Criminal Justice
analyze the importance of private security today
in the US, businesses and citizens spend 13 billion a year on private security. heightened fear of crime and increased crime in the workplace have fueled the growth in spending on private security
explain community policing and its contribution to the concept of problem oriented policing
involves proactive problem solving and a community police partnership in which the community engages itself along with the police to address crime and the fear of crime in a particular geographic area. by establishing a cooperative presence in a community, police officers are better able to recognize the root causes of criminal behavior there and apply problem oriented policing methods when necessary
define jurisdiction and contrast geographic and subject-matter jurisdiction
jurisdiction relates to the power of a court to hear a particular case. courts are typically limited in geographic jurisdiction-for example, to a particular state. some courts are restricted in subject matter, such as a small claims court, which can hear only cases involving civil matters under a certain amount
describe how forensic experts use DNA fingerprinting to solve crimes
law enforcement agents gather trace evidence such as blood, semen,skin, or hair from the crime scene. b/c these items are rich in DNA, which provides a unique genetic blueprint for every living organism, crime labs can create a DNA profile of the suspect and test it against other such profiles of known criminals stored in databases. if the profiles match, then law enforcement agents have found a strong suspect for the crime
coroner
medical examiner of a county, usually elected by popular vote
custodial interrogation
the questioning of a suspect after that person has been taken into custody, in this situation the suspect must be read their miranda rights before interrogation can begin
response time
the rapidity with which calls for service are answered; used as a measurement of police efficiency
ethics
the rules or standards of behavior governing a profession; aimed at ensuring the fairness and rightness of actions
field training
the segment of a police recruit's training in which he or she is removed from the classroom and placed on the beat, under the supervision of a senior officer
ballistics
the study of firearms, including the firing of the weapon and the flight of the bullet
police cynicism
the suspicion that citizens are weak, corrupt, and dangerous. this outlook is the result of a police officer being constantly exposed to civilians at their worst and can negatively affect the officer's performance
electronic surveillance
the use of electronic equipment by law enforcement agents to record private conversations or observe conduct that is meant to be private
police subculture
the values and perceptions that are shared by members of a police department and, to a certain extent, by all law enforcement agents. these values and perceptions are shaped by the unique and isolated existence of the police officer
explain what an ethical dilemma is and name four categories of ethical dilemmas typically facing a police officer
an ethical dilemma is a situation in which police officers 1)do not know the right course of action 2) have difficulty doing what they consider to be right and 3) find the wrong choice very tempting. the four types of ethical dillemas involve 1)discretion 2)duty 3)honesty and 4)loyalty
reactive arrests
arrests that come about as part of the ordinary routine of police patrol and responses to calls for service
proactive arrests
arrests that occur because of concerted efforts by law enforcement agencies to respond to a particular type of criminal or criminal behavior
police corruption
the abuse of authority by a law enforcement officer for personal gain
forensics
the application of science to establish facts and evidence during the investigation of crimes
Federal Bureau of Investigation
the branch of the Department of Justice responsible for investigating violations of federal law. the bureau also collects national crime statistics and provides training and other forms of aid to local law enforcement agences
reasonable force
the degree of force that is appropriate to protect the police officer or other citizens and is not excessive
cold hit
the establishment of a connection between a suspect and a crime, often through the use of DNA evidence, in the absence of an ongoing criminal investigation
custody
the forceful detention of a person, or the perception that a person is not free to leave the immediate vicinity
define and contrast the four functions of the courts
the four functions are 1)due process 2)crime control 3)rehabilitation and 4)bureaucrastic. the most obvious contrast is between the due process and crime control functions. the former is mainly concerned with the procedural rules that allow each accused individual to have a 'fair chance' against the government in a criminal proceeding. for crime control, the courts are supposed to impose enough 'pain' on convicted criminals to deter criminal behavior. for the rehabilitation function, the courts serve as 'doctors' who dispense 'treatment'. in their bureaucratic function, courts are more concerned with speed and efficiency
DNA fingerprinting
the identification of a person based on a sample of her or his DNA, the genetic material found in the cells of all living things
duty
the moral sense of a police officer that she or he should apply authority in a certain manner
identify the differences between the police academy and field training as learning tools for recruits
the police academy is a controlled environment where police recruits learn the basics of policing from instructors in classrooms. in contrast, field training takes place in the 'real world' the recruit is taken on patrol with an experienced police officer. in the field, the recruit learns to apply the lessons he or she received at the academy
private security
the practice of private corporations or individuals offering services traditionally performed by police officers
explain the difference between the selection of judges at the state level and at the federal level
the president nominates all judges at the federal level, and the Senate must approve the nominations. a similar procedure is used in some states. in other states, all judges are elected on a partisan ballot or on a nonpartisan ballot. some states use merit selection, or the Missouri Plan, in which a citizen committee nominates judicial candidates, the governor or executive of the state judicial system chooses among the top three nominees, and a year later a 'retention election' is held
sheriff
the primary law enforcement officer in a county, usually elected to the post by a popular vote
detective
the primary police investigator of crimes
delegation of authority
the principles of command on which most police departments are based; personnel take orders from and are responsible to those in positions of power directly above them
citizen oversight
the process by which citizens review complaints brought against individual police officers or police departments. the citizens often do not have the power to discipline misconduct, but can recommend that action be taken by police administrators
recruitment
the process by which law enforcement agencies develop a pool of qualified applicants from which to select new members
deadly force
force applied by a police officer that is likely or intended to cause death
booking
the process of entering a suspect's name, offense, and arrival time into the police log following her or his arrest
socialization
the process through which a police officer is taught the values and expected behavior of the police subculture
identify three traditional forms of police corruptions
1)bribery 2)shakedowns 3)mooching
four basic responsibilities of the police
1.)enforce laws 2)provide services 3)prevent crime 4)preserve the peace
list the four categories of items that can be seized by use of a search warrant
1)items resulting from a crime, such as stolen goods 2)inherently illegal items 3)evidence of the crime 4)items used in committing the crime
list five main types of law enforcement agencies
1)municipal police departments 2)sheriffs' departments 3)special police agencies such as those limited to school protection or airport security 4)state police departments in all states except Hawaii 5)federal law enforcement agencies
outline the four major sources that may provide probably cause
1)personal observation, usually due to an officer's personal training, experience, and expertise 2)information,gathered from informants, eyewitnesses,victims, police bulletins, and other sources 3)evidence,which often has to be in plain view 4)association, which generally must concern a person with a known criminal background who is seen in a place where criminal activity is openly taking place
list the three basic types of police identification
1)showups 2)photo arrays 3)lineups
list and describe the members of the court-room work group
1)the judge 2)the prosecutor, who brings charges in the name of the people (the state) against the accused: 3)the defense attorney 4)the bailiff, who is responsible for maintaining security and order in the judge's chambers and the courtroom 5)the clerk, who accepts all pleas, motions, and other matters to be acted on by the judge; and 6)court reporters, who record what is said during a trial as well as at depositions
indicate situations in which a miranda warning is unnecessary
1)when no questions that are testimonial in nature are asked of the suspect; 2)when there is no suspect and witnesses in general are being questioned; 3)when a person volunteers information before the police ask anything; 4)when a suspect has given a private statement to a friend without the government orchestrating it; 5)during a stop and frisk when no arrests have been made and 6)during a traffic stop
outline the several levels of a typical state court system
1) at the lowest level are courts of limited jurisdiction. 2)next are trial courts of general jurisdiction 3)then appellate courts 4)states highest court
three primary purposes of police patrol
1) deterrence of crime 2)maintenance of public order 3)the provision of services that are not related to crime
list the four elements that must be present for an arrest to take place
1) intent 2) authority 3) seizure or detention 4)the understanding of the person that he or she has been arrested
indicate some of the most important law enforcement agencies under the control of the Department of Homeland security
1)US customs and border protection which polices the flow of goods and people across the US international borders and oversees the US border patrol 2)US immigration and Customs Enforcement, which investigates and enforces our nation's immigration and custom laws 3)the US secret service, which protects high-ranking federal government officials and federal property.
outline the federal court system
1)at the lowest level are the US district courts in which trials are held, as well as various minor federal courts of limited jurisdiction. 2)next are the US courts of appeals, otherwise known as circuit courts of appeals and 3)finally, the United States Supreme Court
indicate results of the Wickersham Commission
1929 was called for reform to eliminate police brutality and the corrupting influence of politics. the result was the professionalization of american police, sometimes called the progressive era in American policing. potential police officers began to be trained in institutes of higher learning. another result was the increased use of technology in police work
Identify the duties of the FBI
FBI has jurisdiction to investigate hundreds of federal crimes, including white-collar crime, kidnapping, bank robbery, and civil rights violations. the FBI is also heavily involved in combating terrorism and drug trafficking operations in the US and around the world. finally, the agency provides support to state and local law enforcement agencies through its crime laboratories and databases
broken windows theory
Wilson and Kelling's theory that a neighborhood in disrepair signals that criminal activity is tolerated in the area. Thus, by cracking down on quality-of-life crimes, police can reclaim the neighborhood and encourage law-abiding citizens to live and work there
clearance rate
a comparison of the number of crimes cleared by arrest and prosecution with the number of crimes reported during any given time period
cold case
a criminal investigation that has not been solved after a certain amount of time
explain why differential response strategies enable police departments to respond more efficiently to 911 calls
a differential response strategy allows a police department to distinguish among calls for service so that officers may respond to important calls more quickly. therefore, a 'hot'crime such as a burglary in progress, will receive more immediate attention than a 'cold'crime, such as a missing automobile that disappeared several days earlier
internal affairs unit (IAU)
a division within a police department that receives and investigates complaints of wrongdoing by police officers
bureaucracy
a hierarchically structured administrative organization that carries out specific functions
confidential informant (CI)
a human source for police who provides information concerning illegal activity in which he or she is involved
sworn officer
a law enforcement agent who has been authorized to make arrests and use force, including deadly force, against civilians
blue curtain
a metaphorical term used to refer to the value placed on secrecy and the general mistrust of the outside world shared by many police officers
frisk
a pat-down or minimal search by police to discover weapons; conducted for the express purpose of protecting the officer or other citizens, rather than finding evidence of illegal substances for use in a trial
directed patrol
a patrol strategy that is designed to focus on a specific type of criminal activity at a specific time
general patrol
a patrol strategy that relies on police officers monitoring a certain area with the goal of detecting crimes in progress or preventing crime due to their presence; also known as random or preventive control
probationary period
a period of time at the beginning of a police officer's career during which she or he can be fired without cause
community policing
a policing philosophy that emphasizes community support for and cooperation with the police in preventing crime. stresses a police role that is less centralized and more proactive than reform-era policing strategies
incident-driven policing
a reactive approach to policing that emphasizes a speedy response to calls for service
exclusionary rule
a rule under which any evidence that is obtained in violation of the accused's rights under the 4th,5th,and 6th amendments, as well as any evidence derived from illegally obtained evidence, will not be admissible in criminal court
anticipatory search warrant
a search warrant based on the premise that specific evidence of a crime will be located at a named place in the future, though the evidence is not necessarily at that place when the warrant is issued
policy
a set of guiding principles designed to influence the behavior and decision making of police officers
special weapons and tactics
a specialized squad of police officers who have been trained to handle violent and dangerous situations using advanced weaponry and technology
differential response
a strategy for answering calls for service in which response time is adapted to the seriousness of the call
arrest warrant
a written order, based on probable cause and issued by a judge or magistrate, commanding that the person named on the warrant be arrested by the police
affidavit
a written statement of facts, confirmed by the oath or affirmation of the party making it and made before a person having the authority to administer the oath or affirmation
patronage system
form of corruption in which the political party in power hires and promotes police officers, receving job related 'favors' in return
explain briefly how a case is brought to the Supreme Court
cases decided in US courts of appeals, as well as cases decided in the highest state courts (when federal questions arise), can be appealed to the Supreme Court. if at least four justices approve of a case filed with the Supreme Court, the Court will issue a writ of certiorari, ordering the lower court to send the Supreme Court the record of the case for review
hot spots
concentrated areas of high criminal activity that draw a directed police response
describe first systems of law enforcement in colonial america
constables and night watchmen were drawn from the ranks of ordinary citizens. each colony had a sheriff in each county who selected juries and managed incarcerations. local citizens assisted sheriffs in peacekeeping duties
tell how the patronage system affected policing
during the political era of policing(1840-1930) bribes paid by citizens and business owners often went into the coffers of the local political party. this became known as the patronage system
trace evidence
evidence such as a fingerprint, blood, or hair found in small amounts at a crime scene
fruit of the poisoned tree
evidence that is acquired through the use of illegally obtained evidence and is therefore inadmissible in court
explain the consequences of excessive case loads
excessive caseloads have led to assembly-line justice. such a criminal justice system increases the possibility that 1)police officers will not investigate crimes unless the offender was caught in the act 2)officers will seek only confessions, rather than spending time finding incriminating evidence. 3)prosecutors will press charges in criminal cases only when conviction is certain and 4)plea bargaining will be common
explain some of the benefits of a culturally diverse police force
members of an integrated police force are more likely to develop strong relationships with the community, which may allow them to do a more effective job of maintaining law and order. conversely, when the makeup of the police force does not mirror that of the community, the resulting mistrust can exacerbate tensions during times of crisis
national guard
military reserve units of the US army and US air force controlled by each state of the US and subject to deployment by both the federal and state executive branches in times of emergency
indicate why patrol officers are allowed discretionary powers
police officers are considered trustworthy and able to make honest decisions. they have experience and training. they are knowledgeable in criminal behavior. finally, they must be able to have the discretion to reasonably protect themselves
determine when police officers are justified in using deadly force
police officers must make a reasonable judgement in determining when to use force that will place the suspect in threat of injury or death; that is, given the circumstances, the officer must reasonably assume that the use of such force is necessary to avoid serious injury or death to the officer or someone else
problem-oriented policing
policing philosophy that requires police to identify potential criminal activity and develop strategies to prevent or respond to that activity
mandatory arrest policy
requires a police officer to detain a person for committing a certain type of crime as long as probable cause that he or she committed the crime exists
explain when searches can be made without a warrant
searches and seizures can be made without a warrant if they are incidental to an arrest (but they must be reasonable); when they are made with voluntary consent; when they involve the 'movable vehicle' exception; when property has been abandoned; and when items are in plain view, under certain restricted circumstances (Coolidge v New Hampshire)
consent searches
searches by police that are made after the subject of the search has agreed to the action. In these situations, consent, if given of free will, validates a warrantless search
exigent circumstances
situations that require extralegal or exceptional actions by the police. in these circumstances, police officers are justified in not following procedural rules, such as those pertaining to search and arrest warrants
explain how some jurisdictions have reacted to perceived leniency to perpetrators of domestic violence
some jurisdictions have instituted mandatory arrest policies, requiring a police officer to arrest a person who has battered a spouse or domestic partner. such policies eliminate police officers discretion
professional model
style of policing advocated by August Vollmer and W.W. wilson that emphasizes centralized police organizations, increased use of technology, and a limitation of police discretion through regulations and guidelines
explain the exclusionary rule and the exceptions to it
this rule, established federally in Weeks v United States and at the state level in Mapp v Ohio, prohibits the use of illegally sezied evidence, or evidence obtained by an unreasonable search and seizure in an inadmissible way exceptions to the exclusionary rule are the 'inevitable discovery ' exception established in Nix v Williams and the 'good faith' exception established in United States v Leon and Herring v US
distinguish between a stop and a frisk and indicate the importance of the case Terry v Ohio
though the terms stop and frisk are often used in concert, a stop is the separate act of detaining a suspect when an officer reasonably believes that a criminal activity is about to take place. a frisk is the physical 'pat down' of a suspect. in Terry v Ohio, the supreme court ruled that an officer must have 'specific and articulable facts' before making a stop, but those facts may be 'taken together with rational inferences'
arrest
to take into custody a person suspected of criminal activity. police may use only reasonable levels of force
explain the difference between trial and appellate courts
trial courts are courts of the first instance, where a case is first heard. appellate courts review the proceedings of a lower court. appellate courts do not have juries
list the actions that judge might take prior to an actual trial
trial judges may do the following before an actual trial: 1) issue search or arrest warrants 2) authorize electronic surveillance of a suspect 3)order the temporary incarceration of a suspect 4)decide whether a suspect should be released on bail and the amount of that bail 5)accept or reject pretrial motions by prosecutors and defense attorneys and 6)accept or reject a plea bargain
describe the plain view doctrine and indicate one of its limitations
under the plain view doctrine, police officers are justified in seizing an item if 1)the item is easily seen by an officer who is legally in position to notice it 2)the discovery of the item is unintended and 3)the officer; without further investigation, immediately recognizes the illegal nature of the item. an item is not in plain view if the law enforcement agent needs to use technology such as thermal imaging to 'see it'
indicate some investigation strategies that are considered aggressive
using undercover officers is considered an aggressive and often dangerous investigative technique. the use of informants is also aggressive but involves danger for those who inform
recite the miranda warning
you have the right to remain silent. if you give up that right anything you say can and will be used against you in a court of law. you have the right to speak with an attorney and to have the attorney present during questioning. if you so desire and cannot afford one, an attorney will be appointed for you without charge before questioning
