Critical Thinking

The mind can take in information in three distinctive ways:

(1) by memorizing factoids, or inert information (which is not understood well enough to be used by the mind), (2) by mislearning or partially learning information, or accepting illogical beliefs (which then leads to activated ignorance), and (3) by bringing significant ideas accurately into the mind (which then leads to activated knowledge).

Primary Standards (Purpose of Reasoning)

1) Clarity 2) Significance 3) Achievability 4) Consistency 5) Justifiably

Common Problems w/ reasoning

1) Unclear 2) Trivial 3) Unrealistic 4) Contradictory 5) Unfair

BRIEF GUIDELINES FOR USING INTELLECTUAL STANDARDS

1. All reasoning has a purpose. Take time to state your purpose clearly. Choose significant and realistic purposes. Distinguish your purpose from related purposes. Make sure your purpose is fair in context (that it doesn't involve violating the rights of others). Check periodically to be sure you are still focused on your purpose and haven't wandered from your target. Take time to state your purpose clearly. Choose significant and realistic purposes. Distinguish your purpose from related purposes. Make sure your purpose is fair in context (that it doesn't involve violating the rights of others). Check periodically to be sure you are still focused on your purpose and haven't wandered from your target. 2. All reasoning is an attempt to figure out something, to settle some question, solve some problem. Take time to state the question at issue clearly and precisely. Express the question in several ways to clarify its meaning and scope. Break the question into sub-questions (when you can). Identify the type of question you are dealing with (historical, economic, biological, etc.) and whether the question has one right answer, is a matter of mere opinion, or requires reasoning from more than one point of view. Think-through the complexities of the question (think-through the question deeply). 3. All reasoning is based on assumptions. Clearly identify your assumptions and determine whether they are justifiable. Consider how your assumptions are shaping your point of view. 4. All reasoning is done from some point of view. Clearly identify your point of view. Seek other relevant points of view and identify their strengths as well as weaknesses. Strive to be fair-minded in evaluating all points of view. 5. All reasoning is based on data, information, and evidence. Restrict your claims to those supported by the data you have. Search for information that opposes your position as well as information that supports it. Make sure that all information you use is clear, accurate, and relevant to the question at issue. Make sure you have gathered sufficient information. Make sure, especially, that you have considered all significant information relevant to the issue. 6. All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by, concepts and ideas. Clearly identify key concepts. Consider alternative concepts or alternative definitions for concepts. Make sure you are using concepts with care and precision. Use concepts justifiably (not distorting their established meanings). 7. All reasoning contains inferences or interpretations by which we draw conclusions and give meaning to data. Infer only what the evidence implies. Check inferences for their consistency with each other. Identify assumptions that lead you to your inferences. Make sure your inferences logically follow from the information. 8. All reasoning leads somewhere or has implications and consequences. Trace the logical implications and consequences that follow from your reasoning. Search for negative as well as positive implications. Consider all possible significant consequences

The mind has three basic functions: thinking, feeling, and wanting.

1. The function of thinking is to create meaning—making sense of the events of our lives, sorting events into named categories, finding patterns for us. It continually tells us: This is what is going on. This is what is happening. Part of the mind that figures things out. 2. The function of feeling is to monitor or evaluate the meanings created by the thinking function—evaluating how positive and negative the events of our life are, given the meaning we are ascribing to them. It continually tells us: This is how you should feel about what is happening in your life. You're doing really well. Or, alternatively, watch out—you're getting into trouble! 3. The function of wanting allocates energy to action, in keeping with our definitions of what is desirable and possible. It continually tells us: This is what is worth getting. Go for it! Or, conversely, it tells us: This is not worth getting. Don't bother.

Assumptions

All reasoning must begin somewhere. It must take some things for granted. Any defect in the assumptions or presuppositions with which reasoning begins is a possible source of problems in the reasoning. Assessing skills of reasoning involves assessing our ability to recognize and articulate assumptions, again according to relevant standards. Our assumptions may be clear or unclear, justifiable or unjustifiable, consistent or contradictory. What is taken for granted in this academic discipline (or in this lecture, or this discussion, or this article, or this experiment)? Are these assumptions justifiable, or should I question them?

Inferences

All reasoning proceeds by steps in which we reason as follows: "Because this is so, that also is so (or is probably so)" or, "Because this, therefore that." The mind perceives a situation or a set of facts and comes to a conclusion based on those facts. When taking this step of the mind, an inference results. Any defect in our ability to make logical inferences presents a possible problem in our reasoning. For example, if you see a person sitting on the street corner wearing tattered clothing, a worn bedroll beside him and a bottle wrapped in a brown paper bag in his hand, you might infer that he is a bum. What are the key inferences made in this newspaper article? Upon what are the inferences based? Are they justified? What is the key inference (or conclusion) I made in this paper? Was it justified? What is the key inference in this theory, in this way of proceeding, in solving this problem in this way? Is this inference logical?

Concepts, Theories, Ideas

All reasoning uses some ideas or concepts and not others. These concepts include the theories, principles, axioms, and rules implicit in our reasoning. Any defect in the concepts or ideas of this reasoning is a possible source of problems in our reasoning. What are the most important theories in this class? Am I clear about the important concepts in the class? What questions do I need to ask to get clear about the concepts the teacher is explaining?

Assumption:

An assumption is something we take for granted or presuppose. Usually it is something we learned previously and do not question. It is part of our system of beliefs. We assume our beliefs to be true and use them to interpret the world around us.

Inference:

An inference is a step of the mind, an intellectual act by which one concludes that something is true in light of something else's being true, or seeming to be true. If you were to come at me with a knife in your hand, I probably would infer that you mean to do me harm. Inferences can be accurate or inaccurate, logical or illogical, justified or unjustified.

Purpose, Goal, or End in View

As a student interested in developing your mind, you can begin to ask questions that improve your ability to focus on purpose in your classes. For example: Am I clear as to my purpose—in an essay, a research project, an oral report, a discussion? Can I specify my purpose precisely? Is my purpose a significant one? Realistic? Achievable? Justifiable? Do I have contradictory purposes?

Elements of Thoughts

Can also be called the parts of thinking or fundamental structures of thought

TAKE A DEEPER LOOK AT UNIVERSAL INTELLECTUAL STANDARDS

Clarity Questions that focus on clarity include: Could you elaborate on that point? Could you express that point in another way? Could you give me an illustration? Could you give me an example? Let me state in my own words what I think you just said. Tell me if I am clear about your meaning.

The Elements of Reasonings

Clarity Accuracy Relevance Logic Breadth Precision Significance Completeness Fairness Depth Must be applied to the ELEMENTS.

A critical thinker considers the elements of reasoning with sensitivity to Universal intellectual standards

Clear Accurate, precise, relevant Deep, significant, logical Fair broadly based

Wanting

Drives us to act as we do goals desires purposes agendas values motives

As thinkers, then, we want to be aware of what precisely we are implying when we say things. We also want to take into account the reasonability of what we are implying.

If we do, we say what we mean and mean what we say—an important principle of integrity.

We humans naturally and regularly use our beliefs as assumptions and make inferences based on those assumptions.

Information (Situation) You see a woman in a wheelchair. A police officer trails your car closely for several blocks. Possible Inference that one might have She must have a sad life. He is going to pull me over. Assumption leading to the inference All people in wheelchairs have a sad life. Whenever a police officer trails people, he or she is going to pull them over.

Intellectual Traits

Intellectual Humility Intellectual Autonomy Intellectual Integrity Intellectual Courage Intellectual Perseverance Confidence in Reason Intellectual Empathy Fair mindedness

BRING TOGETHER THE ELEMENTS OF REASONING AND THE INTELLECTUAL STANDARDS: Now let us look at how the intellectual standards are used to assess the elements of reason.

Points of view Frame of reference, perspective, orientation Assumption presupposition, taking for granted Inferences Interpretations, conclusion and solutions Purpose of thinking Goal and Objective Question at Issue Problem Information data, facts, observation, experiences Implications and consequences Concepts theories, definitions, axioms, laws, principles models

Questions at Issue or Problem (All reasoning is an attempt to figure something out; to settle some questions or to solve a problem

Primary Standard 1) Clarity and precision 2) Significance 3) Answerability 4) Relevance Common Problem 1) unclear and unprecise 2) insignnificant 3) not answerable 4) irrelevant Principle: to settle a question, it must be answerable, and you must be clear about it and understand what is needed to answer it adequately.

All reasoning is based on information, data, evidence, experience and research

Primary Standard 1) clearly 2) relevant 3) fairly gathered and reported 4) accurate 5) adequate 6) consistency applied Common Problems: 1) unclear 2) irrelevant 3) biased 4) inaccurate 5) insufficiency 6) inconsistently applied Principles reasoning can be only as sound as the information it is based on.

All reasoning is done from some point of view

Primary Standard: 1) flexibility 2) fairness 3) clarifty 4) breadth 5) relevance Common problems 1) restricted 2) biased 3) unclear 4) narrow 5) irrelevant Principle: To reason well, you must identify those points of view relevant to the issue and enter these view points empathethically and in good faith

The Elements

Purpose Questions Points of View Information Inferences Concepts Implication Assumptions As we learn to develop Intelectual traits

Depth

Questions focusing on depth of thought include: How does your answer address the complexities in the question? How are you taking into account the problems in the question? How are you dealing with the most significant factors in the problem?

Breadth

Questions focusing on making thinking broader include: Do we need to consider another point of view? Is there another way to look at this question? What would this look like from a conservative standpoint? What would this look like from the point of view of ...?

Accuracy

Questions focusing on making thinking more accurate include: Is that really true? How could we check to see if that is accurate? How could we find out if that is true?

Precision

Questions focusing on making thinking more precise include: Could you give me more details? Could you be more specific?

Relevance

Questions focusing on relevance include: How is this idea connected to the question? How does that bear on the issue? How does this idea relate to this other idea? How does your question relate to the issue we are dealing with?

Fairness

Questions that focus on ensuring that thinking is fair include: Is my thinking justified given the evidence? Am I taking into account the weight of the evidence that others might advance in the situation? Are these assumptions justified? Is my purpose fair given the implications of my behavior? Is the manner in which I am addressing the problem fair—or is my vested interest keeping me from considering the problem from alternative viewpoints? Am I using concepts justifiably, or am I using them unfairly to manipulate someone (to selfishly get what I want)?

Logic

Questions that focus on making thinking more logical include: Does all of this fit together logically? Does this really make sense? Does that follow from what you said? How does that follow from the evidence? Before, you implied this, and now you are saying that. I don't see how both can be true.

Significance

Questions that focus on making thinking more significant include: What is the most significant information we need to address this issue? How is that fact important in context? Which of these questions is the most significant? Which of these ideas or concepts is the most important?

Feeling

Tell us how we are doing happy sad depressed anxious stressed calm worried excited

Principle

To reason well, you must clearly understand your purpose, and your purpose must be fair minded.

Thinking

We make sense of the world by Judging Perceiving Analyzing Clarifying Determining Comparing Synthesizing

Questions implied by the universal structures of thought

What is my fundamental purpose? What is the key question I am trying to answer? What information do I need to answer my questions? What is the most basic concept in the question? What assumption am I using in my reasoning? What is my point of view with respect to the issue? What are my most fundamental inferences or conclusions? What are the implications of my reasoning (if I am correct)?

Implications and Consequences

Whenever we reason, implications follow from our reasoning. When we make decisions, consequences result from those decisions. As critical thinkers, we want to understand implications whenever and wherever they occur. We want to be able to trace logical consequences. We want to see what our actions are leading to. We want to anticipate possible problems before they arise. What are the most significant implications of this biological theory, this phenomenon, this economic policy? What are the implications of this political practice? What are the implications of failing to act in this context? If we adopt this course of action, what are the likely consequences?

Information, Data, Experiences

Whenever we reason, there is some "stuff," some phenomena about which we are reasoning. Any "defect," then, in the experiences, data, evidence, or raw material upon which a person's reasoning is based is a possible source of problems.

Point of View, or Frame of Reference

Whenever we reason, we must reason within some point of view or frame of reference. Any "defect" in that point of view or frame of reference is a possible source of problems in the reasoning. A point of view may be too narrow, may be based on false or misleading information, may contain contradictions, and may be narrow or unfair.

Universal Structures of Thoughts

Whenever we think, we think for a purpose; within a point of view; based on assumptions; leading to implications and consequences; we use the data, facts and experiences; to make inferences and judgments; based on concepts and theories; to answer a question or solve a problem.

Elements of thoughts

Whenever you are reasoning, you are trying to accomplish some purpose, within a point of view, using concepts or ideas. You are focused on some question, issue, or problem, using information to come to conclusions, based on assumptions, all of which have implications.

Question at Issue or Problem to Be Solved

Whenever you attempt to reason-through something, there is at least one question to answer—one question that emerges from the problem to be solved or issue to resolve. An area of concern in assessing reasoning, therefore, revolves around the very question at issue.

Critical thinkers recognize that, whenever they are reasoning, they reason to some purpose (element of reasoning). Implicit goals are built into their thought processes. But their reasoning is improved when they are clear (intellectual standard) about that purpose or goal. Similarly, to reason well, they need to know that, consciously or unconsciously, they are using information (element of reasoning) in thinking. But their reasoning improves if and when they make sure that the information they are using is accurate (intellectual standard).

fundamentals of critical thinking is the ability to assess one's own reasoning. To be good at assessment requires that we consistently take apart our thinking and examine the parts with respect to standards of quality.

Reasoning

is a process whereby one draws conclusions on the basis of reasons.

In any situation, three kinds of implications may be involved:

possible ones, probable ones, and necessary ones. For example, every time you drive your car, one possible implication is that you could have an accident. If you drink heavily and drive very fast on a crowded roadway in the rain, one probable implication is that you will have an accident.

Activated knowledge,

then, is knowledge born of dynamic seminal ideas that, when applied systematically to common experience, enable us to infer, by implication, further and further knowledge.

Inert Information

we mean taking into the mind information that, though memorized, we do not understand—despite the fact that we think we do.

Activated Ignorance

we mean taking into the mind, and actively using, information that is false, though we mistakenly think it to be true. The concept of activated ignorance is important regardless of whether we determine whether information we come across is false or misleading.

By activated knowledge,

we mean taking into the mind, and actively using, information that is true and also, when understood insightfully, leads us by implication to more and more knowledge. Consider the study of history. Many students do no more than memorize isolated statements in the history textbook, to pass exams. Some of these statements—the ones they don't understand and could not explain—become part of the students' battery of inert information. Other statements—the ones they misunderstand and wrongly explain—become part of the students' battery of activated ignorance.