Critical Thinking 2

Why is reactivity bad?

-Can lead to bias in research outcomes -threatens external validity (limits generalizations)

antidotes of belief perseverance

-be mindful and carefully evaluate evidence -closely monitor biases -actively counter argue preexisting beliefs -keep an open mind

solutions of insight

-acknowledge and recognize the limits of insight -insight may not even be necessary for effecting change -search for other methods of change that don't rely exclusively on insight

Why are we prone to assimilate?

-assimilation is easier and more efficient -assimilation leads to quick categorization -accommodation takes more time to process (we tend to be lazy)

assimilation bias

-automatically comparing new stimuli to our preexisting schemas to help us organize our experiences -when we assimilate new info instead of accommodating it

Antidotes to assimilation bias

-become as conscious as possible of the schemata that are most important to you -learn to differentiate your use of assimilation versus accommodation -push yourself to accommodate when you would usually assimilate -never underestimate the impact that your prior beliefs and knowledge have on current perceptions

benefits of insight

-can provide some relief -can inform interventions -can "tie" one's feelings, thoughts, behaviors, and experiences can help things make sense

Schemas

-cognitive structures that organize our knowledge, providing a framework for understanding new events and future experiences -enable us to process large amounts of information in a relatively rapid, efficient, and effortless manner; reduces our cognitive processing load

antidotes to availability bias

-do not rely on ease or speed of examples -utilize base-rate information -interpret anecdotal evidence cautiously

Factors that affect availability bias

-easier to imagine -disconcerting

Availability Bias

-events that create the most powerful impressions are those that are particularly vivd or personally relevant -we estimate the frequency of an event based on how salient the event is to us -if examples come easily to mind, we tend to assume that such events are more common or frequent -can make us overgeneralize

Examples of self-fulfilling prophecy

-if a teacher expects a student to learn, they are more likely to learn than if she expects them to fail -if we expect others to respect us, they are more likely to respect us than if we expect them to disrespect us

Sources of representativeness bias

-invalid schemas -small sample sizes -underused base-rates -motivational biases -poor understanding of probabilities

Representativeness

-judging likelihood that something belongs to a particular category. -we tend to judge the probability of an event by finding a 'comparable known' event and assuming that the probabilities will be similar -comparing phenomenon to our prototype of the relevant category

disadvantages of the availability heuristic

-problems arise when estimating the frequency or likelihood of rare (though highly vivid) events, as compared to those that are more typical, commonplace, or mundane -may cause us to discount or overlook base rates

Antidotes to Reactivity

-recognize presence of reactivity and attempt to minimize its impact -use unobtrusive or non-reactive techniques (one-way mirror, indirect measurements)

advantages of the availability heuristic

-requires very little cognitive work -fast and efficient -sometimes provides us with accurate and dependable estimates -helps us answer questions quickly

Confirmation bias

-selectively gathering information that is consistent with our prior expectations -actively searching for evidence that will confirm our beliefs, do not seek evidence that might refute them

limits of insight

-we fail to identify the limits of insights -can dissuade other problem-solving strategies -sometimes, an overemphasis on insight can be counterproductive

Confirmation vs Assimilation Bias

Confirmation seeks out info, assimilation is when we receive info

Example of confirmation bias

Jack is nice to Mary and he always smiles at her, so Mary thinks he likes her. She ignores that he is nice and smiles at everyone

"The Hawthorn Effect"

Study on reactivity. If workers knew they were being observed, they worked better.

what is wrong with heuristics?

They lack thoroughness and precision

when does the confirmation bias affect research?

When investigators ask questions that are more likely to lead to their preferred outcomes

Self-fulfilling prophecy

a person adopts the attitudes and beliefs you hold about him and behaves as you expect him to (conscious or unconscious)

Consider the opposite

actively seek out evidence that refutes your preconceptions

Insight fallacy

belief that once we understand what caused a problem, that knowledge will solve the problem

example of assimilation bias

boy sees dog, when he sees other four-legged animals, assumes they are also dogs

example of belief perseverence

he's ignoring me because he's attracted to me

Example of representativeness bias

if you see a tall, male, African American, you might assume he is a basketball player

Accommodation

to modify our schema to fit the data

Assimilation

to modify the data to fit our schema

Why is assimilation bias bad?

we tend to overlook or reject valid information when it is not consistent with our schemas

Reactivity

when conducting research affects the very entity that is being studied

Belief perseverance effect

when we tend to cling to our beliefs even in the face of contrary evidence we defend our beliefs instead of modifying them