeling sad or upset (egoistic motive) and not a truly altruistic act

Quick definitions

Altruism: in evolutionary biology defined as behaviour that benefits other organisms but has some costs. costs and benefits are measured in terms of reproductive fitness (expected number of offspring) in social psychology subcategory of helping behaviour referes to a behaviour that is meant to benefit another person rather than oneself staub altruistic acts may also result in reward for the individual (feeling good)

Study: Batson: Experimental testing of the empathy-altruistic theory

Aim: investigate participants' motives to help when they had the opportunity to escape Procedure: participants = students in introductory psych class at uni. All tested individually. Before participated, filled out questionnaire about themselves. Each participant led to believe that s/he was an observer to a test where another student (Elaine) was being tested in recall of digit numbers. Participants read short description of Elaine. Each description was manipulated so that the real participants could either identify with Elaine (high empathy) or not (low empathy). Participants then watched Elaine over a close-circuit TV (pre-recorded video). After 2 trials Elaine received electric shocks. She clearly expressed they were painful. Participants were asked if they would be willing to help Elaine by taking her place. Half of them heard that they could either take her place or fill out a questionnaire and then leave (easy escape situation). The other half were told that they could take her place or watch Elaine go through the remaining 8 trials (difficult escape situation). Then participants had to say what they wanted to do. When they had chosen, the experiment ended and they were debriefed. Results: High empathy condition: Most participants agreed to help Elaine. It did not matter much whether it was easy or difficult to escape. Low empathy condition: Most participants withdrew in the easy escape condition. When it was difficult some preferred to offer help. This could support the negative state relief model.

Study: Simmons: Kin and the likelihood of kidney donations

Aim: whether close relatives were more likely to be kidney donors. Results: 86% of parents said yes but only 47% of the siblings who could be donors agreed to donate a kidney to their relative when asked. The theory predicts that both should agree so the difference in agreement to make this sacrifice cannot be explained in terms of kin alone. researchers asked potential kidney recipients to rate their emotional closeness to all possible donors before the choice of a donor was made. recipients felt very close to 63% of the potential non-donors. found that when siblings were donors, the recipient and the donor were significantly closer in age and more likely to be of the same sex than were non-donors.

Kin selection theory

Hamilton: based on the idea that individuals are more likely to sacrifice themselves for relatives than non-relatives By sacrificing yourself for relatives, you still contribute to the survival of your genes by helping close relatives Dawkins: selfish gene theory suggests that what could look as self-sacrifice could, be in fact, to promote one's own genes because it is not a question of individual survival but of the gene's survival. Kin altruism is in reality "egoism" Reciprocal altruism helping behaviour among non-kin have evolved as an alternative system during evolution. Theory supplements kin selection theory. - based on the strategy that altruistic acts are returned and therefore pays off in the long term.

Contrasting both theories: Kin Selection Theory

Kin selection theory The focus is on genes that operate at a biological level without human consciousness. The theory is largely based on observation of animals and insects. Humans are much more complex. Altruism is seen as a behavior that has a cost to the individual (self-sacrifice). The theory is based on egoism (the genes are selfish and humans tend to favor kin because of genetic similarity). The theory can explain observations of people who behave more altruistically towards kin but it cannot really explain why. It may not be for biological reasons. The theory cannot explain why people behave altruistically towards people who are not relatives. It is very difficult to test evolutionary theories as such but there is empirical support for kin altruism (kin selection), e.g. in research that involves organ donation or other situations that involve life or death.

Strengths and weakness

Strengths: - supported by empirical studies - mathematical computer simulations demonstrate that kin selection is one of the possible selection processes in evolution together with reciprocity. - predict conditions under which altruistic behaviour will happen (the more people feel empathy the more likely they are to help other people and people who do not feel empathy will probably not help) Weakness: - theory cannot explain why people help individuals who are not relatives - human kinship patterns are not necessarily based upon blood tie. Shared developmental environment, familiarity, and social bonding also contribute to kinship according to anthropologists.

Strengths / weakness

Strengths: supported by many experimental studies predict conditions under which altruistic behaviour will happen (the more people feel empathy the more likely they are to help other people and people who do not feel empathy will probably not help) Weakness: difficult to generalize findings from experiments such as this one in real life. problem that it is not possible to determine whether altruism is the result of empathic motivation or the motivation to escape one's own negative emotions clear that empathy does not always precede altruistic behaviour. People may help for other reasons.

Contrasting both theories: Empathy-altruism theory

The focus is on the human emotion empathy as the primary motivating factor in altruism. The theory is based on altruism is seen as a behaviour that increases another person's welfare. Altruism (humans can be truly altruistic). The theory does not rule out the possibility of an altruistic personality. The theory can explain why people tend to behave altruistically in situations that evoke empathy but there is not a clear linear relationship. People may feel empathy and choose not to help. It is relatively easy to test the theory under lab conditions but it is difficult to operationalize concepts like empathy.

Introduction

This essay will contrast the differences between two theories of altruism; looking into the kin selection theory and the empathy-altruism