CSET Multiple Subject Subtest 1

New England Colonies

Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire Mountainous, rolling hills, rocky soil, cold to harsh winters, short summer, ports on the Atlantic Shipbuilding, Fisheries, Commerce, Lumbering, Small-scale manufacturing

Direct quotes (longer quotes that are greater than 40 words)

Separate the quote from the text by isolating the quote from the text. Double-space, indent about five spaces (or half-inch from the left margin), and type the single-spaced quote.

Original 13 Colonies

New York, New Jersey, Delaware, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Connecticut, Georgia, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maryland, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania.

The Holy Roman Empire during the later Middle Ages

1. The pope was dominant in religious matters and the monarch in secular matters. 2. A continuing power struggle evolved between papacy and the secular ruler during the late Middle Ages

The industrial development of the United States was encouraged by western expansion

1. The settlement of the West was aided by the Homestead Act (1862) and the transcontinental railroad (1869). 2. Western industries were based on mining, cattle, and grain. 3. Farmers and ranchers settles the Great Plains.

California from World War I to 1930

Oil, moviemaking, and agriculture drove California's economy and fueled its growth. After the discovery of oil in Los Angeles County and throughout Los Angeles basin in the 1920s, oil became the most profitable economic venture in Southern California. With the advent of film as a popular form of entertainment, major studies bought property on the outskirts of Los Angeles, creating the legendary studio town of Hollywood. With cheap land available and a river of immigrants flooding the state, agriculture also boomed. By 1919, California's fruit, nut, and olive growers were outproducing all other similar farm interests in the rest of the nation. Much of this economic growth focused on Southern California, driving a wedge between established political elites in the northern half of the state and new power brokers in the southern half.

California from the Civil War to the Turn of the

Powerful business interests controlled California politics and the Republican Party, ensuring support for both President Lincoln and the Union cause. California's distance kept it out of the war, but the state sent gold and recruits eastward. In the meantime, both a railroad grant and authorization to build Central Pacific link to the transcontinental railroad were secured. In 1862, the Homestead Act allowed citizens to claim free land if they would live on it an improve it for 5 years. Thus, throughout post-Civil War California, mining, the railroad, and farming combined to promote waves of immigration from the eastern United States, China, and Ireland. Ensuing periods of economic boom and bust then fueled California's long history of troubled relations with immigrants, regarded as unwanted competition during economic downturns.

Recognizing story structure

Refers to the way the content and events of a story are organized into a plot. Students who can recognize story structure have greater appreciation, understanding, and memory of stories. In story structure instruction, students learn to identify the categories of content (setting, initiating events, internal reactions, goals, attempts, and outcomes) and how this content is organized into a plot. Often students learn to recognize story structure through the use of story maps. Story maps, a type of graphic organizer, show the sequence of events in simple stories. Instruction in the content and organization of stories improve students' comprehension and memory of stories.

Battle of Princeton

January 3, 1777 - American commanders: George Washington - British commanders: Charles Cornwallis, Charles Mawhood - American victory - Encouraged French government to send supplies to the Americans - In England, support for the war declined

The Fluent Reader

4th-8th grade Orthographic

Verb

A word used to express action, occurrence, or a state of being. Example: eat, speak, fall, is, are, remain, think, become

Early History of India, China, and Japan

Both India and China suffered invasion and outside rule over the course of their early histories. In India, this forces the native Hindus to exist side by side with their Muslim conquerors, creating rich and diverse cultures. China's history is dominated by a succession of ruling dynasties, all of whom left distinguishing marks on Chinese cultural and political history. In contrast, protected from invasion by their geography, feudal Japan developed a language, writing system, and artistic style distinctly its own.

Intransitive

Do not point to a receiver of an action. In other words, the action of the verb does not point to a subject or object. Example: He plays. | John writes well A dictionary will let you know whether a verb is intransitive. Some verbs can be intransitive.

Speech Emergence Developmental Expectations

During the period students have increased comprehension and language abilities. Students begin to produce simple sentences and phrases, but some basic errors in grammar and speech exist. Reading comprehension and writing skills are limited.

The Early Emergent Reader

Early childhood to kindergarten

Hernando de Soto

First European to explore the southeastern US from Tallahassee to Natchez

Student-Adult Reading

In student-adult reading, the student reads aloud one-on-one with an adult. The adult can be you, a parent, a classroom aide, or a tutor. The adult reads the text aloud first providing the student with a model fo fluent reading. Then the student reads the same passage aloud to the adult, with the adult providing assistance and encouragement. The student rereads the passage until the reading is quite fluent. This should take approximately three or four rereadings.

Impact of World War II on California: Demographic

Industrial growth prompted new wave of migration and population boom - 1940: population 6,907,387 - 1942: Bracero Program initiated in California farm fields, started new of Mexican immigration (program lasted until 1964) - 1950 population 10,586,223 - 1960 population 15,717,204

Past tense

The action happened in the past. Ex: He walked to the store an hour ago.

Denotative meaning

The exact literal meaning of a word according to the dictionary, as opposed to "connotative meaning," which implies a suggested meaning of a word.

Decoding

The process of translating print into spoken words in order to understand the meaning of the written letters, This primarily refers to word identification.

Giovanni de Verrazano and Jacques Cartier

Two Frenchmen who explored the North American coast and the St. Lawrence Seaway for France

Novels

Use the same basic literary conventions as short stories, but they expand them by presenting more complicated plots, adding subplots, creating more nuanced characters, and deepening the development of ideas. After children have mastered the mechanics of reading (between the ages of 9 and 12), they are prepared to sustain the more difficult challenge of reading a novel. The novel genre encompasses a wide range of types and styles, including picaresque, epistolary, gothic, romantic, realistic, and historical novels.

What are the important images and figures of speech? (Analyzing Poetry)

What are the important literal sensory objects - the images - such as a field of poppies or a stench of corruption? What are the similes and metaphors of the poem? In each, exactly what is being compared? Is there a pattern in the images, such as a series of comparisons, all using men compared to wild animals? The most difficult challenge of reading poetry is discriminating between the figurative ("I love a rose" - that is, my love is like a rose, beautiful, sweet, fragile) and literal ("I love a rose" - that is, roses are my favorite flower).

Harmful or Potentially Harmful Interaction with Environment

Wherever humans have gone on earth, they have made changes to their surroundings. Many are harmful or potentially harmful, depending on the extent of the alterations. Some of the changes, and activities that can harm the environment include: ` - Cutting into mountains by machine or blasting to build roads or construction sites. - Cutting down trees and clearing natural growth - Building houses and cities - Using grassland to graze herds - Polluting water sources - Polluting the ground with chemical and oil waste - Wearing out fertile land and losing topsoil - Placing communication lines cross country using poles and wires or underground cable - Placing railway lines or paved roads cross country - Building gras and oil pipelines cross country - Draining wetlands - Damming up or re-routing waterways - Spraying fertilizers, pesticides, and defoliants - Hunting animals to extinction or near extinction

Imagery

Words or phrases that appeal to the senses (sight, sound, taste, smell and touch) Example: The siren in the night played a haunting tone.

demography

including factors associated with human migration

geography

including maps and globes, places and regions, the earth's physical and human systems, human settlement and migration, spatial relationships, cultural diffusion, and human-environment interactions

Primary key words

reading, literacy, reading assessments, monitoring student reading

philosophy

(including religion and other belief systems) and its impact on history and society

The Whig Party opposed the Democratic Party's belief in states' rights and instead favored a strong national government.

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Five primary sectors for employment

1. Trade, transportation, and utilities 2. Government 3. Professional and business services 4. Education and health services 5. Leisure and hospitality

A Revolution in Production and Transportation: Manufacturing (Birth of the factory system)

1733: Flying shuttle increased the speed of weavers 1764: Spinning jenny increased the speed and output of yarn spinners 1764: Water frame introduced the first power-driven machine to manufacture cloth 1779: Spinning mule, a power-driven machine that produced fine, strong yarn 1785: Watt steam engine meant that factories were no longer dependent on water sources for power 1785: Power loom led to faster production of cloth 1792: Cotton gin made it possible to meet increased demand for cotton by mechanizing the process for separating seeds from cotton

Battle of Fort Sumter

1861 - Union: Maj. Robert Anderson; Confederate: Gen. P. G. T. Beaureguard - Fort bombarded; surrender by Anderson; opening battle for the war

Telegraphic speech

2 years old An early form of speech and can be observed when a toddler selectively omits or simplifies words in a phrase or sentence to communicate his message. This usually a 2-year-old's first two-word sentence consisting of just enough words to get the meaning across (e.g.,"no...hot," meaning "the food is too hot to eat").

The Remedial Reader

3rd-8th grade Students who do no demonstrate reading competency

Overregularization

4-5 years Overregularization of grammatical errors are observed in early childhood (ages 4-5 years old) when children misuse regular grammatical patterns of past tense or plural words (noun or verb) in their speech (e.g., saying "foots" instead of "feet" or "she signed a song").

Fr. Jacques Marquette

A Jesuit missionary, and Louis Joliet were the first Europeans to travel down the Mississippi in 1673

Affix

A bound (non-word) morpheme that is combined with a word, stem, or phrase to produce a word. For example, combining the prefix "ad-" and suffix "-ing" to the word "join" produces the word "adjoining."

Analogy

A comparison of similar traits between dissimilar things in order to highlight a point of similarity Example: We scored a touchdown on the educational assistance plan

Prosody

A component of fluency that refers to reading with expression, which includes the use of appropriate emphasis, stress, intonation, pitch, pauses, and phrasing that demonstrates an understanding of syntax and mechanics. Prosody may also reflect the emotional state of the speaker; the form of the utterance (statement, question, or comment); or other elements of language that may not be encoded by grammar or choice of vocabulary.

Metaphor

A figure of speech in which something is described as though it were something else. Example: My uncle is an early bird

Simile

A figure of speech that has a direct comparison between unlike things using like or as Example: You are quite as a mouse

Transitive Verb

A verb whose action (e.g., drive, run, jump) points to a receiver (e.g., car, dog, kangaroo). Example: He plays the piano | The piano was played by him. A dictionary will let you know whether a verb is transitive. Some verbs can be transitive.

Figurative language

A word or phrase that departs from literal language. The most common examples are metaphor and simile Example: Winter's End implies the end of a person's life.

Noun

A word used to name a person, place, or thing. Example: woman, boy, student, New York, airplane

Fugitive Slave Law of 1850

Allowed slave owners to go into free states to retrieve their escaped slaves.

Early childhood to kindergarten Reading Instruction

Begin phonemic awareness and concepts of print instruction by helping students to: - recognize print concepts in the environment - recognize that print has meaning - understand that text is read from left to right - make predictions in stories - enjoy matching words and sounds (rhythm) - name pictures associated with the spoken word - recognize letter shapes (in their name) - learn the alphabet song

Book with two of more authors

Campbell, Joseph, Phil Cousineau, and Stuart L. Brown. "The Hero's Journey: Joseph Campbell on His Life and Work". San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1990. Print.

Dred Scott vs. Sandford case

Decided by the Supreme Court in 1857. It was ruled that Congress had no authority to exclude slavery from the territories, which in effect meant that the Missouri Compromise had been unconstitutional.

Alphabetic Principle

Defines the three rules for writing and speaking English: 1) letters are named with uppercase and lowercase letters; 2) each letter or group of letters (words) represents sound(s), and 3) using systematic relationship between letters and phonemes (letter-sound correspondence), you can decode the English language to identify, pronounce, and spell words.

Superlative adjective

Degree compares more than two people or things. Ex: This is the most difficult work of my life. | She is the smartest lady in school.

The Early Byzantine Civilization

Emperor Constantine provided the foundation of the Byzantine Empire by establishing Constantinople as a "New Rome" in the East on the ruins of ancient Byzantium. Set strategically where Europe and Asia meet, it became the heart of the Roman imperial system in A.D. 476 with the collapse of the western empire. Under the Byzantine rulers, a great civilization based on trade and Roman law lasted until A.D. 1453.

GPS

Global Positioning System A system of satellites that orbit the Earth and communicate with mobile devices to pinpoint the mobile device's position. This is accomplished by determining the distance between the mobile device and at least three satellites. A mobile device might calculate a distance of 400 miles between it and the first satellite . The possible locations that are 400 miles from the first satellite and the mobile device will fall along a circle. The possible locations on Earth relative to the other two satellites will fall somewhere along different circles. The point on Earth at which these circles intersect is the location of the mobile device. The process of determining position based on distance measurements from three satellites is called trilateration.

Book with one author

Greenspan, Dorie. "Around My French Table: More Than 300 Recipes from My Home to Yours". Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2010. Print.

Political Feudalsim

Hierarchical and interdependent - Church - Lords/nobles - Vassals/lesser nobles - Knights - Peasants Grants of land given by lords in exchange for oaths of loyalty Private armies of vassals and their knights protected lords and their lands Peasants owed labor and obedience All owed loyalty and obedience to the Church

Subordination conjunction

Join subordinate (i.e., dependent) clauses with independent clauses. Common subordinating conjunctions include: after, although, because, before, in order that, since, so that, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, while Examples: - I am hungry because I did not eat breakfast. - He went home when everyone left.

Critical Period for Language Acquistion

Linguistic scholars agree that all children experience a critical period when they find it easier to learn verbal skills in their native language. The critical period of language acquisition corresponds with brain development. It begins in infancy and ends in puberty. Research confirms that the first few years of life is the optimal time for infants to acquire language. If children do not interface with language in early childhood, they may demonstrate a limited range of language fluency, predominately with grammar systems.

Economic Feudalism

Manor estates - Owned by lords - Peasant serfs given land to work in exchange for percentage of crop - Free peasants worked as skilled laborers - Dues and fees charged for tenancy, use of roads, bridges, etc.

Battle of Fort Ticonderoga

May 10, 1775 -American commanders: Ethan Allen, Benedict Arnold -British commander: William Delaplace -American victory -Americans seized the fort's 100 canons, which were badly needed by colonial forces

Specific Nouns

Name people, places, and things that are understood by using your senses. People: baby, friend, father Places: town, park, city hall Things: rainbow, cough, apple, silk, gasoline

Colonization of Rhode Island

Roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts in 1635 because he called for separation of church and state. He stablished the colony in 1647 and had 800 settlers by 1650, including Anne Hutchinson and her "Antinomians," who attacked clerical authority.

Roman Contributions

Roman Law: Rule of Law/equality before the law and civil and contract law codes. Engineering and Architecture: Concrete, Arch, Roman Roads, Aqueducts and cisterns, monumental buildings. Culture: History, literature: Virgil ('The Aeneid'); Ovid ('Metamorphoses), rhetoric

Audio Assisted Reading

Students read along in their books as they hear a fluent reader read the book on audio recording. For audio-assisted reading, you need to select a book at a student's independent reading level and an audio recording of the book read by a fluent reader at about 80 to 100 words per minute. The audio should not have sound effects or music. For the first reading, the student should follow along with the recording, pointing to each word in her or his book as the reader reads it. Next, the student should try to read aloud along with the audio. Reading along with the audio should continue until the student is able to read the book independently, without support of the tape.

Frustrated Level

Text that is read accurately 89 percent or less of the time and is comprehended less than 75 percent of the time

Instructional Level*

Text that is read accurately 90 to 94 percent of the time and is comprehended 75 to 89 percent of the time. *The instructional level of reading is the optimal level of text complexity reading instruction

Independent Level

Text that is read accurately 95 of the time and is comprehended 90 to 100 percent of the time

The Greek World

The Ancient Greek world included the islands and lands surrounding the Aegean Sea. Its rugged landscape of mountains and valleys, as well as the scattered islands of the sea, led to the development of independent city-states rather than on unified empire. The Minoan, Mycenaean, Hellenic, and Hellenistic civilizations of this world introduced innovations in the arts, architecture, literature, philosophy, and government that continue their foundational role in Western civilization up to the present day.

The French Revolution

The French Revolution began as an attempt by leaders of the industrial and commercial classes to end the injustices of the French monarchy. The rallying cry of the French Revolution, echoed in the words "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" led to a Reign of Terror against the aristocracy. The fall of the Bastille on July 14 marks France's Fourth of July. Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power at a time of renewed social unrest in France.

The Roman World

The Latin tribe of Rome rose to conquer and consolidate a great Republic on the Italian peninsula, and from there, a great Mediterranean empire was created. From Republic to Empire, Roman civilization lasted for nearly a thousand years, bringing their talent for practical organization of society and their extension of Greek culture to western Europe, the Near East, and North Africa.

Automaticity

The ability to read and recognize a word or series of words in text accurately and effortlessly. Skilled readers use automaticity unconsciously or involuntarily when reading text.

K-1st Grade (Alphabetic Decoding) Developmental Expectation

The beginning reader has an awareness that letters are associated with sounds (sound/symbol relationships). Children begin to identify some printed words by decoding simple consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) words (such as mat, sun, pin). Children usually know that letters of words represent sounds. Children later spell with the first and last consonants. For example ct, for cat.

Democratic System

The people elect their government representatives. The term democracy is a Greek term that means "rule for the people." There are two forms of a democracy - direct and indirect. In a direct democracy, each issue or election is decided by a vote where each individual is counted separately. An indirect democracy employs a legislature that votes on issues that affect large number of people whom the legislative members represent. Democracy can exist as a Parliamentary system or a Presidential System. The US is a presidential, indirect democracy.

The Formation of the New Nation (1763-1789)

The relationship between the British and their American colonies soured after victory in the French and Indian War. The British had rid themselves of French competition in North America, but they faced an enormous war debt. To force the colonies to help with the debt, the British enforced mercantile policies and levied taxes, actions that forced a showdown over political and economic freedom. Against a great empire with all of its military advantages, the colonies fought a war for independence. Behind the leadership of George Washington and with the French, freedom was finally achieved. However, a new nation governing under the Articles of Confederation soon stumbled. Out of an attempt to fix weaknesses in the articles emerged a new, stronger government under the Constitution.

Semicolons

The semicolon is like a balance scare. It always separates elements of equal power of meaning: two or more words, phrases, or sentences that connect closely related ideas. It should never separate a main clause from subordinate clause or a word or phrase from a clause. Use a semicolon to separate main clauses when the separation is not done by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for). Example: Ask Joe for the book; he still has it. Use a semicolon to separate items in a series when there are comas within the items. Example: Dora's dress was red, blue, and green; Lucy's was lilac and white; Helen's was black, red, and white.

Derivational morpheme

The smallest linguistic unit of a word that has meaning. It cannot be divided into smaller elements. For example, the word sing is a morpheme. It can be a syllable, affix, or root word. Derivational morphemes can be added to a word to create another word. When adding an affix, the grammatical part of speech cane sometimes change. For example, the word sing is a verb, but if we add "-er," the word becomes a noun, singer.

Irony

The use of words to suggest the opposite of their intended meaning Example: A parent tells her messy teenager, "Oh, your room is really clean."

Active voice

When the subject of the sentence is doing the action. Example: Jon drew the picture. (The subject Jon is doing the action of drawing a picture.)

Passive Voice

When the subject receives the action. Example: The picture is drawn by Jon. (The subject picture is receiving the action from Jon.)

Step 3: Revising

Writers begin modifying the wording of the draft and/or rearranging the ideas or paragraphs in a logical sequence. This is when writers must use critical-thinking skills while focusing on the original requirements of the writing task. The writer should evaluate the draft and think about its clarity, organization, and logical development. This is the time to make any major corrections or changes (i.e., add, delete, replace, or move written material). For example, the writer may decide to move a paragraph to a different location, rewrite a topic sentence, add a new supporting example, or improve the essay through addition or deletion of text. The goal of revising is to ensure that the ideas flow logically and that the writer's points are presented with clarity. Note: For research papers, it is important to recheck citations for accuracy.

Active voice

Written composition has two voice: active and passive. As a general rule, use the active voice when writing an essay. The active voice conveys clarity and strength to the reader. Text written in a passive voice is less dynamic. The active voice shows that the subject performs the action, whereas the passive voice shows that the subject receives the action. For example, "Marcella posted a message on Twitter" is active. "A message was posted on Twitter by Marcella" is passive.

What is the theme of the poem? (Analyzing Poetry)

You should now be able to see the point of the poem. Sometimes a poem is simply says "I love you"; sometimes the theme or the meant is much more complex. If possible, define wha the poem says and why. A love poem usually praises the loved one in hope that the speaker's love will be returned. But many poems have meanings too complex to be reduced to a single sentences.

California and Immigrant Relations (1850-1880s)

- 1850: Foreign Miners' Tax imposed by California legislature; $20 monthly tax on foreign miners - 1854: California Supreme Court excluded all nonwhite races from testifying against a white person (case involved Chinese witness testifying in a murder trial) - 1879: California constitution denied voting rights to any "native of China" (repealed 1926) -1 882: Chinese Exclusion Act passed by Congress - 1884: San Francisco school board adopted "separate but equal" doctrine and segregated Chinese schoolchildren from all others

Research to Build and Present Knowledge Questions

- Identify the strategies of conducting research and writing a research paper - Identify how to collect digital and print research data and information - Identify how to draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support research

Government Under "The Articles of Confederation" Ratified March, 1781

- Established the first government for the United States of America. - Successfully negotiated the Treaty of Paris to end the revolutionary war. - Passed the 'Land Ordinance of 1785', creating a system for western land surveys and provisions for land sales. - Passed the 'Northwest Ordinance of 1787', which established a process for western frontier regions to organize into territories and become new states

Byzantine Accomplishments

- Greek language and cultural accomplishments preserved - center for world trade and exchange of culture - Codification of Roman law ("Justinian Code") - Eastern Church (Greek Orthodox) converted Slavic people to Christianity - new focus for the art; glorification of Christianity

Common Themes in Mythology

- One reoccurring truth of mythology is that whatever happens among the gods and other mythical beings is in some way a reflection if human events on earth - Many themes and motifs recur in the myths of various cultures and ages. - A common theme in many cultures explains the creation of the world; these range from god fashioning the earth from abstract chaos to specific animal creating it from a handful of mud - Other myths of cyclical destruction and creation parallel by myths or seasonal death and rebirth - Another common theme is the idea of a long-lost golden age of seeming perfection from which humanity has degenerated (e.g., Hesiod's Golden Age of Eden in Jewish and Christian thought) - The motif of destruction is extremely widespread; it is one element of a group of myths that concern the destruction and re-creation of the world or a particular society - Other recurring myths explain the origin of fire or its retrieval from some being that refuses to share it, the expectation of transcendent changes in the millennium to come, or the complex relationships between the living and the dead

Preproduction Developmental Instructional Strategies

- Use visual aids (pictures, graphics, media) - Use gestures to communicate - Use simple question prompts - Focus on minimal key vocabulary words and phrases - Assign writing exercises that combine pictures and simple words - Provide instruction that is sensitive to cultural norms and academic competencies

The California land boom of the 1880s swelled the population again

1. The ensuing bank collapse in 1887 devastated the economy. 2. Hard times and economic retrenchment followed.

Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C) of Macedonia established the Hellenic Age (the fusion of Greek culture with the East)

1. Alexander conquered Persia, Asia Minor, and Egypt and established a world empire 2. Bureaucracy replaced the 'polis' (city-state) as the form of government

Early cultures in North America

1. American Indian culture developed over many centuries a. The first American Indians originated in Asia b. Agriculture changed some Indian culture from a nomadic existence to farming communities 2. North American Indians were quite skilled in many areas a. The Hopewell people were skilled farmers and flourished in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys (200 B.C. -A.D. 400) b. Mississippian culture developed in A.D 800 and built large religious mound structures c. The Anasazi culture (A.D. 800-1300) developed in the Southwest, and the Anasazi were skilled builders (example, Mesa Verde cliff houses) and sophisticated farmers. d. The Pueblo Indians inhabited the Southwest after Anaszai and built extensive adobe cities.

The War of 1812 (1812-1815) was fought between the United States and Great Britain

1. Among the causes of the War of 1812 were violations of U.S. neutrality and impressment of U.S. sailors. 2. The U.S. victory resulted in national pride, self-sufficiency, and foreign credibility

Implications of Teaching Phonics in the Classroom

1. Assess phonics and other identification strategies. Select and use formal and informal tools such as decoding tests, fluency tests, and sight-word checks to collect data and analyze to plan instruction 2. Plan instruction that is systematic, explicit, and sequenced according to the increased complexity of linguistic units including sounds, phonemes, onsets and rimes, letters, letter combination syllables, and morphemes. 3. Explicitly teach and model phonics, decoding, and other word identification strategies in reading for meaning. Positive explicit feedback for word identification errors in an essential strategy in this process. 4. Select and design resource material and strategies for assessment and instruction. Resources include materials for teaching decoding, word identification strategies, and sight word mastery in multiple and varied reading and writing experiences. 5. Provide fluency practice in a variety of ways: - Practice decoding word-attack skills so that they become automatic in reading text. - Provide application and practice decoding skills to develop fluency in decodable (controlled vocabulary) text and word recognition skills taught out of context - Continue to develop fluency through the use of decodable texts and other texts written at the author's instructional level. 6. Provide ongoing assessments to demonstrate the student's progress toward mastery of CCSS

Cabrillo discovered San Diego Bay, the Santa Barbara Islands, Point Conception, and Point Reyes (1542-1543)

1. He searched for a water passage between the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean. 2. Future voyages traveled the entire coast of California.

Five primary economic regions of California

1. Hollywood (entertainment) 2. Southern California (aerospace) 3. Central Valley (agriculture) 4. Silicon Valley (computers/high technology) 5. Napa Valley, Sonoma Valley, Santa Barbara, and Paso Robles (wine)

Huge defense contracts following the war fueled economic prosperity

1. Hundreds of thousands of armed-forces personnel migrated to California. 2. The need for public services increased. 3. Pollution and water became political issues.

Achievements of the Byzantine Empire

1. It preserved the heritage of Greco- Roman civilization while the West was culturally stagnant. 2. It spread civilization to all of eastern Europe. 3. It preserved the Eastern Orthodox Church. 4. Its economic strength was based on the stability of its money economy.

Characteristics of medieval civilization during the later Middle Ages

1. Society was based on a strict class division; Clergy and nobility were the privileged class, peasants and artisans were the workforce, and serfs were tied to the land. 2. The decline of feudalism and manorialism was evidence by the twelfth century and complete by the sixteenth century 3. The commercial revival led to the rise of towns. a. A true middle class emerged b. Economic activities in the towns were supervised by the guild system (merchant and craft guilds) c. The Crusades led to the revival of international trade 4. Education stressed the liberal arts a. Theology influenced both religion and politics b. Universities were created in Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge during the eleventh and twelfth century c. The Crusades led to the revival of international trade. 5. Philosophy (Scholasticism) dealt with the consistency of faith and reason. 6. Architecture was dominated by the Romanesque (eleventh to twelfth century) and Gothic (thirteenth and fifteenth century) styles.

The search of the Seven Cities of Cibola by Cortes in the 1530s resulted in Spanish exploration of the Baja peninsula

1. Spain was interested in conquest and wealth. 2. Exploration centered on a search for an island inhabited by Amazon-like women who used golden weapons.

The Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.) devastated both Sparta and Athens (and their Greek city-state allies)

1. Sparta was victorious but unable to unite the Greek city-states 2. Greek individualism was a catalyst in the collapse of the Greek city-state alliances

Implications of Teaching Phonological Awareness in the Classroom

1. Teachers help children identify and make oral rhymes. "The pig has a (wig)." "Pat the (cat)." " The sun is (fun)." 2. Teachers help children identify and work with syllables in spoken words: "I can clap parts in my name: An-drew." 3. Teachers help children identify and work with onsets and rimes in spoken syllables or one-syllable words. "The last part of win is -in"

The territorial expansion of the United States reached from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean

1. The rise of the new West created opportunities in transportation, education, politics, mining, and agriculture 2. The Trail of Tears (1838-1839) was the result of the forced relocation of Native Americans from tribal areas in the south of the Oklahoma territory. 3. Manifest Destiny encouraged U.S. expansion to the Pacific. a. Texas was annexed to the United States in 1837. b. The Oregon Territory was added to the United States in 1846 and encouraged settlement of the Far West. c. The Mexican War (1848) added California and pats of the Southwest to the United States

The Causes of the Industrial Revolution

1. The scientific revolution brought about new mechanical inventions 2. The availability of investment capital and the rise of the middle class provided an economic base 3. Conditions in England favored industrialization a. The cotton textile industry was well established b. Britain was a colonial and maritime power and was able to easily ship products; rivers provided the necessary waterpower to run machinery c. Coal, iron, and a plentiful supply of cheap labor were available

Dangling or Misplaced Modifiers

A dangling modifier is an introductory phrase that does not refer clearly or logically to a subsequent modifier (usually the subject) in a sentence. A misplaced modifier is one that is placed too close to a word that it should not modify. Look for sentences that seem odd or have an unnatural word order. Here's an example of a dangling modifier: Strolling along the beach, a wave suddenly drenched us. This sentence seems to say that the wave is going the strolling. A correct sentence clarifies the modifier, as follows: While we were strolling along the beach, a wave suddenly drenched us. Common adverbs that signal the possibility of a misplaced modifier are only, just, that, almost, even, hardly and nearly. For example, the following is an example of a misplaced modifier: Ann prepared a roast for the family that was served burned. In this case, because that was served burned is so close to family, the sentence seems to say that the family was burned. Here is the correct sentence: Ann served a burned roast to the family. Note that this correction also eliminates excessive words.

A 2-year old child points to his favorite book and says, "book." Which of the following responses by his mother represents the best method to help this child develop linguistically correct speech patterns? A. Speaking naturally, "Yes, this is your favorite book; it's called Goodnight Moon." B. Speaking with infant-directed speech, "Yes, book." C. After careful thought, "Yes, this is your favorite book; it's called Goodnight Moon." D. Speaking with infant-directed speech, "Yes, this is your favorite book; it's called Goodnight Moon."

A. Speaking naturally, "Yes, this is your favorite book; it's called Goodnight Moon." Strategies to help improve a child's natural ability to speak linguistically correct English include 1) recasting - rephrasing what the child said in a different way; 2) expanding - restating in a linguistically correct form; 3) labeling - identifying what is said; 4) echoing - repeating the one- or two-word sentences the child has said.

Adjectives and Adverbs

Another common error is using an adjective when an adverb is required or vice versa. The difference between an adjective and an adverb relates to how each functions in a sentence. Adjectives and adverbs are similar because they are both modifiers (words or groups of words that describe other words). While adjectives describe nouns and pronouns ( a red balloon, a quick trip), adverbs describe verbs or actions (the balloon sailed high, I traveled quickly). Adverbs also describe adjectives (the balloon was very red) and other adverbs (I traveled extremely quickly), but their primary use is in answering questions about actions. Here's an example of an error: The mechanic repaired my engine and installed a new clutch very quickly. In this case, actions are being described (required and installed are verbs), so the word that describes those actions should be an adverb, quickly instead of quick. As you might notice, adverbs often end with -ly. The correct use of the adjective quick in a sentence occurs in this example: "The quick work of the mechanic pleased me very much." In this case, a thing being described (work), so an adjective is appropriate.

Use the passage below from "The Notorious Jumping Frog of Calaveras County" by Mark Twain to answer the question that follows. "Maybe you don't ," Smiley says, "Maybe you understand frogs and maybe you don't understand 'em; maybe you've had experience, and maybe you ain't only a amature, as it were. Anyways, I've got my opinion, and I'll resk forty dollars that he can outjump any frog in Calaveras County." The slang and spelling errors in the passage indicate which of the following? A. The author is nearly illiterate B. The reader is made to feel comfortable C. The rustic setting is emphasized D. The story is centuries old

C. The rustic setting is emphasized Twain used colloquial language to enhance the rustic setting and cultural gap between the main characters essential to the literacy battle of wits between provincialism and sophistication.

Anwar is a fourth grader who reads at grade level. When asked to choose a book from the classroom library, he generally selects texts that are at his frustration level. It is clear that he is unable to read his chosen material. The teacher's best response to this behavior would be to: A. choose easier material for Anwar so he is able to accurately decode and comprehend text. B. continue allowing Anwar to select books at his frustration level for as long as he appears to be enjoying his choices C. teach Anwar the five-finger rule of reading so he will be able to monitor his own reading selections. When Anwar makes more than five errors per page, he will know the book is too difficult for him and choose another. D. review Anwar's book selections during guided reading and give mini-lessons on difficult reading concepts so Anwar will be able to read at his instructional level.

C. teach Anwar the five-finger rule of reading so he will be able to monitor his own reading selections. When Anwar makes more than five errors per page, he will know the book is too difficult for him and choose another. The five-finger rule is an effective rule that Anwar can use to self-monitor his reading selections while stretching his reading abilities. Anwar should be reading at the instructional level before reading at the independent level. By steadily introducing more challenging text, Anwar will be stretching his higher-level thinking abilities. In addition to the five-finger rule, the following levels of reading may help evaluate Anwar's reading level.

Non-Written Communication

CSET candidates should be familiar with convention of effective modes of speaking and listening to prepare students for a range of conversations (person-to-person, small-group presentation, or large-group presentation). Speaking and listening are fundamental prerequisites in early school years for the advancement of reading and writing. Linguistic research shows that continuity of oral narratives help children perform well on written text assignments. According to CCSS, the academic literary competence is accomplished by systematic, explicit instruction in oral language instruction. The components if effective communication are balanced between four language systems: listening and speaking (oral communication) and reading and writing (written communication). All communication has two characteristics: receptive language and expressive language. Listening is a receptive language, which means that understanding requires the "input" of hearing to facilitate comprehension. Speaking is an expressive language, which means that a verbal "output" is necessary to produce language. Reading is receptive language through decoding and comprehension, and writing is expressive language through handwriting, spelling, and composition. Instructional strategies that encourage the interrelationship between oral and written communication include read-aloud exercises that incorporate traditional and nontraditional text (literature, poetry, fairy tales, and myths) and storytelling form diverse media.

Quantitative measurement (computer-based software programs): (Measuring Text Complexity)

Identify the readability if the text based on the grade-level bands that are represented in computer-based quantitative measurement programs. Text readability is easily determined by computer software programs that use a formula to compute text complexity. Some software programs (e.g., Lexile Framework for Reading) combine both text complexity and the student's reading ability on the same measure. The Lexile Framework Text Complexity Grade Bands: K-1: Old - N/A. CCSS - N/A 2-3: Old: 450-725. CCSS: 450 790 4-5: Old: 645-845. CCSS: 770-980 6-8: Old: 860-1,010. CCSS: 1,080-1,155 9-10: Old: 960-1,115. CCSS: 1,080-1,305 11-CCR: Old: 1,070-1,220. CCSS: 1,215-1,355

Major Changes in Industry in the late 1800s

Important events during this time of enormous business growth and large-scale exploitation of natural resources were: - Industrialization: Like the rest of the world, the United States' entry into the Industrial Age was marked by many new inventions and the mechanization of factories. - Railroad expansion: The Transcontinental Railroad was built from 1865-1969. Railroad tracks stretched over 35,000 miles in 1865, but that distance reached 240,000 miles by 1910. The raw materials and manufactured goods needed for the railroads kept mines and factories very busy. - Gold, silver mining: Mines brought many prospectors to the West from 1850 to about 1875, but mining corporations soon took over. - Cattle ranching: This was a large-scale enterprise beginning in the late 1860s, buy by the 1800s, open ranges were being fenced and plowed for farming and pastures. Millions of farmers moved into the high plains, establishing the "Bread Basket," which was the major wheat growing area of the country.

Important 19th Century American Writers

In the 19th century, American literature became an entity of its own and provided a distinct voice for the American experience. James Fenimore Cooper was a great writer from this time period. He was the first to write about Native Americans, and was the author of Letherstocking series, which includes 'The Last of the Mohicans' and 'The Deerslayer' - Ralph Waldo Emerson: He was an essayist, philosopher, and poet, and also the leader of the Transcendentalist movement. His notable works include "Self-Reliance" and "The American Scholar" - Nathaniel Hawthorne: This novelist and short story writer wrote 'The Scarlett Letter', 'House of Seven Gables', "Young Goodman Brown", and "The Minister's Black Veil". - Herman Melville: A novelist, essayist, short story writer, and poet who wrote 'Moby Dick', 'Billy Budd', and "Bartleby the Scrivener." - Edgar Allen Poe: A poet, literary critic, and master of the short story, especially horror and detective stories. His notable works include "The Tell-Tale Heart," "The Pit and the Pendulum," "Annabel Lee," and "The Raven." - Harriet Breacher Stowe: She was the author of 'Uncle Tom's Cabin'. - Henry David Thoreau: A poet, naturalist, and Transcendentalist who wrote 'Walden' and 'Civil Disobedience' Walt Whitman: A poet, essayist, and journalist who wrote 'Leaves of Grass' and "O Captain! My Captain!"

Battle of Bunker Hill

June 17, 1775 -American commanders: Israel Putnam, William Prescott -British commander: William Howe -British victory -British took the hill but suffered huge losses compared to the Americans -Americans proved that they could stand up to the British army but war would not be won easily

Mexican Rule in California (1821-1846)

Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1822 but put no greater imperative on the development and political control of California than had Spain. Within the region now known as 'Alta California', system of feudal estates enlarged by the sale of Spanish mission lands made local landowners the real power in California. Seeing a future of independence unlikely with the Russians, British, French, and Americans all poised to seize their vulnerable territory, some 'Californios' looked to Europeans to free them from Mexico's rule. Others rejected the Old World authority of monarchs and favored annexation by the United States instead. A. After Mexican independence from Spain in 1822, California residents exerted increased control in local political matters. B. The land-grant system and the ranchos fueled independent action. C. By 1845, the Californios (provincial Californians) expelled the last of the Mexican governors. D. American trappers (including Jedediah Smith), explorers (including Kit Carson and Joseph Walker), and a variety of wagon masters opened California to American settlement.

Middle Ages in European History

Or Medieval Times, a period of that ran from approximately 500-1500 AD. During this time, the centers of European civilization moved from the Mediterranean countries to France, Germany, and England, where strong national government were developing. Key events of this time included: - Roman Catholicism was the cultural and religious center of medieval life, extending into politics and economies. - Knights, with their systems of honor, combat, and chivalry, were loyal to their king. - Peasants or serfs, served a particular lord and his lands. -Many universities were established that still function in modern times. - The Crusades, the recurring wars between European Christians and Middle East Muslims, raged over the Holy Lands. - One of the legendary leaders was Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, who created an empire across France and Germany around 800 AD. - The Black Death plague swept across Europe from 1347-1350, leaving between one third and one half of the population dead.

Physical and Cultural Features of Geographic Locations and Countries

Physical Features: - Vegetation zones, or biomes: Forests, grasslands, deserts, and tundra are the four main types of vegetation. - Climate zones: Tropical, dry, temperate, continental, and polar are the five different types of climate zones. Climate is the long-term average weather conditions of a place. Cultural Features: - Population density: This is the number of people living in each square mile or kilometer of a place. It is calculated by dividing population by area. - Religion: This is the identification of the dominant religions of place, whether Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, Buddhism, Islam, Shinto, Taoism, or Confucianism. All of these originated in Asia. - Languages: This is the identification of the dominant or official language of a place. There are 12 major language families. The Indo-European family (which includes English, Russian, German, French, and Spanish) is spoken over the widest geographic area, but Mandarin Chinese is spoken by the most people.

Non-Systematic Phonics Instruction

Programs of phonics instruction that are not systematic do not teach consonant and vowel letter-sound relationships in a prescribed sequence. Rather, they encourage informal phonics instruction based on the teacher's perceptions of what students need to learn and when they need to learn it. Non-systematic instruction often neglects vowels, even though knowing vowel letter-sound relationships is a crucial part of knowing the alphabetic system. Non-systematic instructional programs often include: - literature-based presentations that emphasize reading and writing activities. Phonics instruction is embedded in these activities, but letter-sound relationships are taught incidentally, usually based on key letters that appear in student reading materials. - basal reading programs that focus on whole-word or meaning-based activities. These programs pay only limited attention to letter-sound relationships and provide little to no instruction in how to blend letters to pronounce words - sight-word programs that begin by teaching children a sight-word reading vocabulary of 50 to 100 words. Only after learning to read these words do children receive instruction in the Alphabetic Principle

Vocabulary

Refers to the words we must know to effectively communicate our thoughts. research has proven that vocabulary development correlates with increased academic performance and is fundamental to higher-level thinking. Students must receive opportunities to expand their vocabulary be receiving explicit and systematic instruction that is incremental and repeatedly reinforced. Exposure to vocabulary that includes rich and varied words helps to shape the students' internalized understandings of their surrounding world. Vocabulary acquisition begins in early childhood with oral communication and later builds to written communication (reading). Oral vocabulary refers to words that we use in speaking or listening. Reading vocabulary refers to words we recognize or use in print.

Phonemic Awareness (Assessment)

Skill: Phoneme segmentation necessary for reading Standard assessment tool: The Yopp-Singer Test of Phoneme Segmentation Description: This assessment tests the kindergarten of first-grade student's ability to segment (break words apart) from a list of 22 common words. Early intervention of phonemic awareness will help with the student's success in reading and literacy. The student is presented with a list of words and when prompted by the teacher, asked to break each word apart. Correct responses are recorded on the answer sheet provided.

Phonics Inventory

Skill: Sound decoding (skill necessary for reading) Standard assessment tools: Shefelbine-BTST II (Basic Phonics Skills Test) and the Fry Phonics Patterns Description: Shefelbine-BTST II is an assessment that evaluates the level of student's knowledge of phonics: letter sounds in consonant digraphs, short vowel sounds, and long vowel blends. The Fry Phonics Patterns Diagnosis Test is an assessment that evaluates the students' application of phonics skills: short and long vowel patterns. The student is presented with a BPST sheet of letters. The teacher will ask the student to say the sound that each letter (or blend of letters) makes as the teacher points to each letter(s) or word. The teacher records the correct response above each letter(s) or word.

Industrial Revolution

Started in England with the construction of the first cotton mill in 1733. Other inventions and factories followed in rapid succession. The steel industry grew exponentially when it was realized that cheap, abundant English coal could be used instead of wood for melting metals. The steam engine, which revolutionized transportation and work power, came next. Around 1830, a factory-based, technological era was ushered into the rest of Europe. Society changed from agrarian to urban. A need for cheap, unskilled labor resulted in the extensive employment of women and children, who worked up to 14 hours a day, six days a week in deplorable conditions. Expanding populations brought crowded, unsanitary conditions to the cities and the factories created air and water pollution. Societies had to deal with these new situations by enacting child labor laws and creating labor unions to protect the safety of workers.

Phonemic Awareness Classroom Instruction

Teachers who provide effective phonemic awareness instruction help children to become aware of and manipulate English sound system, consonants, and vowels. Systematic, explicit instruction creates opportunities for students to apply phonemic awareness to reading skills. Children who demonstrate phonemic awareness competency are able to identify and isolate sounds, manipulate sounds, blend/segments the sounds into words (both written and spoken). For example, children who are proficient in phonemic awareness can fluidly pronounce each word as a blend of phonemes. Although many kindergarten students start school with phonemic awareness skills of sounds and letters, some students have difficulty focusing on the blended sounds of spoken words and fins it challenging to let go of speaking individual letters. Instead of blending phonemes, some children pronounce words using a series of discrete phonemes. Beginning readers, struggling readers, and ELL students can benefit from explicit, systematic phonemic awareness classroom instruction. The following instructional strategies are adapted phonemic awareness instructional strategies suggested by the acclaimed researcher and educator Dr. Marilyn Jager Adams

Literary and Structural Analysis in Children's Literature

The CSET literary test questions are largely drawn from both fiction and nonfiction, but emphasize structural elements of children's literature, including symbols found in rituals, mythologies, and traditions. An ability to analyze different literary genres represented in short stories, novels, folktales, fairy tales, and poetry of different cultures will help you with this section. As students' progress in the primary grades and their reading material becomes more complex, teachers often require students to analyze the poems, short stories, and other literary genres that they have read. Understanding the structure of stories also improves comprehension and listening skills. To accomplish this, students must understand basic literary elements and structure, such as: - Plot - Setting and mood - Theme - Characterization (protagonist/antagonist) - Conflict (external/internal) - Point of view - Figurative language - Predictable patterns (such as fairy tales, myths, and legends) - Allegory (characters represent some larger humanistic traits)

United States Currency System

The Constitution of 1787 gave the United States Congress the central authority to print or coin money and to regulate its value. Before this time, states were permitted to maintain separate currencies. The currency system is based on a modified gold standard. There is an enormous store of gold to back up the United States currency housed at Fort Knox, Kentucky. Paper money is actually Federal Reserve notes and coins. It is the job of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing in the Treasury Department to design plates, special types of paper, and other security measures for bills and bonds. This money is put into general circulation by the Treasury and Federal Reserve Banks, and is taken out of circulation when worn out. Coins made at the Bureau of the Mint in Philadelphia, Denver, and San Francisco.

Protestant Reformation

The dominance of the Catholic Church during the Middle Ages in Europe gave it immense power, which encouraged corrupt practices such as selling of indulgences and clerical positions. This movement began as an attempt to reform the Catholic Church, but eventually led to a separation from it. In 1517, Martin Luther posted his 'Ninety Five Theses' on the door of the church in Saxony, which criticized unethical practices, various doctrines, and the authority of the pope. Other reformers such as John Calvin and John Wesley soon followed, but then disagreed among themselves and divided along doctrinal lines. Consequently, the Lutheran, Reformed, Calvinist, and Presbyterian churches were founded among others. In England, King Henry VIII was denied a divorce by the pope, so he broke away and established the Anglican Church. The Protestant reformation caused the Catholic Church to finally reform itself, but the Protestant movement continued, resulted in proliferation of new deomoninations.

Myths

The most difficult of the genres to precisely define. The word myth has several meanings in different populations around the world, but in general the word is derived from the Greek word mythos, meaning "story." Myths typically have no author, but offer models for living through universal narratives and essential truths of the natural world. They evoke events of a time long past that generally concern the adventures and misadventures of fictional supernatural begins, gods, heroes, ancestors, giants, nymphs, satyrs, and larger-than-life villains - entities that reside outside of the ordinary human existence yet are entwined in our collective consciousness. Myths are set in a time altogether different from our human, historical timeline, and often occur at the beginning of creation or in some timeless past age. A culture's myths are usually closely related to its religious beliefs and rituals. A myth is a sacred narrative in the sense that it holds religious or spiritual significance for those who tell it, and it contributed to and expresses their system of core thoughts and values.

Immigration trends in the late 1800s

The population of the United States doubled between 1860 and 1890, the period that saw 10 million immigrants arrive. Most lived in the north. Cities and their slums grew tremendously because or immigration and industrialization. While previous immigrants had come from Germany, Scandinavia, and Ireland, the 1800s saw a new wave of immigrants from Italy, Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, and Greece, as well as Jewish groups from central and eastern Europe, especially Russia. The Roman Catholic population grew from 1.6 million to 1850 to 12 million in 1900, a growth that ignited an anti-Catholic backlash from the anti-Catholic Know-Nothing Party of the 1800s and the KKK. Exploited immigrant workers started labor protests in the 1870s, and the Knights of Labor was formed in 1878, calling for sweeping social and economic reform. Its membership reached 700,000 in 1886. Eventually, this organization was replaced by the American Federation of Labor, headed by Samuel Gompers.

Word choice (diction)

The skilled writer pay attention to the types of words used in an essay to convey a message that is unambiguous and concise. It is important to be as brief and specific as possible. The overall tone of the essay is communicated through the writer's choice of words that help the reader feel a sense of connection with the written material. The words the writer uses to describe events, people, or places, should be concise statements that will give the reader a clue about what and how the writer wants the reader to feel or think. On the CSET, look for errors in diction. Diction errors use the wrong word for the meaning intended. For example, a word that looks or sounds like another: "affect" (to influence) and "effect" (a result; to bring about), "cite" (source) and "site" (a place), and "complement" (to make complete; improve) and "compliment" (to praise).

States forming the confederacy and leaders of the war between the states

The states that seceded from the Union to from the Confederacy were: Georgia, Arkansas, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, Texas, and Tennessee. The slave-holding states that were kept in the Union were Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. - Jefferson Davis: of Mississippi, a former U.S. Senator and cabinet member, was the president of the Confederacy. - Abraham Lincoln: f Illinois was President of the United States. His election triggered the secession of the south. He was assassinated shortly after winning a second term. - Robert E. Lee: of Virginia was offered the position of commanding general of the Union Army, but declined because of loyalty to his home state. He led the Army of the Northern Virginia and the central Confederate force, and is still considered a military mastermind. - Ulysses S. Grant: of Ohio wasn't appointed to command of the Union Army until 1864, after a series of other commanders were unsuccessful. He received Lee's surrender at the Appomattox Court House in Virginia in April, 1865, and went on to become President from 1869 to 1877.

Morphology

The study of word formations. The analysis of the structure of words, word stems, and affixes. A morpheme is a unit of meaning that cannot be divided into smaller elements, such as the word book.

Effects of Progressive Movement on Foreign Affairs

The time period from the 1890s to the 1920s, got its name from progressive, reform-minded political leaders who wanted to export just and rational social order to the rest of the world while increasing trade with foreign markets. Consequently, the United States interfered in a dispute between Venezuela and Britain. America invoked the Monroe Doctrine and sided with Cuba in its independence struggle against Spain. The latter resulted in the Spanish-American Wars in 1898 that ended with Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam becoming American protectorates at the same time the United States annexed Hawaii. In 1900, America declared an Open Door Policy with China to support its independence and open markets. In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt helped Panama become independent of Columbia, and then secured the right to build the Panama Canal. Roosevelt also negotiated the peace treaty to end the Russo-Japanese War, which earned him the Nobel Peace prize. He then sent the American fleet on a world cruise to display his country's power.

What is the tone of the poem? (Analyzing Poetry)

Tone is a slippery word, and almost everyone has trouble with it. It's sometimes used to mean the mood or atmosphere of a work, although purists are offended by this definition. It can also mean a manner of speaking, a tone of voice, as in "The disappointed coach's tone was sardonic." But it's most common use as a term of literacy analysis is to denote the inferred attitude of the author. When the author's attitude is different form that of the speaker, as is usually the case in ironic words, the tone of voice of the speaker, which may be calm, businesslike, or even gracious, may be very different from the satiric tone of the work, which reflects the author's disapproval of the speaker. Because it is often hard to define tone in one reflects the author's disapproval of the speaker. Because it is often hard to define tone in one or two words, problems on tone do not appear frequently in multiple-choice questions, but an essay topic may well ask for a discussion of the tone of a poem or a passage of pose.

What is the structure of the poem (Analyzing Poetry)

What are the parts of the poem and how are they related to each other? What gives the poem its coherence? What are the structural divisions of the poem? In analyzing structure, your best aid is punctuation. Look first for complete sentences indicated by periods, semicolons, question marks, or exclamation points, Then ask how the poem gets from the first sentence to the second to the third. Are there repetitions such as parallel syntax or the use of a simile in each sentence? Answer these questions in accordance with the sense of the poem, not by where a line ends or a rhyme falls. Think about the logic of the poem. Does it ask questions and then answer them? Develop an argument? Use a series of analogies to prove a point? Understanding the structure isn't just a matter of mechanics. It also helps you understand the meaning of the poem as a whole and to perceive some of the art - the formal skills - that the poet has used.

Effects of Economic Downturn or Recession

When a recession happens, people at all levels of society feel the economic effects. For example: - High unemployment results because businesses have to cut back to keep costs low, and may no longer have the work for the labor they once did. - Mortgage rates go up on variable-rate loans as banks try to increase their revenues, but the higher rates cause some people who cannot afford increased housing costs to sell or suffer foreclosure. - Credit becomes less available as banks try to increase their revenues, but the affects of business operations, home and auto loans, etc. - Stock market prices drop, the lower dividends paid to stockholders reduce their income. This is especially hard on retired people who rely on stick dividends. - Psychological depression and trauma may occur in those who suffer bankruptcy, unemployment, or foreclosure during a depression.

Westward Expansion 1812-1850

* 1812-1820 - Louisiana Territory: Louisiana, Missouri added to the Union - Old Northwest: Indiana, Illinois added to the Union - Mississippi Territory: Mississippi, Alabama added to the Union * 1821 Florida: Purchased from Spain * 1830s - Old Southwest: Cleared of all remaining Native American resistances; "Trail of Tears" marked the removal of the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole to the Oklahoma Territory * 1848 - Mexican Cession: Mexican-American War ended in victory for United States; Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ceded Utah, Nevada, California, Arizona, and New Mexico to the United States. - Pacific Northwest: Northwest boundary dispute with Britain settled; Oregon Territory organized * 1850 - Michigan Territory: Michigan added to the Union - Louisiana Territory: Arkansas, Iowa, and Wisconsin added to the Union - Republic of Texas: Texas annexed, and added to the Union - Pacific Coast: California added to the Union

The War of 1812 (1812-1815) The United States vs. Great Britain

* Causes - Neutrality (Britain and France at war) - British seizure of American merchant vessels. - British practice of "impressment' (stopping U.S. merchant ships and forcing American sailors into service for the British navy.) - Conflict over frontier land. - British agitation of Native Americans against American settlement on the frontier. - "War Hawks" in Congress advocated pushing the British out of the frontier and even expelling them from Canada * Battles - Battle of Lake Erie (1813): Naval battles led by Capt. Oliver Perry claimed Lake Erie for the U.S. - Battle of Baltimore (1814): British forces advanced through Washington D.C., and burned the Capital. Britain failed to capture Fort McHenry, later immortalized in the Star Spangled Banner - Battle of New Orleans (1815): The final major battle of the war; it was fought after the war was already ended by the Treaty of Ghent. Andrew Jackson became an American Hero.

Early National Period: Political Parties

* Constitutional Powers - Federalists (Hamilton): -- "Loose Construction" -- Authority to do whatever is "necessary and proper" according to the Constitution -- Centralized authority in the national government - Democratic-Republicans (Jeffersons) -- "Strict Constitution" -- Avoid tyranny by exercising only those powers expressly stated in the Constitution -- Decentralized authority to the states * Foundations of the Nation - Federalists (Hamilton) -- Expansion and growth -- Banking -- Investment in business -- manufacturing - Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson) -- Focus on yeomen farmers as the foundation of the republicanism (sovereignty of the people) * Foreign Party - Federalists (Hamilton) -- Pro-England -- Conservative -- Constitutional monarchy - Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson) -- Pro-Fance -- Revolutionary -- Republicanism

Impact of Spanish Exploration and Conquest on Indigenous People of the Americas

* Disease devastated native populations - Smallpox, measles, typhus - From Mexico, spread into American southwest and southward toward the Andes - From 1520-1620, 20 million dead - Conquest aided by weakening of native forces * Aztecs conquered by Cortez in 1521 * Inca Empire conquered by Pizzaro in 1533 * Mass transfer of wealth (gold and silver) from the Americas to Spain * End of political and economic independence - organized for labor within the Spanish economic system * Loss of native culture * Conversion to Christianity

Advanced Native Cultures of the Americas: South America

* Inca a. A.D. 1200-1533 b. Northwest coastal and inland region of South America (Peru) c. Engineering/architecture - Machu Picchu - Stone construction without mortar - Extensive road system linking empires together d. Art - Gold and silver working - Ceramics - Textiles

Reformation

* Martin Luther - Northern Germany a. Salvation through faith rather than sacraments b. Rejection of hierarchical priesthood and papal authority. c. Luther's ex-communication initiated the Reformation; "Lutheranism" developed its own following d. Decentralized religious authority in favor of local German princes * John Calvin - Geneva (Switzerland) a. Doctrine of Predestination b. Rejection of all forms of worship and practice not traced to Biblical tradition c. Basis of "Reformed Churches," which spread throughout Europe * King Henry VIII - England a. Political rather than religious break with the Church b. Act of Supremacy removed authority of the pope c. Created the Anglican Church of England

The Scientific Revolution and the Universe Reconsidered

* Nicolaus Copernicus - Astronomer - Challenged the Church doctrine of a geocentric (earth-centered) theory of the universe - Proposed and published his heliocentric (sun-centered) theory * Galileo Galilei - Mathematician, physicist, astronomer - With a telescope, provided the first observational evidence in support of Copernicus - Phases of Venus; four moons of Jupiter * Johannes Kepler - Mathematician, astronomer - Man could understand God's intelligible plan through application of reason - "Three Laws of Planetary Motion" - mathematical calculations regarding planetary orbits that supported heliocentric theory * Isaac Newton - Mathematician, physicist, astronomer - Laws of motion and universal gravitation - Laws of gravity proved the force of Earth's gravity on the orbit of the moon - Applied to all planets; provided final proof of heliocentric theory

Advanced Native Cultures of the Americas: Mesoamerica

* Olmec a. 1200-1400 b. South-central Mexico c. Noted artwork in many media (jade, clay, basalt, and greenstone); monumental sculpture (colossal heads) * Maya a. A.D. 250-900 b. Yucatan peninsula c. Only known written language of pre-Columbian Americas d. Sophisticated art e. Monumental architecture - Tikal - Palenque f. mathematical and astronomical systems * Aztec a. A.D. 1325-1521 b. Central Mexico c. Rich mythological and religious traditions d. Architecturally accomplished - City planning - Great Pyramids of Tenochtitlan - Temples and palaces e. Artistically advanced

Vygotsky's Second Language Acquisition Theory

"A word devoid of thought is a dead thing, and a thought unembodied in words remains a shadow." - Lev Vygotsky Vygotsky theorized that thought development is determined by language. Vygotsky's theoretical perspectives provide a rich foundation for understanding the meaningful interrelationship between thinking processes and language processes. Language is not just an instrument of communicating one's knowledge, it is at the center of all learning experiences. Language is a powerful tool that shapes all thoughts and perceptions. Without the language of words, thoughts and perceptions would not exist. Vygotsky's theory lends insight to understanding second language acquisition. To acquire knowledge of a second language, a student must think before any new ideas can be formulated. Therefore, if a student is learning English as a second language, the student must be competent in their primary native language before they can think about the present before each new understanding of the second language can be internalized and mentally unified. Language and thought each provide a resource for the other.

The destruction of Rome resulted in a period of decline

(A.D. 500-800, the Dark Ages).

Definite article

(i.e., limited or fixed amount) article the Definite: I lost the bottle that belongs to me

Indefinite article

(i.e., no limit or fixed amount) articles 'a' and 'an'. Note: 'An' only comes before words that start with a vowel sound (i.e., vowels include a, e, i, o, u, and y). For example, "Are you going to get an umbrella?" Indefinite: Does anyone have a bottle to share?

Speech Emergence Instructional Strategies

- Use question prompts that ask students to answer "who, what, when, where, why and how" in written assignments - Use question prompts that require a written or oral response of at least one sentence - Ask students to write in a daily journal - Use games and role playing to illustrate oral and written text - Use media, technology, and the Internet to illustrate examples - Ask students to problem-solve using real-world events

General characteristics of the Renaissance

1. The emphasis was on man rather than God 2. There was a reawakening or rebirth of classical models 3. The ideal of the "universal man" was widely held

The point in a plot that is called the climax refers to the: A. development of the setting B. turning point of the story C. falling action D. ending of the story

B. turning point of the story The point in the plot where there is a rising action and in which a conflict takes a decisive turn is its climax. This is typically followed by falling action. Other terms associated with the development of a narrative include setting, characterization, and denouement, which refers to the solution of a problem or the final outcome of the conflict in a literary work.

Which of the following sentences shows the correct usage and punctuation of the ALL CAPS words? A. To a large degree, POETRY ALONG WITH THE OTHER ARTS is a form of imitation. B. To a large degree, POETRY, ALONG WITH ALL THE OTHER ARTS, ARE a form of imitation. C. To a large degree, POETRY, ALONG WITH ALL OTHER ARTS, IS a form of imitation. D. To a large degree, POETRY AND ART ARE a form of imitation.

C. To a large degree, POETRY, ALONG WITH ALL OTHER ARTS, IS a form of imitation. Along with the other arts should be set off by commas, and is is the correct verb form to agree with poetry, a singular subject.

Colonization of Maryland

Established by Lord Baltimore in 1632 in the hopes of providing refuge for English Catholics. The Protestant majority, however, opposed this religious tolerance.

The Beginning Reader

K-1st grade 2nd-3rd grade

Sons of Liberty

Protest group headed by Samuel Adams that incited the Revolution.

Reading Ability Assessment

Skill: Word recognition, reading ability level Standard assessment tools: San Diego Quick and 40L Quick Screen Reading Grade Level Test Description: These tests measure the student's ability to recognize words in and out of context. This assessment is given because some students may rely on the context of a sentence to "read between the lines" in order to recognize the definition of a word. In general, proficient readers can read words in and out of context, and poor readers over-rely on context for decoding. This assessment also assists the teacher in determining a level to start testing in oral reading inventories. This test is scored by the number of errors based on existing grade level. The words within each list are of about equal difficulty.

Phoneme classification

Teacher will ask the student to identify the word that sounds different and "does not belong" among the choices. Example: "Tell me which word does not belong: ball, bell, run." run

California from 1930 to 1960

The Great Depression hit California as it did all other states. However, isolated from the environmental disaster of the Dust Bowl, California agriculture continued to be productive, attracting displaced farmers and other workers from the rest of the country. World War II revived the nation's economy, but nowhere more than in California. The great economic boom lasted well beyond the war, resulted in what some would call "the second gold rush." A. The economic collapse of 1930 resulted in large-scale unemployment, bank failures, and foreclosures.

Presidential and Congressional Reconstruction

* Presidential Reconstruction - Abraham Lincoln/Andrew Johnson "With malice toward none" -- Amnesty plan - Southerners pardoned -- Confederate states must ratify Thirteenth Amendment, nullify state secession ordinances -- South must repudiate all debts owed by the Union to the Confederate states -- Provisional governors to protect rights of freedmen. * Congressional Reconstruction - Thaddeus Stevens/Charles Sumner Punish the South -- South divided into four military districts -- States must ratify Fourteenth Amendment - equal right to freedmen. -- State constitution include a guarantee for full suffrage to freedmen. -- Fifteenth Amendment - right to vote for freedmen.

California Missions

* Purpose - Create permanent and self-sufficient Spanish settlements in California - Defend Spanish empire to the south in Mexico - Win Catholic converts among indigenous people * Organization - Built in areas with high concentration of native population - Church, workshops, kitchens, living quarters, and storerooms constructed from materials on hand. - Cultivation of cereal grains, grapes, fruit trees, and olives; raising of livestock * Positive Outcomes - Provided presidios (Spanish garrisons) with food and goods - In some cases enjoyed great economical success - Gave Spanish a foothold in California * Negative Outcomes - Fatally exposed the Indians to European diseases - Destroyed native culture - Exploited indigenous labor force

Causes of the Civil War

* Social-Economic Differences between North and South - South: -- Economy dependent on King Cotton and slave labor -- Northern criticism viewed as an attack on Southerners' entire way of life - North: -- Economy more industrial than agricultural; based on free labor -- Modernity and progress; no future for feudal Southern society * States' Rights vs. Federal Authority - South: -- Doctrine of nullification; states could nullify federal laws - North: -- Rejected nullification; Constitution made federal government supreme * Expansion of Slavery - South: -- Cotton exhausted soil of the "Old South;" expansion key to the South's survival -- New slave states admitted (Missouri, Kansas, and Texas) - North: -- Expansion of slavery westward - would United States ever ride itself of slavery? -- No more slave states in the Union; California admitted as a free state in 1850

Four River Valley Civilizations

* Southeast Asia (Tigris and Euphrates rivers: Mesopotamia. Development: Writing (cuneiform), Organized government, Written law code (Hammurabi's Code), Systematized religion (Zoroastrianism), Astronomy'astrology * Northeastern Africa (Banks of Nile River, Mediterranean, and Red Seas): Egypt. Development: Complex religion of gods/rituals/ and governance (pharaoh), Writing (hieroglyphics), Engineering and building (pyramids), Mathematics *Southern Asia (Indus and Ganges rivers, Arabian Sea); India Development: Urban culture, planned cities (i.e., citywide sanitation systems), Metallurgy (gold, copper, bronze/tin), Measurement (weight, time, length, mass) * East Asia (Yellow River): China Development: Writing, Commerce, Government

Europeans in the New World

* Spain 1492: Columbus - West Indies; Bahamas 1513: Balboa - Panama 1519: Cortes - Mexico 1532: Pizarro - Peru * Portugal 1500: Cabral - Brazil * Britain: 1607: Virginia Co. - Jamestown (Virginia) * France: 1608: de Champlain - Canada (Quebec) 1682: La Salle - Louisiana * Netherlands 1609: Hudson - New Netherlands (New York)

Compare and Contrast Spain and Mexico

* Spain - Alta California was a colony of Spain. California not viewed as a reliable source of revenue. - Spanish colonization did not start until the late eighteenth century. Spanish presence never strong enough to enforce restrictions on trading with non-Spanish merchants. - Spanish colonization was built on three strategies: 1. Missions: Self-supporting religious centers. Twenty one missions built between 1769-1823. 2. Presidios (garrisons): Established to provide coastal defense and protection to the pueblos and missions. 3. Pueblos (towns): Developed to provide agriculture for the presidios and as population centers. * Mexico - Territory of the Republic of Mexico - Mexican authority never strong. Mexico allowed trade with foreigners and issued land grants to individual Mexican citizens. - Missions secularized and lands sold to powerful local families (Californios) - Ranchos owned by Californios - the dominant institutions - Mexican rule marked by feuds among the ranchos and with Mexican government. Encroachment of non-Mexicans into California increased.

Impact of the Great Depression on California

- 375,000 "Okies" and "Arkies" migrated out of the Dust Bowl Midwest to California -- 142 agricultural workers for every 100 jobs by 1934 -- Wages fell to $0.15 per hour in Imperial and San Joaquin fields - Mexican repatriation -- Competition for agricultural jobs made Mexican workers a target -- Mexican national and Mexican Americans deported or forcibly repatriated - Film industry providing a relatively inexpensive ($0.15 per ticket) escape from reality, 'increasing' the popularity of Hollywood films. - Falling prices and rising surpluses forced production cutes in oil industry

Types of Maps

- A physical map is one that shows natural features such as mountains, rivers, lakes, deserts, and plains. Color is used to designate the different features. - A topographical map is a type of physical map that shows relief and configuration of a landscape, such as hills, valleys, fields, forests, roads, and settlements. It includes natural and human-made features. - A topological map is one on which lines are stretched or straightened for the sake of clarity, but retain their essential geometric relationship. This type of map is used, for example, to show the routes of a subway system. - A political map uses lines for state, county, and county boundaries; points or dots for cities and towns; and various other symbols for features such as airports and roads.

Important Documents in United States History and Government

- Declaration of Independence (1776) - The Articles of Confederation (1777) - The Constitution (1787) and the Bill of Rights (1791) - The Northwest Ordinance (1787) - The Federalist Papers (1787-88) - George Washington's Inaugural Address (1789) and Farewell Address (1796) - The Alien and Sedition Act (1798) - The Louisiana Purchase Treaty (1803) - The Monroe Doctrine (1823); The Missouri Compromise (1830) - The Compromise of 1850 - The Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) - The Homestead Act (1862) - The Emancipation Proclamation (1863) - The agreement to purchase Alaska (1866) - The Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890) - Theodore Roosevelt's Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1905) - The Social Security Act (1935) and other acts of the New Deal in the 1930s; The Truman Doctrine (1947); The Marshall Plan (1948) - The Civil Rights Act (1964)

The government under the Constitution solved many major problems

1. A federal system was created that divided federal and state power. 2. Separation of powers and checks and balances were included to limit the power of the central government

Market Economy

- Economic Freedom: There is freedom of choice with respect to jobs, salaries, production, and price. - Economic incentives: A positive incentive is to make a profit. However, if the producer tries to make too high a profit, the consequences might be that no one will purchase the item at that price. A negative incentive would be a drop in profits, causing the producer to decrease or discontinue production. A boycott, which might cause the producer to change business practices or policies, is also a negative economic incentive. - Competition: There is more than one producer for any given product. Consumers thereby have choices about what to buy, which are usually made based on quality and price. Competition is an incentive for a producer to make the best product at the best price. Otherwise, producers will lose business to the competition. - Private ownership: Production and profits belong to an individual or to a private company, not to the government. - Limited government: Government plays no role in the economic decisions of its individual citizens.

Reasons for American Revolution

- England was remote yet controlling. By 1775, few Americans had ever been to England. They considered themselves Americans, not English. - During the Seven Years' War (aka French and Indian War) from 1754-1763, Americans including George Washington, served in the British Army, but were treated as inferiors. - It was feared that the Anglican Church might try to expand in the colonies and inhabit religious freedom. - Heavy taxation such as the Sugar and Stamp Acts, which were creates solely to create revenue for the crown, and business control such as restricting trade of certain products to England only, were burdensome. - The colonies had no official representation in the English Parliament and wanted to govern themselves. - There were fears that Britain would block westward expansion and independent enterprise - Local government, established through elections by property holders was already functioning.

Classic Forms of Government

- Feudalism: This based on the rule of local lords who are loyal to the king and control the lives and production of those who work on their land. - Classical republic: This form is a representative democracy. Small groups of elected leaders represent the interests of the electorate. - Absolute monarchy: A king or queen has complete control of the military and government. - Authoritarianism: An individual or group has complete control of the military and government. - Dictatorship: Those in power are not held responsible to the people. - Autocracy: This is rule by one person (despot), not necessarily a monarch, who uses power tyrannically. - Oligarchy: A small, usually self-appointed elite rules a region. - Liberal democracy: This is a government based on the consent of the people that protects individual rights and freedoms from any intolerance by the majority. - Totalitarianism: All facets of the citizen's lives are controlled by the government

Problems with Articles Became Clear during the "Critical Period" after the Revolutionary War (1781-1789)

- Had to rely on requesting funds from the states. - Did not bind the states together in a true union - No centralized control over trade. -- Uniform tariffs could not be imposed -- States could impose their own trade restrictions against other states - Thirteen different currencies continued to exist - No authority to borrow money inside or outside the United States - Lacked balance in Congress between large and small states -- All states given one vote, even though large states were expected to provide more financial support than small states - Changes or amendments needed for unanimous approval - No executive authority to balance the power of Congress or ensure that laws of Congress were carried out.

Production and Distribution of Writing Questions

- Identify grammar and sentence structure errors using the rules of standard written English - Identify the writing process used to write a clear and coherent essay - Identify the supporting reasoning, claims, and evidence in writing assignments - Identify methods to strengthen and organize writing assignments. - Identify, edit, and revise errors in passages (paragraphs and sentences). - Use technology to produce and publish a written document.

Range of Writing Questions

- Identify how to provide writing instruction that helps students respond to a range of literary and informational tasks - Identify how to provide writing instruction that helps students produce a range of writing tasks over a short or long period of time

Federal Taxes

- Income taxes on individuals: This is a complex system because of demands for various exemptions and rates. Further, the schedule of rates can be lowered or raised according to economic conditions in order to stimulate or restrain economic activity. For example, a tax can cut can provide an economic stimulus, while a tax increase can slow down the rate of inflation. Personal income tax generates about five times as much as corporate taxes. Rates are based on an individual's income, and range from 10 to 35 percent. - Income taxes on corporations: The same complexity of exemptions and rates exists for corporations as individuals. Taxes can be raised and lowered according to the need to stimulate or restrain the economy. - Excise tax: These are taxes on specific goods such as tobacco, liquor, automobiles, gasoline, air travel, and luxury items, or on activities such as highway usage by trucks. - Custom duties: These are taxes imposed on imported goods. They serve the regulate trade between the United States and other countries.

Factors of Production and Types of Markets that create Economic flow

- Land: This includes not only actual land, but also forests, minerals, water, etc. - Labor: This is the work force required to produce goods and services including factors such as talent, skills, and physical labor. - Capital: This is the cash and material equipment needed to produce goods and services, including buildings, property, tools, office equipment, roads, etc. - Entrepreneurship: Persons with initiative can capitalize on the free market system by producing goods and services. Two types of markets are factor and product markets. The factor market consists of the people who exchange their services for wages. The people are sellers and companies are buyers. The product market is the selling of products to the people who want to buy them. The people are the buyers and the companies are the sellers. This exchange creates a circular economic flow in which money goes from the producers to workers as wages, and then flows back to produces in the form of payment for products.

Sherman's March to the Sea

1864 - Union: Maj. Gen Willliam Tecumseh Sherman; Confederate: Lt. Gen. John Bell Hood. - Sherman's troops captured Atlanta and pushed ahead to capture Savannah. The brutality of these battles and the burning of Atlanta left a legacy of bitterness toward the North.

Important Terms related to Maps

- Latitude and Longitude: Latitude and longitude are the imaginary lines (horizontal and vertical, respectively) that divide the globe into a grid. Both are measured using the 360 degrees of a circle. - Coordinates: These are the latitude and longitude measures for a place. - Absolute location: This is the exact spot where coordinates meet. The grid system allows the location of every place on the planet to be identified. - Equator: This is line at 0 degrees latitude that divides the earth into two equal halves called hemispheres. - Parallels: This is another name for lines of latitude because they circle the earth in parallel lines that never meet. - Meridians: This is another name for lines or longitude. The Prime Meridian is located at 0 degrees longitude, and is the starting point for measuring distance (both east and west) around the globe. Meridians circle the earth and connect at the Poles.

Major Supreme Court Cases

- Marbury vs. Madison (1803): This ruling established judicial review as a power of the Supreme Court. - Dred Scott vs. Sandford (1857): This decision upheld property rights over human rights in the case of a slave who had been transported to a free state by his master, but was still considered a slave. - Brown vs. Board of Education (1954): The Court ruled that segregation was a violation of the Equal Protection Clause and that the "separate but equal" practice in education was unconstitutional. This decision overturned the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson ruling that permitted segregation if facilities were equal. - Miranda v. Arizona (1966): This ruling made the reading of Miranda rights to those arrested for crimes the law. It ensured that confessions could not be illegally obtained and that citizen rights to fair trails and protection under the law would be upheld.

Division of Pwers

- National: This level can coin money, regulate interstate and foreign trade, raise and maintain armed forces, declare war, govern United States territories and admit new states, and conduct foreign relations. - Concurrent: This level can levy and collect taxes, borrow money, established courts, define crimes and set punishments, and claim private property for public use. - State: This level can regulate trade and business within the state, establish public schools, pass license requirements for professionals, regulate alcoholic beverages, conduct elections, and establish local governments.

Four Hemispheres, North and South Poles, Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, and Arctic and Antarctic Circles

- Northern Hemisphere: This is the area above, or north, of the equator. - Southern Hemisphere: This is the area below, or south of the equator. - Western Hemisphere: This is the area between the North and South Poles. It extends west from the Prime Meridian to the International Date Line. - Eastern Hemisphere: This is the area between North and South Poles. It extends east from the Prime Meridian to the International Date Line. - North and South Poles: Latitude is measured in terms of degrees north and south from the equator. The North Pole is located at 90 degrees North latitude, while the South Pole is located at 90 degrees South latitude. - Tropic of Cancer: This is the parallel, or latitude, 23.5 degrees north of the equator. - Tropic of Capricorn: This is the parallel, or latitude, 23.5 degrees south of the equator. The region between these two parallels is the tropics. The subtropics is the area located between 23.5 degrees and 40 degrees north and south of the equator. - Arctic Circle: This is the parallel, or latitude, 66.5 degrees north of the equator. - Antarctic Circle: This is the parallel, or latitude, 66.5 degrees south of the euqator.

Major Events of the 1960s

- The Cuban Missile Crisis (1961): This was a stand-off between the United States and the Soviet Union over a build-up of missiles in Cuba. Eventually, the Soviets stopped their shipments and a nuclear war was averted. - The assassination of President John F. Kennedy (19630, Senator Robert Kennedy (1968), and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (1968). - The Civil Rights Movement- Protest marches held across the nation to draw attention to the plight of black citizens. From 1964 to 1968, race riots exploded in more than 100 cities. - The Vietnam War (1964-73): This resulted in a military draft. There was heavy involvement of American personnel and money. There were also protest demonstrations, particularly on college campuses. At Kent State, several students died after being shot by National Guardsmen. - Major legislation: Legislation passed during this decade included the Civil Rights Act, the Clean Air Act, and the Water Quality Act. This decade also saw the creation of the Peace Corps, Medicare, and the War on Poverty, in which billions were appropriated for education, urban redevelopment, and public housing.

Famous Speeches in US History that defined Government Policy, Foreign Relations, and American Spirit

- The Gettysburg Address: Made by Abraham Lincoln on November 19, 1863, it dedicated the battleground's cemetery. - The Fourteen Points: Made by Woodrow Wilson on January 18, 1918, this outlined Wilson's plans for peace and the League of Nations. - Address to Congress: Made by Franklin Roosevelt on December 8, 1941, it declared war on Japan and described the attack on Pearl Harbor as "a day which will live in infamy" - Inaugural Address: Made by John F. Kennedy on January 20, 1961, it contained the famous line "ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for country" - Berlin Address: Made by JFK on June 26th, 1963, it contained the famous line "Ich bin ein Berliner," which expressed empathy for West Berliners in their conflict with the Soviet Union. - "I Have A Dream" and "I See the Promised Land": made by Martin Luther King, Jr. on August 28, 1963, and April 3, 1968, respectively, these speeches were hallmarks of the Civil Rights Movement. - Bradenburg Gate speech: Made by Ronald Regan on June 12, 1987, this speech was about the Berlin Wall and the end of the Cold War. It contained the famous line "Tear down this wall."

Major turning points of the American Revolution

- The actions of the Second Continental Congress - This body established the Continental Army and chose George Washington as its commanding general. They allowed printing of money and created government offices. - "Common Sense" - Published in 1776 by Thomas Paine, this pamphlet calling for independence was widely distributed. - The Declaration of Independence - Written by Thomas Jefferson, it was ratified on July 4, 1776 by the Continental Congress assembled in Philadelphia - Alliance with France- Benjamin Franklin negotiated an agreement with France to fight with the Americans in 1778. - Treaty of Paris- In 1782, it signaled the official end of the war, granted independence to the colonies, and gave them generous territorial rights

Background to the French Revolution

1. An inequitable class structure was the basic cause of the revolution 2. A disorganized legal system and no representative assembly added to the problems of the government 3. Enlightenment philosophy influenced the middle class 4. The bankruptcy of the French treasury was the immediate cause of the revolution 5. The "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen" (influenced by Locke's ideas) defined enlightenment concepts of national law and the sovereignty of the people.

Renaissance—Rebirth of Classical Greek and Roman Culture

- Works of Greeks and Romans reconnected Europeans with their ancient heritage - Emphasis on "humanism" a. Progress through rational thought b. Universal nature of the human condition - Secularism a. Writings of the Greek and Roman philosophers and commentaries on their works b. Free politics and governance from Church control - Realism and formalism a. Art that emphasized the lives of everyday people; realistic rather than idealized depictions b. Architecture based on Greek and Roman forms

Text Types and Purposes Questions

- Write a clear and coherent argument essay using sufficient evidence and reasoning - Write an informative or explanatory essay that compares and contrasts two viewpoints - Write an effective narrative essay that develops real or imagined events and experiences

Major Deities of Greek and Roman Mythology

- Zeus/Jupiter: Head of the Pantheon, god of the sky. - Hera/Juno: Wife of Zeus/Jupiter, goddess of marriage. -Poseidon/Neptune: God of the seas - Demeter/Ceres: Goddess of grain - Apollo: God of the sun, law, music, archery, healing, and truth - Artemis/Diana: Goddess of the moon, wild creatures, and hunting - Athena/Minerva: Goddess of civilized life, handicrafts, and agriculture - Aphrodite/Venus: Goddess of love and beauty - Ares/Mars: God of war - Dionysus/Bacchus: God of wine and vegetation - Hades/Pluto: God of the underworld and the dead - Eros/Cupid: Minor god of love - Hestia/Vesta: Goddess of the hearth or home - Hermes/Mercury: Minor god of gracefulness and swiftness

Battle of Appomattox Courthouse

-1865 -Union: Gen. Ulysses S. Grant; Confederate commander: Gen. Robert E. Lee -Final engagement of the war; ended with Lee's surrender to Grant

California's Progressive Reforms

-1902: Los Angeles introduced the initiative, referendum, and recall to city charter -1909: State legislature approved the Direct Primary, taking choice of nominees from office out of hands of political machines -1910: Progressive governor Hiram Johnson election along with a progressive legislature -1911: -- initiative, referendum, and recall added to state's constitution -- workers' compensation law -- railroad regulation -- regulation of all public utilities -- Alien Land Law, which prohibited aliens not eligible for citizenship (Japanese) from purchasing or leasing land in California

Impact of World War II on California: Economic

-Aircraft and shipbuilding industries boomed with defense work ---11.9% of all U.S. government war contracts ---17% of all war supplies made in California ---Defense boom lasted through the next 3 decades -More military bases and installations than any other state (California became the "defense center" of the nation) -Oil and mineral resource production at maximum levels -New industries supported defense efforts throughout the state -Film industry increased production (entertainment and war propaganda movies)

California 1848-1850

-California ceded by Mexico to the United States (Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo) -Military government established -Discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in 1848 ---"Rush" of 100,000 new immigrants -Deadlock in Washington over organizing California as a territory due to slavery debate -Californians held constitutional convention of their own ---Created an unofficial state government ---Slavery prohibited -California admitted to the Union as a free state via Compromise of 1850

Muslim Contributions

-Institutions: hospitals, medical schools, libraries, universities -Agriculture: cash crops, crop rotation, irrigation -Mathematics: algebra, algorithms, Arabic numerals, decimal point -Globalization: exploration, work of scholars, trade (Atlantic, Mediterranean, Indian Ocean, China Sea) -Science: methodology, theory and experimentation, astrolabe (astronomical instrument used to locate and predict the positions of the sun, moon, planet and stars), alchemy -Arts: calligraphy, illuminated manuscripts, glazed pottery, Persian and Arabian mythology -Medicine: forceps, bone saw, scalpel, surgical needle -Technology: mechanical clocks, pointed arch, stained glass, windmill -Poetry, philosophy, literature

The need for a strong central government led to the framing of the Constitution (1789)

...

The discovery of gold by James W. Marshall in 1848 changed the political, social, and economic history of the state

1. "Gold fever" became a national phenomenon; the California settler population increased tremendously from 15,000 in 1847 to 92,000 in 1850, and 300,000 in 1860. 2. This population growth led to statehood. (California was the thirty-fifth state.)

The results of the Industrial Revolution

1. A dramatic increase in productivity and the rise of the factory system. 2. Demographic changes (from rural to urban centers) 3. The division of society into defined classes (propertied and nonpropertied) 4. The development of modern capitalism (profits linked to the manufacturing of products)

The rise of feudal monarchs resulted in the development of the nation-states of France

1. By the early thirteenth century, royal authority had expanded and France had become a European power. 2. Conflicts with the pope over the extent of religious rule resulted in an increase authority of the monarch. 3. The Hundred Years War (1377-1453) between England and France resulted in the English being driven out of France

The U.S. entry into World War II brought economic revitalization to California

1. California's manufacturing base was greatly increased (airplanes, ships, and other war products). 2. California became the "defense center" of the nation.

President James Polk indirectly supported the annexation of California

1. Captain John C. Fremont, possibly acting on presidential orders, raised the U.S. flag near Monterey, and then retreated from the area. 2. War was declared on Mexico in 1846 (the Mexican-American Way). a. The Bear Flag Revolt prematurely captured California (1846). b. Commodore John Sloat captured Monterey Bay and claimed the area for the United States. c. General Robert Stockton captured Los Angeles; Governor Pio Pico and General Jose Castro retook the area for Mexico. d. General Stockton and Stephen Kearny defeated Pico and raised the American flag over Los Angeles in 1847. 3. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) transferred California from Mexico to American control.

China from Sungs through the Manchus

1. Chinese civilization continued under the Sungs (A.D. 960-1279). a. The Chinese Empire lost much territory after the fall of the Tang rulers b. Advances in education, art, and science contributed to an improved way of life 2. The importance of city life in the Sung Empire a. Foreign trade enabled populations to grow in cities, and to become sophisticated. b. The family was the focus of Chinese life. c. Women had lower status than men. 3. The Mongols ruled in China. a. Genghis Khan united nomadic peoples and conquered China b. Kublia Khan became emperor of China c. Marco Polo, the Italian explorer, opened the door to trade with China and describe the Mongol Empire 4. Chinese culture was maintained by the Ming and Machu Dynasties a. The Ming (native Chinese) ousted the Mongols b. Ming (1368-1644) rulers limited contact with the West. c. The Manchus (1664-1911) overran China and followed a policy of isolationism, weakening China. 5. The teachings of Confucius influenced Chinese culture a. Confucius wanted to improve society b. Confucius taught that certain virtues are guidelines to happy life

Philosophy influenced by the Age of Reason

1. Christianity and church dogma were questioned. 2. The proper function of government was defined by Voltaire, Montesquieu, Locke, and Rousseau. Their ideas led to the philosophical bases for the American and French revolutions. 3. In economics, the doctrine of "laissez faire" (limited government intervention in business affairs) stood in opposition to regulated trade 4. Adam Smith wrote the 'Wealth of Nations' (1776) and advocated manufacturing as the true source of a nation's wealth (the laws of the market place and not government regulations dictate national economies); considered the father of modern economics

Basic Doctrines of Christianity

1. Christianity began with the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth (compassion for the poor and downtrodden). 2. It emphasized the 'Holy Bible' as the word of God, the sacraments as the instruments of God's grace, and the importance of a moral life for salvation 3. Paul the Apostle was responsible for the spread of Christian theology and the resulting response from the Roman Empire 4. St. Augustine (A.D. 354-430) became the first great Christian philosopher; he wrote 'Confessions' and 'City of God'

The Franks became the dominant Germanic tribe.

1. Clovis (A.D. 481-511) was converted to Christianity 2. Domestic feuds and civil war broke out among the Merovingians (A.D. 561) a. Political power shifted away from the monarchy. b. Charles Martel halted the Muslim advance into Europe at the Battle of Tours (A.D. 732). Martel's victory helped preserve western civilization

The Renaissance began in Italy during the fourteenth century

1. Conflicts between the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries resulted in regional autonomy for the Italian city-states. 2. The heritage if the Greek and Roman civilizations contributed to the development of the Italian Renaissance 3. The Crusades focused attention eastward (on Greece and the Near East) 4. By the fourteenth century, the move toward secularization was predominant.

Constantine established a "New Rome" at Constantinople in A.D. 330

1. Constantinople was strategically located, had excellent defensible borders, and was a crossroads of world trade 2. With the fall of Rome (A.D. 476), the Eastern Roman Empire became known as the Byzantine Empire

Japanese-Americans were relocated from coastal areas to inland detention camps (1942)

1. Constitutional and moral questions were raised. 2. The Japanese were forced to sell their homes and businesses on short notice at huge losses. 3. Manzanar, a World War II Relocation Center, became a national historical site in 1992.

Egypt established a civilization in the Nile Valley (3000 B.C.)

1. Defensible borders generally spared Egypt from the repeated political disruptions characteristic of Mesopotamia 2. Egyptian history can be broadly outlined in specific time periods that reflect the changes taking place in Egypt over a 3,000-year period 3. Significant aspects of Egyptian civilization include the following: a. Egyptian life was dominated by concerns for the afterlife, religion, and the pharaoh b. Medieval advances and specialized surgery were major contributions c. The Egyptians invented a hieroglyphic writing system d. Commerce flourished throughout Arabia, India, and part of Asia e. Agriculture was the basis of the economy f. Monumental architecture reflected remarkable building and engineering feats, as well as mathematical precision. g. Annual flooding in the Nile was the basis for the sustained economy; the Nile had an impact on all of Egyptian society

Greek civilization was dominated by Athens and Sparta

1. Direct democracy was established in Athens (c. 507 B.C.) 2. The Age of Pericles (406-429 B.C.) represented the zenith of Athenian society and the height of its democracy 3. Athens became a world commercial center and cosmopolitan city. 4. Sparta developed a totalitarian and militaristic state dependent on slave labor to sustain its agricultural system 5. After defeating the Persians, conflict between Athens and Sparta dominated Greek politics.

Key Ideas and Details

Types of Questions: - Identify the main idea or central theme and analyze its development - Identify reasons or details that support the main idea - Make logical inferences - Cite specific evidence to support conclusions - Analyze the interaction and development of key characters and events

Napoleon and the First Empire (1804-1815)

1. Domestic reforms resulted in a more efficient government. a. No tax exemptions were allowed for lineage, and government promotion was based on ability. b. The Code of Napoleon modernized French law (equality before the law). 2. International relations placed France against Europe a. Napoleon won territory from the Holy Roman Empire and forced Spain to cede the Louisiana territory to France b. The "continental system" was a failed French attempt to close the continent to British trade in hopes of destroying the British economy. c. The Battle of Waterloo (1815) ended in defeat for Napoleon and ended the French Empire. Napoleon was permanently exiled to St. Helena

Depression-era California

1. Dust Bowl migrants added more than 350,000 to the population. 2. Economic and social problems, including homelessness, confronted the state.

Reasons for the Byzantine's success (The empire lasted for 1,000 years)

1. Economic prosperity was based on domination of the commercial trade routes controlled by Constantinople and a monopoly of the silk trade 2. The Byzantines made excellent use of diplomacy to avoid invasions, and they were geographically distant from the tribes who sacked Rome. 3. Codification of Roman law by Justinian ( A.D. 528-565) strengthened the bureaucracy 4. Constantinople was a fortress city with excellent defensible borders

Strategies for Teaching Tier 2 Vocabulary Words

1. Emphasize the "meaning" of a word. A teacher plans to have his third-grade class read the novel "Stone Fox" by John Reynolds Gardiner. In this novel, a young boy enters a dogsled race in hopes of winning prize money to pay the taxes on his grandfather's farm. The teacher knows that understanding the concept of taxes is important to understanding the novel's plot. Therefore, before his students begin reading the novel the teacher may use several class activities to make sure the students understand what the concept means and why it is important to the story. The teacher may: - engage students in a discussion of the concept of taxes - read a sentence from the book that contains the word taxes and ask students to use context and their prior knowledge to try to figure out what it means -ask students to use the word taxes in a written sentence 2. Provide repeated exposure to the word through reading texts. The best way to expand vocabulary is to give reading tasks that expose students to specific word choices. For example, a second-grade class is reading a biography of Benjamin Franklin. The teacher wants to make sure that her students understand the meaning of the words science and scientist, both because the words are important to understanding the biography and because they are obviously very useful words to know in school and everyday life. The biography provides specific vocabulary instruction because the text repeatedly discusses Franklin's important role as a scientist. 3. Introduce word parts. By introducing new "word parts" of a new vocabulary word, students can noticeably expand their ability to understand the general meaning of other words. Knowing some common prefixes and suffixes (affixes), base words and root words can help students decode, interpret, and comprehend increasingly complex vocabulary words, For example, if students learn the four most common prefixes in English (un-, re-, in-, dis-), they will have important clues about the meaning of about two-thirds of all English words that have prefixes. Prefixes are relatively easy to learn because they have clear meanings (for example, un- means not and re- means again); they are usually spelled the same way from word to word; and of course, they always occur at the beginning of words 4. Use context clues. Context clues are hints about the meaning of an unknown words that are provided in the words, phrases, and sentences that surround the word. Context clues include definitions, restatements, examples, or descriptions. Because students learn most words meanings indirectly or from context, it is important that they learn to use context clues effectively. 5. Use print and digital dictionaries and other reference aids. When students use print or digital reference aids, they can easily eliminate inappropriate definitions based on the context of the defined words. For example, in searching for the definition of the word board in a dictionary, students can eliminate the wrong board is "to get on a train, an airplane, a bus, or ship." Next, the teacher has students substitute the most likely definition for board in the original sentence to verify that the sentence makes sense: "The children were waiting to get on the buses."

The opening of new worlds was associated with the Age of Discovery

1. European explorers in search of Asia discovered a new continent. 2. The Age of Discovery resulted in renewed European rivalry 3. Spain, France, England, Portugal, and the Netherlands competed for land.

Delegated powers granted by the Constitution

1. Expressed or enumerated powers: These are specifically spelled out in the Constitution. 2. Implied Powers: These are not expressed stated, but are reasonably suggested by the expressed powers. 3. Inherent Powers: These are not expressed in the Constitution but ones that national governments have historically possessed, such as granting diplomatic recognition. Powers can also be classified or reserved or exclusive. Reserved power are not granted to the national government, but not denied to the states. Exclusive powers are those reserved to the national government, including concurrent powers.

African civilizations south of the Sahara

1. Famous empires grew in the West African savanna: Ghana, Mali, and Songhai 2. The East African Coast saw the development of city-states a. East African civilization was based on international trade and seaport cities b. Swahili culture developed its own language and thrived in the city-states c. The Portuguese destroyed much of the East African trade after 1500 3. The Kingdom of Zimbabwe developed in the interior a. Zimbabwe grew from an iron-working settlement b. Huge stone structures were constructed c. Zimbabwe's economy was based on the gold trade 4. Islam stimulated new states of West Africa and spread Islamic culture and religion 5. The forest states developed strong governments a. Benin grew wealthy and powerful until European contact threatened society b. Slave trade produced wealth for the cities and expansion of the slave trade extended into Africa's interior c. Trade, taxes, and a powerful government resulted in Asante becoming a strong state.

Reconstruction attempts to reunite the nation (1865-1876)

1. Following the Civil War, the economic, political, social, and military reconstruction of the South was necessary. 2. The president and Congress differed on how to reconstruct the South. a. The presidential plan emphasized tolerance for the defeated South. b. The congressional (Radical) plan emphasized the use of military force in treating the South like a conquered territory. 3. Reconstruction was under Radical control from 1866 to 1876 a. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments were passed. b. Civil Rights bills were passed. c. Military rule supported Radical Republicans. d. President Johnson was impeached for opposing Radical Republicans. 4. The disputed election of 1878 ended Radical Reconstruction with the election of Hayes. a. Social justice for blacks received a setback. b. The national commitment to equal opportunity was delayed 100 years. c. Jim Crow laws and Black Codes further restricted Black rights.

Africa is a land of geographical diversity

1. Four rivers (Nile, Congo, Niger, and Zambezi) were important to Africa's economic history 2. Egyptian civilization developed in the Nile Valley 3. Africa above the Sahara is often associated with Arab influences 4. The irregular coastline (no natural harbors) of the African continent restricted European exploration

The industrial growth of the United States was greatly expanded

1. Inventions promoted industrial growth. 2. Raw materials and geographic factors contributed to regional economic diversity. 3. The development of communication and transportation aided the industrial growth of America. 4. New methods of production such as division of labor, standardized parts, the assembly line, and mass production fostered the expansion of the industry. 5. Expanding markets at home and abroad encourages industrial expansion. 6. The development of the steel, mining, electric, petroleum, textile, and food-processing industries characterized the period.

Native Americans in California

1. General characteristics of California Indians prior to European contact. a. They spoke a great diversity of dialects. b. They represented the largest concentration of Indians in North America (estimated at 150,000 to 300,000). c. Dwellings reflected the groups' climatic and geographic locations; frame and plank houses in the north, brush shelters in the southern deserts, and earth houses along the coastal areas. d. The groups were not generally warlike, and weapons were not sophisticated (in comparison to those of the Plains Indians). e. Acorns were extensively used as a food source where oak trees were plentiful. This involved drying, storing, cracking, and leaching. f. The transportation reflected geographic factors. Balsa and raft-type boats were used in the south, and plank canoes were used in the north. 2. The shared heritage of the various tribes a. Lineage was traced on the paternal side. b. Native tobacco and jimsonweed were widely used in ceremonial activities. c. Sweathouses were used (men only) d. The groups' religions were similar in myths, creation stories, shamanism, and the influence of nature. e. Ceremonies dealt with birth, death, puberty, marriage, hunting, and so on. f. Fables dealt with animals and other natural phenomena of the region (coyote, raven, bear, snake, thunder, and so on). g. Roles were sex differentiated: The men hunted and fished, and the women gathered food and materials and killed small game. h. The oral story tradition was used by all California Indians. 3. Geographic factors isolated many tribes. Desert and mountain barriers restricted contact. a. Northern California tribes included the Yurok, Hupa, Modoc, and Pomo. b. Central California tribes included the Maidu and Miwok. c. Coastal tribes included the coastal Miwok, Esselen, and Chumash. d. Desert tribes included the Mojave and Serrano. e. Sierra Nevada tribes included the Miwok and Mono. 4. Their material belongings were similar. a. Subsistence agricultural implements: mortar and pestle, metate, grinding slab, and digging sticks. b. Receptacles: baskets (most famous), pottery, wood, and stone bowls. c. Musical instruments: drum, rattle, flute, rasp, and bow. d. Money: clam disks and olivella shells.

England developed permanent colonies in North America

1. Geographic diversity helped to create distinct economic regions a. The New England colonies were associated with farming and commerce. b. The middle colonies were associated with farming and commerce. c. The southern colonies were associated with tobacco, cotton, and slavery. 2. The English colonies began to develop self-government a. The House of Burgesses (1619) was early colonial attempt at representative b. The Mayflower Compact (1620) was the basis for government by the consent of the governed c. The colonists demanded their rights as Englishmen 3. The population of the colonies steadily increased a. Large families of ten or more common b. Steady immigration from abroad increased the overall population c. Europeans and Africans were the major population groups. 4. The idea of free public education started in the colonies. 5. Class distinctions were less rigid than in England, and a strong middle class emerged. 6. The most prevalent religion in the colonies was Protestant a. A single, established church was not practical in America. b. The decline of Puritanism led to greater religious tolerance.

Islamic Civilization

1. Government and religion developed the framework for prosperity a. Arabs preserved the cultures of the peoples they conquered b. Religious pilgrimages led to the spread of new ideas. c. The caliphs improved farming methods and crop yeilds d. Trade and commerce led to a high standard of living in cities. e. Military expansion also served as a vehicle from cultural exchange between the Arab western worlds. 2. Trade helped to spread Islamic culture a. Many factors helped trade expand, including no taxation and strong banking practices. b. Muslim trade spread Islamic culture to foreign lands c. Ibn Battuta (A.D. 1305-1368) spread Islamic culture by traveling widely 3. Science and the arts flourished under Muslim rule a. Muslim works on medicine, astronomy, and mathematics were highly advanced b. Architecture and literature flourished in Muslim culture c. Poetry and philosophy were common themes in Islamic books.

Contributions of the Greek world

1. Greeks founded most of the major philosophical schools, established the systematic basis for the scientific method, and perfected advances in shipbuilding and commerce 2. Greek civilization established democracy and a system of law to improve society 3. In architecture, sculpture, art, and literature, and the performing arts, the Greeks were dominant

The early national period tested the new federal government

1. Hamilton's financial plan placed the national government on a sound financial basis. a. The national government paid back the state, national, and foreign debts to demonstrate the credibility of the new government. b. The national government encouraged American business expansion by passing excise taxes and a tariff. c. The national government raised revenue by initiating a tax on domestic whiskey. d. The national government authorized the use of coins and paper money to encourage the growth of commerce. e. The national government encouraged the development of a national bank to facilitate the expansion of business. 2. Hamilton's financial plan led to the development of political parties. a. The Federalist Party believed in the concept of a strong central government ruled by the manufacturing interests of the country. (Hamilton) b. The Anti-Federalist Party believed in the concept of limited federal power based on the farming interests of the country. (Jefferson) c. The Federalist Party favored the rich and the wealthy d. The Anti-Federalists developed a political philosophy that believed in the worth of the individual 3. Foreign policy during the early national period was weak and ineffectual. 4. The Louisiana Purchase (1803) became the greatest real estate purchase in U.S. History

Populist reforms aimed to bring government closer to the people

1. Hiram Johnson (a progressive) was elected governor, and a reform program was initiated. a. Twenty-three amendments were added to the California Constitution (1911). b. The provision included women's suffrage; initiative, referendum, and recall; workmen's compensation; a new railroad commission; and others. 2. Anti-Japanese agitation continued. a. The Japanese were ineligible for citizenship (national law), they could not own land (the California Alien Land Act), and more restrictive federal legislation was passed against them in 1913 and 1924. b. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld anti-Japanese legislation. 3. The labor movement lost political power after an anarchist bombing in Los Angeles (1910).

Literature and philosophy reflected the new secular trends

1. Humanism stressed the importance of the individual 2. Machiavelli's 'The Prince' stressed that "the ends justify the means" as a political philosophy 3. The influence of the "classical" arts was strong, and a new emphasis was placed on science

Reasons for the spread of Christianity (the Roman period)

1. Individual conviction in one's beliefs (solidarity) had grown during the Roman persecution period. 2. The efficiency and organization of the early church administration 3. Doctrines that stressed equality and immortality 4. The conversion of Constantine to Christianity (A.D. 331) 5. The establishment of Christianity as the official Roman religion (A.D. 380) 6. The establishment of the supremacy of the pope at the time imperial Rome was disintegrating

The Muslim Empire and the rise of Islam

1. Islam is based on the teachings of Mohammed (A.D. 570-632) a. The spread of Islam started in the seventh century A.D. b. The 'Koran' became the center for Islamic moral and ethical conduct. c. Mohammed established a theocracy based on Islamic law 2. The Muslim empire was ruled by Arab caliphs a. Arabs conquered much of the Byzantine and Persian empires, including North Africa and Spain (1) The Battle of Tours (A.D. 732) resulted in Franks halting Muslim expansion in Europe (2) Muslim Spain lasted from A.D. 711 to 1031 b. The Umayyad dynasty increased Arab lands (A.D. 661-750) 3. The Muslim Empire divided a. The Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad - the capital moved to Baghdad. b. Iberian and North African Muslims broke with Baghdad's control. 4. Turks assumed leadership of the Muslim world. a. The Seljuks fought the crusaders and regained lost land. b. Mongols invaded the eastern Muslim Empire. c. The Ottoman Empire expanded territory and lasted for many centuries d. Constantinople was the center of the Ottoman Em[ire

Reasons for the decline of the Byzantine Empire

1. Its geographic proximity to the Arabs, Slavs, and Seljuk Turks, all of whom were becoming more powerful 2. The loss of commercial dominance of the Italians 3. Religious controversy with the West and a subsequent split with the Roman Catholic Church 4. The sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade 5. The fall of Constantinople (A.D. 1453) marked the end of the Byzantine Empire

Roman contributions to the wester world

1. Its greatest contribution was in the field of law. 2. Roman revolutionized building construction, engineering, and road construction (200,00 miles of roads) 3. Roman civilization passed on monumental architecture (the Colosseum, aqueducts, and so on) 4. The Romans continued the Greek tradition in literature, art, sculpture, and the hummanites

Jacksonian democracy (1826-1836) symbolized the rise of the "common man."

1. Jackson's war against the bank and the tariff were key issues for the new Democratic Party. 2. Jackson initiated the spoils system in which political enemies are replaced by political friends. 3. Jackson pursued nationalistic policies.

The emergence of Japan

1. Japan's geography influenced its history. a. Japanese culture reflects a reverence for nature. b. Mountains, forests, and coastal areas determined cultural growth 2. Early Japanese civilization borrowed from China a. Archeology has revealed Japan's ancient past b. Japanese culture developed during the Heian Era (A.D 794-1156) c. Poetic form such as the Haiku developed and literature spread 3. Feudalism and a samurai warrior-class developed a. There were three periods of feudal government - Kamakura, Ashikaga, and Tokugawa b. The Shogun was the actual ruler; the emperors were figureheads c. Nobles struggled for power during Ashikaga shogunate (1394-1573) d. The arts flourished. e. Central government grew strong during the Tokugawa era (1603-1868) f. The old Samurai class and feudal way of life declined, resulting in a major political and social changes 4. The accomplishments of the early Japanese a. The Japanese developed their own language and sophisticated system of writing b. They developed literature and poetry c. They developed the Shinto religion d. They placed great emphasis on a love of nature, beauty, and good manners.

Fears of the "yellow peril" were raised again

1. Japanese were imported in large numbers to work in agriculture. They displaced Anglo workers and resentment grew. 2. Asians were restricted from naturalization at the turn of the century. 3. The San Francisco Board of Education segregated Caucasians and Asians in 1905. 4. This resentment led to an international "Gentlemen's Agreement" in 1907 a. Japanese immigration to the United States was voluntarily restricted (but the measure was ineffective in reducing tension) b. Integrated schools were permitted c. Agitation against Asians continued

The Spanish established the California missions

1. Jesuits established five permanent settlements in Baja California in the early 1700s 2. Franciscan friars established 21 Spanish missions along the California coast from San Diego to Sonoma (one day's journey apart at completion in 1823). a. The purpose was to convert the Indians to Christianity, establishing cultural and agricultural centers, and populate Alta California for Spain. b. Both the "sword" and the "cross" were used to subdue the Indians. 3. Father Serra is credited with the development of the mission system; his lasting contributions were controversial. 4. Around 1830, the mission system began a secularization process. By 1836, most mission property was privately owned.

Ancient Africans made advances in their societies and cultures

1. Lineage was the basis of tribal organization 2. Religion, politics, and law became the focus of African culture 3. Art and sculpture were emphasized

Industrialization reflected changing attitudes and conditions

1. Mechanization and the factory system were introduced. 2. The growth of labor unions resulted from problems caused by industrialization. 3. Social, economic, and political changes became evident. 4. The rise of cities paralleled the industrial growth of America. 5. The need for government intervention increased. a. The Sherman (1890) and Clayton (1914) Antitrust Acts restricted the power of giant corporations. b. Workmen's compensation laws, child labor laws, and regulations on working conditions and minimum wages were part of the congressional reform movement to improve the plight of the working man. 6. The need for the conservation of natural resources was a result of the continued industrial growth of America.

India under Muslim rule

1. Muslims controlled India for centuries a. Muslim invaders came into India in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and created kingdoms in the north. b. The Delhi Sultanate was the most powerful (1206-1526), and developed art and architecture 2. Hindus lived and worked under Muslim rule a. Most Hindus were self-sufficient farmers b. The caste system dominated Hindu life c. Hindu religion believed in the supreme being (Brahman) and also in reincarnation 3. The Mughuls united and rules most of India a. After Burbur invaded India, Akbar became the greatest Mughul ruler b. The Mughuls were great builders (example, the Taj Mahal). c. The Mughul Empire declined quickly, and by 1750 the empire had fallen apart.

California Klamath Mountains

1. The Klamath Mountains are located in the northwestern corner of the state. 2. They are an extension of the Coast Ranges. 3. The mountains are rugged, steep, and in the 6,000-8,000-foot range. 4. The area receives heavy precipitation, and dense forests cover the mountains.

Historical interpretations of the Middle Ages

1. The Middle Ages were a period of transition between ancient and modern Europe 2. The Middle Ages were unique with a distinctive culture

The Carolingians replaced the Franks as legitimate rulers

1. Pepin the Short (A.D. 747-786), appointed by the pope as king, and established the Papal States on former Byzantine lands. 2. Charlemagne (A.D. 768-814) dominated the political structure of the early Middle Ages. a. He was crowned "Emperor of the Romans" by Pope Leo in A.D. 800 and had a major impact on the history of Europe b. He revived the concept of the Holy Roman Empire and established authority over secular rulers. c. His empire included most of the former Roman Empire and additional Germanic lands between the Rhine and Elbe rivers d. The Carolingian Renaissance resulted in the establishment of a palace academy with a prescribed academic curriculum 3. The Frankish system of inheritance hastened the dissolution of the Frankish Empire a. The Treaty of Verdun (A.D. 843) divided Charlemagne's empire among his three grandsons b. Carolingian rule ended in the tenth century because of the decline in central authority and the invasions of the Scandinavian tribes.

The American Revolution (1776-1781) was fought to obtain independence

1. Problems of military effectiveness hindered the early colonial effort a. Colonial armies were underequipped b. There was widespread opposition to fixed military terms 2. Washington's leadership turned the tide of battle. a. The French Alliance (1778) brought needed men, equipment, and money to the American cause. b. The defeat of Cornwallis at Yorktown (1781) brought victory to the colonies

The Protestant Reformation and the development of western civilization

1. Reasons for the Reformation a. Dissatisfaction with church ritual and Latin overtones. b. Humanism emphasized man's needs and concerns c. The printing press allowed mass communication 2. Martin Luther (1438-1546) questioning the right of the pope to grant indulgences was a primary cause. a. Luther's 'Ninety-five Theses' served as a catalyst in starting the Reformation 3. Calvinism made Protestantism an international movement a. The doctrine of predestination was central to Calvinistic belief b. Calvinism became a revolutionary anti-Catholic movement 4. The Act of Supremacy (1534) marked the beginning of the English Reformation a. The king of England became the head of the church b. The pope's refusal to annul the marriage of Henry VIII to Catherine of Aragon initiated the break. c. Elizabeth I (1558-1603) firmly established Protestantism in England and established the Anglican Church

The Roman Republic (509-527 B.C.) started after Etruscan control was overthrown

1. Roman society was divided into the participants (propertied class), plebeians (main body of Roman citizens), and slaves 2. Roman government was based on consuls, the Senate, and the Centurial Assembly 3. The Roman army became the most powerful military organization in the world. 4. After the Punic Wars with Carthage (146 B.C.), Rome emerged as the dominant power in the Mediterranean a. Rome incorporated Greek culture into its empire b. Roman expansion resulted in a world republic 5. Economic and political decline and repeated civil wars ravaged the Roman Republic. a. Caesar was assassinated in 44 B.C. b. Augustus became the first emperor of the Roman Empire (27 B.C.)

Russian excursions along the northern American coast (1800s) resulted in renewed Spanish efforts to colonize California

1. Russian fur interests in Alaska pushed southward. 2. Russians established Fort Ross 80 miles north of San Francisco Bay in 1812 as a trading post. 3. The American government also viewed Russian exploration of the California coast as a threat. a. The Monroe Doctrine (1823) restricted European colonization of the Americas. b. The Spanish reacted to potential Russian, British, and American presences by establishing presidios (military forts) and pueblos (small settlement) in valleys around San Francisco Bay.

Greece is a land of mountains separated by deep valleys

1. Scarcity of good agricultural land encouraged seafaring in eastern Greece. 2. The southern mainland, with adequate agricultural relied on farming

How to administer the WCPM

1. Select two or three brief passages from appropriate grade-level material (regardless of student's instructional level). Each passage will be scored separately using steps 2-5. Calculate the mean of the two or three passages to reach the average score. 2. Tell the student to read each passage aloud for exactly 1 minute. At the end of 1 minute, mark a vertical line after the last word the student read. 3. Count the total number of words the student read correctly for each passage. If the student self-corrects within 3 seconds, the word is counted as correct. (Note: A word that is omitted, mispronounced, or substituted is counted as incorrect.) Compute the average number of words read per minute . 4. Count the number of errors the student made in each passage. Compute the average number of errors per minute. 5. Subtract the average number of errors read per minute from the average total number of words read per minute. The result is the average number of words correct per minute (WCPM). 6. Repeat the procedure several times during the year. Graphing the student's WCPM throughout the year easily captures his or her reading growth. 7. Compare the results with published norms or standards to determine whether students are making suitable progress in their fluency. For example, according to one published norm, students should be reading approximately 60 words per minute correctly by the end of first grade, 90 to 100 words per minute correctly by the end of second grade, and approximately 114 words per minute correctly by the end of third grade.

The Compromise of 1850 allowed California to be a free state

1. Slavery was prohibited, which upset the balance of free and slave states. 2. California statehood became a background issue to the civil war.

Implication of Teaching Fluency in the Classroom

1. Teachers are good models of fluent reading. By listening, students learn how a reader's voice can help written text make sense. 2. Teachers should read aloud to their students daily. 3. teachers should help students practice orally rereading text that is reasonably easy for them - that is, text containing mostly words that they know or can decode easily. In other words, the texts should be at the students' independent reading level and relatively short (probably 50 to 200 words), depending on a student's age. 4. Teachers should assess the text to see if it is at the students' independent reading level. Students should be able to read with about 95 percent, or misread only about 1 of every 20 words. If the text is more difficult, students will focus so much on word recognition that they will not have an opportunity to develop fluency. 5. Teachers should use a variety of reading materials, including stories, nonfiction and poetry. Poetry is especially well suited to fluency practice because poems for children are often short and contain rhythm, rhyme, and meaning, making practice easy, fun, and rewarding.

Implications of Teaching Phonemic Awareness in the Classroom

1. Teachers should provide individualized and differentiated instruction that is sensitive to different abilities, developmental levels, and skill levels among children. 2. Teachers should provide learning experience for children to engage their curiosity about the language using songs, stories, rhymes, and poetry. 3. Teachers should emphasize phoneme manipulation by helping children combine or blend separate sounds in a word. For example, say the word ("/m/, /a/, /p/- map") or teachers should help children break or segment a word into its separate sounds ("up-/u/, /p/"). 4. Teachers should help children recognize which words in a set of words begin with the same sound. ("Bell, bike, and boy all have /b/ at the beginning.") 5. Teachers should help children isolate and say the first or last sound in a word. ("The beginning sound of dog is /d/." "The ending sound if sit is /t/.")

The topography of Africa is mainly composed of three regions: desert, savanna, and tropical rain forest

1. The African continent is divided into many ecological regions, with the Sahara Desert dominating the continent 2. Trade and commerce were connected to the geographical potential of the area. 3. Large populations flourished in the savanna and were primarily agrarian

The Articles of Confederation (1781-1789) proved inadequate as a central government

1. The Articles held the nation together during the critical period. 2. The Articles were limited by major weaknesses

The Norman Conquest had a profound impact on development of the culture, language, and judicial system of England

1. The Battle of Hastings (1066) ended Anglo-Saxon rule in England. 2. By the twelfth century, English common law was firmly established. 3. The Magna Carta (1215) limited the power of the king. It is the most important document in English constitutional law. 4. By the fourteenth century, the English Parliament was firmly established a. Parliament gained power at the expense of the king. b. The House of Lords (titled nobility) and the House of Commons (gentry and middle classes) composed Parliament

The completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869 completed Manifest Destiny

1. The Central Pacific met the Union Pacific at Promontory, Utah. Immigrant labor was used; Chinese on the Central Pacific and Irish on the Union Pacific. 2. The Big Four (Hopkins, Crocker, Huntington, and Stanford) controlled the railroad industry and most of the California political scene.

California Central Valley

1. The Central Valley separates the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Range. 2. The valley extends from the northwest to the southeast for 400 miles and is an average of 50 miles wide. 3. The valley is a flat, sedimentary plain. The soil is fertile and makes the valley the major agricultural region of the state. 4. Sixty percent of California's farmland is located in the Central Valley. 5. A majority of the state's water supply is caught in the Central Valley as runoff from the Sierra Nevada. 6. The Sacramento Delta, encompassing 1,200 square miles of waterways, is located where the Sacramento (south-flowing) and San Joaquin (north-flowing) rivers meet.

The failure of the politics of compromise led to the Civil War

1. The Compromise of 1850 failed to hold the nation together. California was admitted as a free state and a fugitive slave law was passed. 2. In the 1805s, slavery and sectionalism continued to threaten the Union. 3. The failure of the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) led to bloodshed over the expansion of slavery and raised the issue of popular sovereignty. 4. The Dred Scott decision failed to solve the slavery question. Slaves were not citizens and could not sue. 5. The election of 1860 of Lincoln, a sectional candidate, made secession inevitable. 6. The Confederate states of America were formed (thirteen southern states).Com

The Viking (Norse) invaders pillaged the coasts of Europe in the eighth century

1. The Danes were responsible for the major invasions of England. 2. Alfred the Great (A.D. 871-99) established the English kingdom after stemming the Danish invasions. 3. In France, the Carolingian king was forced to cede Normandy to the Vikings

Background to the American Revolution (1773-1776)

1. The English mercantile policy discouraged colonial economic independence 2. Colonial concepts of political and economic freedom were key factors leading to the American Revolution. 3. Colonial opposition to British actions steadily increased during this period. 4. The colonies used a variety of methods to change British actions; petitions, boycotts, and other measures were used. 5. The Declaration of Independence stated the purposes for the colonies' break with England

The French and Indian War (1756-1763) was a key turning point in England's domination over North America

1. The English victory ended the French threat in America 2. The English victory encouraged colonial America to seek a more active voice in its own affairs.

The Counter Reformation (Catholic Reformation) attempted to halt the spread of Protestantism

1. The Jesuits (Society of Jesus) became the official Catholic response to the Reformation; Jesuits also initiated missionary and educational endeavors. 2. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) defined the doctrines of Catholicism and reinforced papal authority

The Aegean background includes the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations

1. The Minoan civilization of Crete (c. 4000-1400 B.C.) based its prosperity on extensive commerce. 2. The Mycenaean civilization (c. 2000-1150 B.C.) developed heavily fortified cities and based prosperity on trade and warfare a. Dorians conquered the Peloponnesus (peninsula of southern Greece) and ushered in a "dark age" characterized by violence and instability (c. 1150-800 B.C.) b. Ionia became the birthplace for the Hellenic civilization

The expansion of slavery was a political issue prior to the 1850s

1. The Missouri Compromise of 1820 limited the spread of slavery. 2. The annexation of Texas (1837) added potential slave territory to the United States 3. The Mexican War (1848) was criticized as a proslavery, expansionist war.

The Civil War threatened the Union (1861-1865)

1. The North and South prepared for war. a. The North had an overall superiority in manpower, firepower, and economic resources. b. The South had advantages in leadership and territory. 2. The Union strategy of isolating the South proved successful. a. The Union blockade economically strangled the South b. The defeat at Gettysburg (1863) ended the Southern chances for foreign recognition. c. Economic and military weaknesses, along with a devastated South, led to Lee's surrender at Appomattox (1865).

Early cultures in Mesoamerica

1. The Olmec (1200-400 B.C.) developed one of the first civilizations in Mesoamerica (the region that is now Mexico, Central America, and western coast of South America. a. The Olmec developed an agricultural community b. The Olmec developed the first calendar in America 2. The Mayas (A.D. 250-900) achieved a complex civilization a. Mayan cities were trade and religious centers b. The Mayas excelled in many fields including mathematics, science, astronomy, and engineering (pyramid building) 3. The Aztecs (A.D. 1325-1521) conquered much of central Mexico a. The Toltecs preceded the Aztecs b. The Aztecs built a great city (Tenochtitlan) and ruled an empire c. Religion and war dominated Aztec life 4. The Incas (A.D. 1200-1523) controlled a vast empire in South America a. The Tiahuanaco culture developed in the Andes Mountains and the Incus unified an extensive empire. b. The Incas developed a sophisticated record-keeping system and were highly skilled craftsman

The Roman Empire lasted for five centuries

1. The Pax Romana (Roman Peace) was two centuries without a major war (27 B.C.-c. A.D. 180) 2. By the end of the second century A.D., Rome was in economic and political decline, which weakened the empire 3. Constantine attempted to stem the tide a. The empire split into Western and Easter Roman Empires b. Barbarian invasions by the Goths, Vandals, and Huns devastated Rome, and it fell in A.D. 476 c. The Eastern Roman Empire at Constantinople remained intact; Byzantium survived until 1453. 4. Causes for the fall of Rome a. The immediate cause was continuous barbaric invasions b. Internal factors included political instability, decreasing farm production, inflation, excessive taxation, and the decline of the military including the use of mercenaries c. The rise of Christianity divided the empire.

Unique contributions of smaller civilizations of the Near East

1. The Phoenicians became the first explorers, traders, and colonizers of the ancient world; their civilization reached its peak in 1000 B.C. a. They invented the first true alphabet b. They dominated Mediterranean commerce and exported manufactured glass and purple dye(royal purple). 2. The Lydians occupied western Asia Minor (500 B.C.) a. Their culture reached its zenith under King Croesus (Golden King). b. They were responsible for the first coinage money. 3. The Israelites established the first lasting monotheism a. Saul established the first kingdom in Palestine (c. 1030-1010 B.C.) b. After the death of Solomon (922 B.C.), the Hebrews were divided into two kingdoms (Israel and Judah). c. Disunity and conquest resulted in the destruction of Israel (722 B.C.) and Judah (586 B.C.) d. The revolt of the Israelites against Rome resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem (A.D. 70) and the forced dispersal of the Jews from Palestine (Jewish Diaspora, c. A.D. 132-135).

The Renaissance spread throughout Europe

1. The Renaissance of northern Europe emphasized the teachings of Christianity and placed less reliance on humanism 2. The French Renaissance reflected a democratic realism 3. The English Renaissance did not flower until the Elizabethan Age

California Sierra Nevada (the Snowy Ranges)

1. The Sierra Nevada range is about 400 miles long and follows the eastern border of the state, forming the eastern wall of the Central Valley. 2. The mountains were formed through extensive uplifting and subsidence and are characterized as faultblock mountains. The backbone if the range is igneous rock. 3. They were the highest mountains in California, with many serrated peaks around 13,000 feet. Mount Whitney is located at the southern end. 4. The peaks have sharp drop-offs on the eastern side and have been a barrier to east/west transportation. The mountains have gentle slopes on the western side, which has trapped water to the benefit of Central Valley agriculture. 5. The Sierra Nevada streams cut deep valleys. Gold was discovered in these streams where it was eroded from veins in the rocks. 6. The Sierra Nevada causes a rain-shadow effect: Clouds rise against the high mountain peaks, causing them to drop their moisture. This has created fertile valleys on the west side and a dry landscape on the east side. 7. Ice Age glaciers have created the current mountain profiles. Yosemite National Park's U-shaped valleys were carved by glacial action. 8. Southern California is dependent upon the average, annual 70 inches of rain and snow that fall on the Sierra Nevada for its water supply.

The first humans to enter North America crossed the Bering Strait land bridge at the end of the Pleistocene Period, or the last Ice Age, approximately 20,000 to 30,000 years ago

1. They migrated southward from Alaska and populated North and South America. 2. They entered California approximately 15,000 years ago; evidence from the early-man archeological site at Calico could push the date back to 50,000 years ago.

Open hostility toward the Chinese erupted

1. They were blamed for most of the economic problems. 2. The Chinese Exclusion Act was passed by Congress in 1882. 3. By 1877, politicians, newspapers, and citizens urged open agitation against the Chinese in California. 4. The Workingmen's Party was established. It was nativist, anti-Chinese, and anti-big business (1877). a. It demanded a constitutional convention and populist-type reforms. b. The California Constitution (1879) codified anti-Chinese legislation.

Selected achievements of Mesopotamian civilizations

1. The Sumerians were the creators of Mesopotamian civilization (3500-3000 B.C.) a. Material progress included large-scale irrigation projects, and advanced system of mathematics, and the invention of the wheel b. The ziggurat was the center of community life and served as a temple, storehouse, and treasury. c. Sargon established the first empire (c. 2371 B.C.) 2. The Babylonians conquered Sumner and established a new empire (2300-1750 B.C.) a. The code of Hummurabi was the first universal written codification of laws in recorded history (c. 1750 B.C.) b. Babylonian achievements included a centralized government and advancements in algebra and geometry. 3. The Hitties (2000-1200 B.C.) conquered much of Asia Minor and northern Mesopotamia; a major contribution included the invention of iron smelting, which revolutionized warfare. 4. The Assyrians created an empire based on military superiority, conquest, and terrorism (911-550 B.C.) a. Military techniques included siege warfare, intimidation, and the use of iron weapons b. Assyria created a centralized government, a postal service, and extensive library, and a system of highways. 5. The Chaldeans established the New Babylonian Empire under Nebuchadnezzar (605-538 B.C.) a. They conquered Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine b. They developed astrology, advanced government bureaucracy, and architectural achievements such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon 6. The Persians attempted to unify the entire Near East under one rule (500s B.C.) a. Persia established an international government b. Zoroastrianism was an ethical religion based on concepts of good and evil. c. Persia failed to conquer the Greeks; Persia was eventually conquered by Alexander the Great (334-331 B.C.).

The Near East

1. The ancient Near East comprised the Tigris and Euphrates Valley, the Fertile Crescent, and the Nile Valley 2. Cultural contributions associated with the ancient Near East a. The first system of independent states b. The first system of writing (cuneiform and hieroglyphics) c. The first massive architectural achievements (ziggurat and pyramid) d. The first lasting monotheism e. The beginning of science, mathematics, and astronomy f. The first codification of law

The intellectual response to the Industrial Revolution

1. The classical economists advanced the theory of 'laissez faire' (limited government intervention in business affairs) 2. Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) theorized that population growth would far outstrip food production 3. The revolutionary socialism of Karl Marx advocated a violent overthrow of the present economic system. a. History was seen as a class struggle between the exploiters (bourgeoise) and the exploited (proletariat) b. 'The Communist Manifesto' (1848), written by Max and Fredrich Engels, advanced the theories of modern scientific socialism

Geographic and economic factors contributed to the growth of slavery.

1. The dependence on slavery and cotton created a unique Southern economy. 2. The development of the "Cotton South" led to sectionalism.

Economic depression hit California in the 1870s; a cycle of boom and bust was begun

1. The depression was characterized by low wages, high unemployment, railroad abuses (unfair pricing and rebates), and the restriction of water rights by land monopolies. 2. The collapse of the Bank of California in 1875 (and other financial institutions) further weakened the California economy

Economic advantages of California

1. The gross domestic product (GDP) ranks California number one in the nation. 2. The California GDP ranks it among the top 10 COUNTRIES in the world. 3. Vast natural resources (oil, timber, minerals, etc.) and abundant fertile land allow for future growth. 4. California leads the nation in manufacturing and agricultural production. 5. The higher education system (junior colleges, state colleges, and universities) is among the finest in the nation.

Effects of the Reformation

1. The medieval political unity of Europe was replaced by the spirit of modern nationalism 2. The authority of the state was strengthened 3. The middle class was strengthened 4. Calvinism gave capitalism its psychological base 5. Religious wars reflected the fervor of the times

The new nationalism (1816-1823) followed the War of 1812

1. The scope and authority of the Supreme Court were established during this period. 2. The Era of Good Feelings characterized the political successes of the Anti-Federalist Party. 3. The Monroe Doctrine defined American interests in the Northern Hemisphere. 4. The new nationalism led to the development of a new American culture. 5. The removal of the British form the northwestern frontier encouraged westward expansion.

California Cascade Range and Modoc Plateau

1. The southern extreme of the Cascade Range is located in the northeastern corner of California. It extends 550 miles northward into Canada. 2. The area is separate from the Sierra Nevada and is about 25 miles. 3. The Cascade Range mountains were formed exclusively by volcanic activity. Many, like Mt. Shasta (14,162 feet), are dormat or extinct volcanoes. 4. Lassen Peak is the largest plug-dome (filled with magma) volcano in the world. 5. The Modoc Plateau is a level tableland of volcanic orgin.

Drake, an English explorer, sailed up the California coast in 1579 and claimed the area for England

1. The threat from England compelled Spain to colonize California. 2. Spanish explorations discovered safe harbors at Monterey and San Francisco. 3. For the next 100 years, Spanish colonization of California was minimal.

The California Coast Ranges

1. There are mountains along the western coast of California, extending from the Klamath Mountains in the north (Oregon border region) to the southwestern section of the Sierra Nevada (Southern California) 2. The San Andres Fault system divides this region along a north/south axis. 3. The range is approximately 550 miles long. 4. The plan diversity ranges from giant redwoods in the north to chaparral in the south. 5. The mountain are a series of parallel ranges formed by sedimentary deposition uplifted by faulting and folding. 6. The climate of the Coast Range varies from low-pressure areas that produce fog and rain in northern sections to a Mediterranean-type condition in the south.

The culture of the eighteenth century was dominated by Neoclassicism

1. There was an attempt to revive the classical style and form of ancient Greece and Rome 2. In literature, the novel was the outcome; in architecture, the Rococo style was dominant 3. In music, Haydn and Mozart emphasized the Classical era's formal symmetrical structures, simple rhythms, and tuneful melodies. Beethoven influenced both the Classical and the Romantic periods

Battle of Vicksburg

1863 - Union: Gen. Ulysses S. Grant; Confederate: Lt. Gen. John C. Pemberton - Union victory cut off the Western Theatre from the South and split the Confederacy at the Mississippi River.

California Transverse and Peninsular ranges

1. This area extends from Santa Barbara to San Diego. 2. The Transverse/Los Angeles ranges extend in an easterly (transverse) direction from the coast. (All other California ranges extend north and south). 3. These ranges include the Santa Ynez, Santa Monica, San Gabriel, and San Bernardino mountains. 4. The Los Angeles Basin is the state's largest coastal basin and was formed by the alluvial deposition of soil from the surrounding mountain ranges. 5. The Peninsular ranges extend south from the San Bernardino Mountain in Baja California and from the Pacific Ocean east to the Salton Sea Trough. 6. The faulted eastern sections of the Peninsular ranges are characterized by sharp drop-offs. It is a complex region of active fault zones. Significant faults include the San Jacinto (near Palm Springs) and the Elsinore.

California Basin and Range

1. This extreme landscape of short, parallel mountain ranges and desert basins extends along the eastern border of California. a. The northern section is part of a lava plateau. b. The southern section is generally dry. The Mojave Desert is the major geographical feature in the south. 2. The Northwest and Southwest Great Basin, the Northwestern Sonoran Desert, and the Salton Sea Trough are significant to this region. 3. Death Valley (in the Mojave Desert), the lowest point in the United States, was formed by faulting (not erosion). 4. The system extends into Nevada and Utah. 5. Irrigation with water from the Colorado River has allowed large-scale farming in the Imperial and Coachella valleys.

Society in the Middle Ages was based on the feudal system

1. Under feudalism, political authority was dominated by the landed nobility. 2. Manorialism was the agricultural organization and economic foundation of feudalism

The economic downturn renewed the call for political reform

1. Upton Sinclair (a reformer candidate) ran unsuccessfully for governor on a platform for political change. 2. The Utopian Society promoted economic and social reform. 3. The Townsend Plan favored pensions for the ages and a graduated income tax.

World War I produced a new economic boom

1. Wages, production, manufacturing, and commerce, expanded rapidly. 2. The Panama Canal was opened in 1914, which extended international links. 3. An influx of immigrants arrived in the 1920s a. Economic advanced were tied to movie, oil, and agricultural production. b. A real-estate boom fueled the housing industry. c. By 1930, the California population had grown to six million, an increase of 65 percent during one decade. it was now the sixth most populous state. B. California politics were characterized as a power struggle between the north and south and between rural and urban areas.

A Revolution in Production and Transportation: Iron-making

1760: Coke smelting improved production of iron 1783: Grooved rollers allowed iron-makers to roll out iron into different shapes

Proclamation Act

1763 Banned settlement beyond the Appalachian Mountains to the colonists. Colonists Reaction: Viewed as an attempt by the British to deny colonists the right to own land where they pleased. Most colonists ignored the act.

Sugar Act

1764 Import duties on sugar and other items were imposed. Colonists Reaction: Colonists raised the issue of "taxation without representation." Boston merchants started a boycott of British luxury goods.

Stamp Act

1765 Imposed the first direct tax on the American colonies, requiring a tex on all printed materials. Colonial Reaction: 1) "Sons of Liberty" used violence and intimidation against British stamp agents; 2) The "Stamp Act Congress" sent a petition to King George III; 3) The boycott extended to include all British goods.

Quartering Act

1765 Required colonists to house British troops and supply them with food. Colonial Reaction: Colonists in New York violently refused to comply.

Stamp Act Repealed; Declaratory Act Passed

1765 The British government declared total power legislate any laws governing the American colonies. Colonial Reaction: Colonists celebrated the repeal of the Stamp Act; they relaxed the boycott but ignored the Declaratory Act.

Townshend Revenue Acts

1767 A new series of taxes imposed on paper, tea, glass, lead and paint. -Colonial reaction: Boycott against British luxury items; Sam Adams of Boston issued the "Circular Letter" (pamphlet) to denounce taxation and coordinate reaction among the colonies.

Tea Act

1773 Maintained import tax on tea and gave the British East Indian Company a tea monopoly, allowing it to undersell American merchants. Colonial Reaction: Colonial activists in Boston disguised themselves as Indians and dumped their cargo of tea into the harbor ("Boston Tea Party")

Coercive Acts ("Intolerable Acts")

1774 Shut down the port Boston, ended self-rule in Massachusetts, and created the New Quartering Act for all colonies Colonial Reaction: "First Continental Congress" met and called for 1) noncompliance with Coercive Acts; 2) formation of militias; and 3) a boycott of and embargo on exports to Britain

Lexington and Concord

1775 British troops searched out militia weapons depots to destroy them. Colonial Reaction: Armed "minute men" faced the British on Lexington Green; eight Americans died and ten were wounded; at Concord, the "Continental Congress" met and called for volunteers; George Washington was appointed commander of the colonial army.

A Revolution in Production and Transportation: Transportation

1804: Steam engine used to develop the first steam locomotive (used initially to haul freight at coal mines and ironworks 1807: Steam engine used by American inventor Robert Fulton to build a steamboat

First Battle of Bull Run

1861 - Union: Gen. George McClellan; Conferderate: Gen. Robert E. Lee - Union forces expected a quick victory and a short war overall; routed by Confederates; the war would go on.

Battle of Antietam

1862 - Union: Gen. George McClellan; Confederate: Gen. Robert E. Lee - The first battle fought on Northern soil; McClellan beat back Lee's invasion on the bloodiest single day in the war; Lincoln announced the Emancipation Proclamation

Battle of Gettysburg

1863 - Union: Gen. George McClellan; Confederate: Gen. Robert E. Lee - Lee launched a second invasion of the North; Meade refused to pursue Lee, and the war continued; Lincoln delivered his Gettysburg Address; victory at Gettysburg made Northern victory inevitable

Commas

A general rule to keep in mind is that commas are often used to signal a subtle pause within a sentence. Therefore, if you are uncertain about using a comma, try reading the sentence silently. If the sentence sounds better with a pause, add the comma. If not, omit the comma. Review the list below to test your knowledge of the common uses of commas. Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction in a compound sentence. Example: I felt happy about my new job, BUT the pay was not quite enough. Use a comma to set off interrupting or introductory words or phrases. Example: SAFE IN THE HOUSE, we watched the rain fall outside. Use a comma to separate a series of words or word groups. Example: DIET, EXERCISE, and REST all contribute to good health. Use a comma to set off nonessential clauses and phrases that are descriptive but not needed to convey the basic meaning of the sentence. Such phrases are termed nonrestrictive. Example: Kimberly, WHO DISLIKES SCHOOL, is failing English. Use a comma to set off appositives (second noun or noun equivalents that give additional information about a preceding noun). Example: Mr. Alejandro, A TEACHER, ran for chairman of the school board.

Andrew Jackson Presidency

A number of important milestones occurred in American history during the presidency of Andrew Jackson. - Jackson's election is considered the beginning of the modern political party system and the start of the Democratic Party - Jeffersonian Democracy, a system governed by middle and upper class educated property holders, was replaced by Jacksonian Democracy, a system that allowed universal white male suffrage. - The Indian Removal Act of 1830 took natives out of territories that whites wanted to settle, most notably the Trail of Tears that removed Cherokees from Georgia and relocated them to Oklahoma. - The issue of nullification, the right of states to nullify any federal laws they thought unconstitutional, came to a head over tariffs. However, a strong majority vote in Congress supporting the Tariff Acts cemented the policy that states must comply with federal laws.

Paragraph unity

A paragraph is the visual clue that holds together "thought units." Each paragraph should be orderly, starting with a topic sentence that focuses on the paragraph's purpose. The subsequent sentences provide a continuity of ideas by presenting definitions and supporting examples that clarify and develop the meaning of the topic sentence. According to William Strunk, Jr. and E. B. White's "Elements of Style", Fourth Edition, each paragraph should be considered one unit of composition written with one topic per paragraph. Well-developed paragraphs provide examples while exhibiting clear reasoning and logical analysis of ideas. Remember that each paragraph begins with a topic sentence, and the final sentence of the paragraph should relate back to the paragraph's topic sentence.

The Early Middle Ages (A.D. 500-1000)

With the collapse of Rome and sweeping advances of Germanic and Viking raiders, Europe entered a time of chaotic political, economic, and urban decline. The story of the Early Middle Ages is one of struggle back toward stability. Both the Christian Church and local nobles exercised their authority to form a new kind of society, creating the foundation for a political reorganized Europe of competing nation-states.

Manifest Destiny

A popular disbelief during the 1840s that it was the right and duty of the United States to expand westward to the Pacific. The idea became a slogan for the flood of settlers and expansionist power grabs.

Pronouns

A pronoun takes the place of a noun. Watch for correct pronoun references and note whether the pronoun should be in the subjective or objective case. The following is an example of a pronoun error: We rewarded the workers, whom, according to the manager, had done the most imaginative job. To test between who and whom, try replacing whom with either him or them: "them...had done the most imaginative job." To test whether who is correct instead try substituting he or they: "they...had done the most imaginative job." Remember, if him or them fits when substituted, whom is correct. If he or they fits when substituted, who is correct. The correct sentence should read: We rewarded the workers who according to the manager, had done the most imaginative job.

War of 1812

A war between France and Britain caused blockades that hurt American trade and caused the British to attack American ships and impress sailors on them. An embargo against France and Britain was imposed by Jefferson, but rescinded by Madison with a renewed demand for respect for American sovereignty. However, Britain became more aggressive and war resulted. Native Americans under the leadership of Tecumseh sided with the British. The British captured Washington, D.C., and burned the White House, but Dolly Madison had enough forethought to save priceless American treasures, such as the Gilbert Stuart portrait of George Washington. Most battles, however, came to a draw. As a result, in 1815, when the British ended the war with France, they negotiated for peace with the United States as well under the Treaty of Ghent. A benefit of the war was that it motivated Americans to become more self-sufficient due to increased manufacturing and fewer imports.

Prepositions

A word placed before a noun or pronoun that shows the relationship between an object and another word in the sentence. Common prepositions: about, after, against, among, around, at, before, beneath, between, beyond, by, down, during, for, from, in, of, off, on, over, past, through, to, toward, under, until, up, with, within, without Examples; - The napkin is in the drawer. - The Earth rotates around the Sun. - The needle is beneath the haystack. - Can you find me among the words?

Pronoun

A word used as a substitute for a noun Example: I, you, he, she, it, me, him, her, we, they, who, whom, which, what, this, that, one, none, someone, somebody, myself, anything, nothing

Adjective

A word used to modify a noun or pronoun. To modify is to describe, to qualify, to limit, or to restrict in meaning. In the phrase a small read rose, both small and red are adjectives that modify the noun rose Example: large, sweet, petit, hot, cold, old, new, sad, lucky, green

Adverb

A word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. In the phrase to sing a very long song very slowly, very and slowly are adverbs. The first very modifies an adjective (long); the second very modifies an adverb (slowly); and slowly modifies the verb (sing) Example: very, rather, quickly, quite, easily, carefully

John Locke's political ideas had a dramatic impact on the development if democratic political thought in the late eighteenth century. Locke's basic assumption about natural laws stood in direct contrast to which of the prevailing doctrines of the time? A) Absolutism B) Capitalism C) Individualism D) Mercantilism

A) Absolutism The leading thinkers of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment supported liberal, humanitarian, and scientific trends of thought. The Scientific Revolution of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries allowed for inquiring, reasoning, and scientific method of determining truth. John Locke, an English philosopher, believed that people made a contract with their government to protect natural rights. Locke wrote about the inalienable rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Locke's ideas influenced both the United States 'Declaration of Independence' (1776) and the French 'Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) and stood in direct contrast to the theory of absolute monarchs and the divine right of kings (rule by God's will). Absolutism refers to the absolute right of monarchs with unlimited power. Absolutism evolved from the limited power of the ruling class during the Middle Ages to the Age of Absolutism in the sixteenth through eighteenth century.

Which of the following accurately describes California Indians prior to European contact? A) California had the greatest concentration of Indians in North America. B) Economies were based on agriculture. C) Desert and mountain barriers did not isolate tribes. D). Men and women used sweathouses for purification.

A) California had the greatest concentration of Indians in North America. California Indians at the time of European contract numbered approximately 300,000. At this time, the entire Indian population in the continental United States numbered fewer than 1 million. The majority of California Indians were hunter/gatherers which eliminates choice B. Choice C can be quickly eliminated based on the geographic features of California, which isolated many tribes (for example, Pomo in northern California, the Miwok in the Sierra Nevada, the Chumash in coastal California, and the Mojave in the desert). While sweathouses were used for purification, they were for the exclusive males.

Which of the following economic systems would best facilitate the theories of social Darwinism? A) Capitalism B) Socialism C) Communism D) Fascism

A) Capitalism Proponents of social Darwinism expanded Darwin's theory of evolution to include society as a whole. Darwin, in 'On the Origin of Species' (1859), theorized the evolution is a continuous process in which successful species adapt to their environment in order to survive. The social Darwinists viewed society as a "struggle of existence." Only the "fittest" members of society would survive. The accumulation if wealth was considered a visible sign of successful adaptation, and virtue and wealth became synonymous. However, for social Darwinism to succeed, it was thought that a free and open economic system was needed. Capitalism (with the private ownership of land, freedom of choice, a competitive free-market system, and limited government restraints) was regarded as the "natural environment" in which "survival of the fittest" could be tested. The social Darwinists also believed that some races were superior to others, that poverty indicated unfitness, and that a class-structured society was desirable.

Which of the following is the LEAST likely reason the French aided the English colonies during the American Revolution? A) France agreed with the ideals as set forth in the Declaration of Independence. B) France viewed the revolution as a means to gain territory at the expense of Britain. C) France wanted to limit the economic and growth of England. D) France and England were already at war on the European continent.

A) France agreed with the ideals as set forth in the Declaration of Independence. It is extremely unlikely that France, with an absolute monarch in King Louis XIV, would have embraced the ideas of the Declaration of Independence (1776). The declaration declared that the people had inalienable rights and the governments were set up to serve the people. Unjust governments that usurped the power of the people should be overthrown. France saw the American Revolution as a means to weaken the military and political power of the English. A weaker England would in turn result in a stronger France. France still resented the loss of Canada to England as a result of the Seven Year's War (1756-1763). Following the French and Indian War, England became the greatest colonial, commercial, and naval power in the world. By 1770, both France and Spain had recognized the American colonies as an independent country.

India, China, Egypt, and Mesopotamia share the importance of a great river system in their earliest development as a civilization. Which of the following rivers is NOT directly linked to the development of the civilization with which it is paired? A) India - Ganges River B) China - Yellow River C) Egypt - Nile River D) Mesopotamia - Tigris and Euphrates River

A) India - Ganges River The Ganges in eastern India is sacred to Indians but was not the geographical river area that led to the development of Indian civilizations. The Ganges was associated with the rise of the Mauryan Empire in 322 BC. The earliest Indian civlization, the Harappa culture, developed around the Indus River Valley in 2500 BC. Other river valley civilizations of the ancient world included the Tigris and Euphrates (Mesopotamia), the Nile (Egypt), and the Yellow River (China).

The initial ideas of a social contract as set forth in the Declaration of Independence borrowed heavily from: A) John Locke B) Adam Smith C) Thomas Jefferson D. Francois Voltaire

A) John Locke The 'Declaration of Independence' (1776) was baed on the ideas of the English Enlightenment philosopher John Locke. Locke, in his 'Second Treatise of Civil Government' (1690), set forth basic ideas embodied in the 'Declaration of Independence'. He believed that people had certain natural rights including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that government was set by the consent of the governed; and that it was the right of people to overthrow unjust governments. Thomas Jefferson (Choice C), the author of the 'Declaration of Independence', relied heavily on Locke's theories. Adam Smith (choice B), the author of 'Wealth of Nations' is considered the father of modern economics. Voltaire (Choice D), an eighteenth-century French Enlightenment philosopher, wrote brilliantly about injustice. His ideas found expression in the French 'Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen' (1789).

Which line in the table below correctly pairs the European colonial power with its original geographical are of control in North America? 1. Spain - Southwest of North America and Florida 2. England - Canada through the Great Lakes 3. France - Oregon Territory and Alaska 4. Netherlands - Southeast of North America A) Line 1 B) Line 2 C) Line 3 D) Line 4

A) Line 1 European colonization also took place in central and South America and was largely controlled by Spain and to a lesser extend Portugal. Of the choices given, only Span is correctly associated with its corresponding area of control in North America. England claimed the Atlantic coast of North America below Canada and set up the thirteen colonies. The English colonies were divided into New England, Middle, and Southern colonies with distinct geographical, cultural, and economic differences. England also had colonies in the Caribbean. France controlled the Mississippi River region, the Louisiana Territory, the Great Lakes, and Canada. The Netherlands controlled a small area in the Hudson River Valley.

Which of the following statements is the best example of Federalism as practiced in the early Republic? A) Local governments are sovereign in matters of local concern. B) Democracy must be limited to prevent a foreign takeover. C) The Constitution allows for a simple amendment process as evidence by the Bill of Rights. D) The federal government is divided into three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial.

A) Local governments are sovereign in matters of local concern. Federalism is a system based on a written constitution in which state and federal governments have distinct functions. The national government is sovereign (independent) in such matters as interstate commerce, declaring war, making treaties. Unless there is a constitutional conflict, state governments are generally sovereign in matters of local control such as passing local and state laws. The Tenth Amendment to the Constitution states that powers are not granted to the federal government by the Constitution exclusively, or denied to the states, are "reserved" to the states. Choice D deals with checks and balances and separation of powers. In practice, it has been difficult to determine the dividing line between national and state power.

Many native California tribes were regionally located. However, the majority of native Californians lived in or near the: A) northern coastal region and the Klamath River. B) southern coastal region and the Channel Islands. C) Central Valley and the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada. D) Mojave Desert and the Colorado River.

C) Central Valley and the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada. Today, the coastal areas are heavily populated. However, hundreds of years ago, native populations were concentrated in the Central Valley and the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The Maidus of the Sacramento Basin and the Miwoks of the Sierras were the main tribes of this region.

Cesar Chavez is most closely associated with political reforms in which of the following areas? A) Unionization of migrant farmworkers B) Bilingual education for Hispanic students C) Medical treatment for the indigent and homeless D) Voter registration for undocumented immigrants

A) Unionization of migrant farmworkers Caesar Chavez attempted to unionize migrant (seasonal) farm workers in the early 1960s. He was able to accomplish many of his political objectives through nationwide boycott of the California lettuce and grape industries to force growers to compromise bargaining table. You can quickly eliminate choice D because only citizen of the United States can register to vote. Undocumented immigrants or documented workers (workers possessing a green card legally permitting them to work in the United States) are not American citizens. Choice B and C concerned Chaves, but the focus of his work was always the migrant farm worker. The question asks for the area most closely associated with Chavez. By establishing the United Farm Workers (UFW) union, Chavez provided a political forum and powerful collective-bargaining agency for migrant workers. Those who joined the UFW were not only Hispanics, many Filipino and Anglo workers also readily joined. Prior to Chavez's efforts, migrant workers were intimidated by the power of agribusiness. Chavez's belief in nonviolence, coupled with his brilliant political acumen and popular support, resulted in better pay and working conditions for migrant workers.

The principal objective if Russia's desire to expand in the direction of the Ottoman Empire was to: A) gain permanent access to the Mediterranean Sea B) gain control over the Caspian Sea C) prevent the formation of the Austro-Prussian military alliance D) limit the influence of Islam and reestablish Christian rule

A) gain permanent access to the Mediterranean Sea Russia was landlocked and did not have a geographical outlet to the Mediterranean. You must also recognize that the Ottoman Empire was centered in Turkey, whose borders include the Black Sea (north) and the Mediterranean Sea (south). Historically, a characteristic of Russian foreign policy from the seventeenth century onward was to obtain permanent access to the Mediterranean. A port on the Black Sea would allow Russia to better control its own destiny. Britain and other European countries, however, prevented the territorial expansion of Russia in the direction of Turkey. The European objective was to maintain the current balance of power. The most notable attempt by Russia to upset the balance resulted in Russian defeat during the Crimean War (1853-56). Historically, the Ottoman-controlled not only Turkey but most of southeastern European politics. By the middle of the sixteenth century, the Ottomans controlled not only Turkey but most of southeastern Europe, the Crimea, Iran, and a majority of the Middle East. However, by the nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire was contemptuously referred to as "Sick Man of Europe" and depended on English intervention (especially directed against Russia) for its political survival. You could eliminate choice B by recognizing that the Caspian Sea was part of Russia's traditional borders.

John C. Calhoun proposed the Doctrine of Nullification in opposition to the high protective tariffs passed by Congress in 1832. The doctrine threatened the stability if the new nation. According to the Doctrine of Nullification, the power to declare an act of Congress rested with: A) the state legislature B) the president. C) the Supreme Court D) Congress

A) the state legislature The tariff of 18832 led to the Nullification Crisis of that year. John C. Calhoun, who was vice president of the United States, supported South Carolina's nullification legislation that allowed a state to nullify an act of Congress. South Carolina said that the federal government could not collect the tariff. A crisis was averted with the Compromise of 1833. Although the tariff was lowered, President Andrew Jackson threatened to send in Federal troops to stop nullification. Subsequently, South Carolina repealed the Ordinance of Nullification and a constitutional crisis was averted. This issue intensified the sectional issue that would lead to the Civil War.

Decade of Optimism

After WWI, Warren Harding ran for President on the slogan "return to normalcy" and concentrated on domestic affairs. The public felt optimistic because life improved due to affordable automobiles from Henry Ford's mass production system, better roads, electric lights, airplanes, new communication systems, and voting rights for women (19th Amendment, 1920). Radio and movies helped develop a national culture. For the first time, the majority of Americans lived in cities. Young people shortened dresses and haircuts, and smoked and drank in public despite Prohibition (18th Amendment, 1919). Meantime, the Russian Revolution caused a Red Scare that strengthened the already strong KKK that controlled some states' politics. In 1925, the Scopes trial in Tennessee convicted a high school teacher for presenting Darwinian theories. The Teapot Dome scandal rocked the Harding administration. After Harding died in 1923, Calvin Coolidge became president. He was followed by Herbert Hoover, a strong proponent of capitalism under whom unregulated business led to the 1929 stock crash.

California Geography and Topography facts

A. California extends approximately 800 miles from north to south and ranges from 150 to 350 miles east to west. B. California borders Oregon, Nevada, Arizona, and Mexico. C. Mount Whitney, at 14,495 feet, is the highest peak in the continental United States. Death Valley is the lowest point, at 282 feet below sea level. D. California shows dramatic changes in topography across the state: rugged mountain peaks, fertile valleys, dense forest, ocean boundaries, and extensive deserts. E. California geology evidences faulting, folding, alluvial and sedimentary deposition, and volcanic activity. F. California is a region of frequent seismic activity. The San Andres Fault system extends for 500 miles. Its movement is largely horizontal, with the west side of the fault moving toward northward and the east side moving southward. G. Growing seasons extend throughout the year. In many areas of the state, there are just two distinct seasons; a mild, wet winter and a relatively log, dry summer. H. Southern California's climate is characterized as Mediterranean and is unique in the United States. The state has many diverse microclimates, though generally the coastal climate is mild and the interior is much more extreme. The interior basins have the most extreme temperatures. I. Few California rivers are navigable. Notable rivers are the San Joaquin and the Sacramento (and their tributaries) and the Colorado.

US Geography: An Overview

A. The Gulf Stream, an Atlantic warm-water current, warms the East Coast in the winter and is responsible for excellent fishing. B. The Southeastern Coastal Plain extends along the coast from New Jersey to Texas and is generally low land. C. The Piedmont (the foothills at the base of the Appalachian Mountains), the Appalachian Mountains, and the Cumberland and Allegheny plateaus are in the eastern region of the United States. D. In the Northeast, the Appalachians meet the ocean, forming a rough rocky coast. E. West of the Appalachians, the wind (prevailing westerlies) is an important influence on climate. - In the winter, cold air from the northwest produces freezing temperatures. - In the summer, warm, moist southwesterly winds cause, hot, humid weather. F. Most of the interior is generally flat. - The eastern half is called the interior lowlands - The western half is called the Great Plains G. The Mississippi River drains the interior of the United States H. The crest of the Rocky Mountains is called the Continental Divide - Rivers that begin east of the Continental Divide flow toward the Atlantic Ocean - Western rivers flow toward the Pacific Ocean I. The land between the Rockies and the Sierra Nevada is called the Great Basin J. The Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Range from the western mountain ranges. - The western slope of the Sierra Nevada borders the Central Valley of California - The Coast Ranges from the western wall of the Central Valley

The Lands and Peoples of Africa

Africa is a vast continent of enormous geographical and cultural diversity. Traditionally, Africa is divided into the Saharan or desert cultures of the north, and sub-Saharan cultures of the rain forests, savannas, and interior. Relying on the continent's four substantial river systems, great trading empires grew and thrived. Their dominance of African history and economic development ended with the arrival of Europeans.

major Programs and Events Resulting from the Cold War

After World War II, the Soviet Union kept control of Eastern Europe, including half of Germany. Communism spread around the world. Resulting fears led to: - The Truman Doctrine (1947): This was a policy designed to protect free peoples everywhere against oppression. - The Marshall Plan (1948): This devoted $12 billion to rebuild Western Europe and strengthen its defenses. - The Organization of American States (1948): This was established to bolster democratic relations in America. - The Berlin Blockade (1948-49): The Soviets tried to starve out West Berlin, so the United States provided massive supply drops by air. - The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (1949): This was formed to military link the United States and western Europe so that an attack on one was an attack on both. - The Korean War (1950-53): This divided the country into the communist North and the democratic South. - The McCarthy Era (1950-54): Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin held hearings on supposed Communist conspiracies that ruined innocent reputations and led to the blacklisting of suspected sympathizers in the government, Hollywood, and the media.

Step 5: Publishing

After the final proofreading stage, some writers add graphic illustrations, copyright references, or pictures. The essay should be bound or electronically transmitted. It is now ready to publish.

Poems

All human cultures have their own poetry. Poetry is commonly employed in writings that call for a heightened intensity of emotion, dignity of expression, or subtlety of contemplation. Poetry is an excellent instructional took for students to gain enthusiasm for literature as they listen to the rhythmic patterns of verse expressed in narrative, dramatic, and lyrical poems. Poetry uses rhythmic patters of a condensed and refined language to speak, sing, or chant. Patterns are frequently associated with a rhythm or meter, and may be supplemented by rhyme, alliteration, or both. Poetry often includes variations in syntax and elaborates the use of figures of speech (metaphor and simile).

Future perfect tense

An action that uses the past and the future. In other words, the action is complete before a future moment. Ex: When she comes for the supplies (future moment), I will have walked to the store (action completed in the past).

Influences of Philosophers on Political Study

Ancient Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato believed political science would lead to order in political matters, and that is scientifically organized order would create stable societies. Thomas Aquinas adapted the ideas of Aristotle to a Christian perspective. His ideas stated that individuals should have certain rights, but also certain duties and that these rights and duties should determine the type and extent of government rule. In stating that laws should limit the tole of government, he laid the groundwork for ideas that would eventually become modern constitutionalism. Niccolo Machiavelli, author of 'The Prince', was a proponent of politics based solely on power.

Verb Tenses

Another verb error occurs when the verb tenses (past, present, future) are inconsistent. Most verbs are regular. Remember that a verb is a part of speech that expresses a state of being or action. For example: Past: I walked yesterday Present: I walk today Future: I will walk tomorrow If there are two verbs in the sentence, make sure that the verb tense of each is appropriate. Here's an example of an incorrect verb tense: He walked for miles and finally sees a sign of civilization. Walked describes the past; sees the present. Sees must be changed to saw so that the whole sentence describes the past. The correct sentence should read; He walked for miles and finally saw a sign of civilization.

Qualifications of a US Citizen

Anyone born in the US, born to a US citizen, or who has gone through a process of naturalization to become a citizen, is considered a citizen of the United States. It is possible to lose US citizenship as a result of conviction of certain crimes such as treason. Citizenship may also be lost if a citizen pledges an oath to another country or serves in the military of a country engaged in hostilities with the US. A US citizen can also choose to hold dual citizenship, work as an expatriate in another country without losing US citizenship, or even renounce citizenship if he or she chooses.

Formation of Mountains

Are formed by the movement of geologic plates, which are rigid slabs of rocks beneath the earth's crust that float on a layer of partially molten rock in the earth's upper mantle. As the plates collide they push up the crust to form mountains. This process is called orogeny. There are three basic forms of orogeny: - If the collision of continental plates causes the crust to buckle and fold, a chain of folded mountains, such as the Appalachians, the Alps, or the Himalayans, is formed. - If the collision of plates causes a denser oceanic plate to go under a continental plate, a process called subduction; strong horizontal forces lift and fold the margin of the continent. A mountain range like the Andes is a result. - If an oceanic plate is driven under another oceanic plate, volcanic mountains such as those in Japan and the Philippines are formed.

The Rise of Christianity

Around 6 B.C. in the Roman province of Judea, Jesus was born, becoming an influential rabbi. His death by crucifixion, and his resurrection as the Christ (Greek for messiah) were writings in the Gospels. The work of an early Jewish convert to Christianity, Paul of Tarsus, brought the teachings of Jesus to non-Jews throughout the Mediterranean world. Firmly rooted in the collapsing world of Roman rule, Christianity met resistance from Roman emperors. Despite this official opposition, the Christian promised of a better world to come continued to win converts just as Rome was fending off invaders and economic ruin. Eventually adopted as the official religion of Rome's divided empire by Constantine in A.D. 313, Christian teachings and doctrines developed by "Church Fathers," such as Augustine were granted a foothold in both the western and eastern worlds.

The Background of the Civil War and Reconstruction (1800-1876)

As the nation expanded westward, the unresolved issue of slavery could no longer be ignored. As long as slavery was an institution limited to a handful of Southern states, many in the nation seemed willing to wait out its eventual demise. With growth and the opportunity for an expanded slave economy, the struggle over the vision of America's future brought the Union to the brink of destruction. Despite attempts to avoid it, a 4-year war was fought that tore the nation apart. An immensely costly victory by the forces for the Union and the assassination of a president, beloved by many, left some in the nation in no mood for reconciliation. Failed attempts to fully embrace freed slaves into the promise of democracy-and to reconstruct an unrepentant and devastated South-left the nation scarred for another century and beyond.

Economic Impact of Technology

At the start of the 21st century, the role of information and communications technologies (ICT) grew rapidly as the economy shifted to a knowledge-based one. Outputs is increasing in areas where ICT is used intensively, which are service areas and knowledge-intensive industries such as finance; insurance; real estate; business services, health care, and environmental goods and services; and community, social, and personal services. Meanwhile, the economic share for manufacturers is declining in medium- and low-technology industries such as chemicals, food products, textiles, gas, water, electricity, construction, and transport and communication services. Industries that have traditionally been high-tech, such as aerospace, computers, electronics, and pharmaceuticals are remaining steady in terms of their economic shares. Technology has become the strongest factor in determining per capita income for many countries. The ease of technology investments as compared to industries that involve factories and large labor forces has resulted in more foreign investments in countries that do not have natural resources to call upon.

Battle of Long Island

August 27, 1776 -American commanders: George Washington, Charles Lee -British commander: William Howe -British victory -Despite defeat, Washington calmly and confidently managed a surprise evacuation of troops across the East River to Manhattan

The 1947 U.S. District Court decision in 'Mendez vs. Westminster School District of Orange County, California' paved the way for the 1954 historic 'Brown v. Topeka Board of Education' decision. What did the Mendez decision resolve? A) De facto segregation in California public education for African-Americans, Asians, and Mexican-Americans B) De jure segregation in California public education for Mexican Americans C) Racial equality in California public education for African-Americans, Asians, and Mexican-Americans D) Equity in funding for California public schools for African-Americans, Asians, and Mexican-Americans

B) De jure segregation in California public education for Mexican Americans Gonzales Mendez sued the federal court to allow his children to attend an "all-white" school in Orange County, rather than the designated school for Mexican-American children. 'Mendez v. Westminster School District of Orange County, California' (1947) ended de jure (by law) segregation of Mexican-American students in public education (choice B). It did not end de facto (by fact) segregation based on place of residence, nor include African-Americans or Asians in the decision (choice A). The U.S. Ninth Circut Court of Appeals upheld the lower court decision by a unanimous 7-0 ruling. The California legislature then addressed the issue in 1947 and based a bill signed by Governor Earl Warren (future Chief Justice of the Supreme Court) that repealed all provisions in the California education code that permitted school segregation. The Mendez case preceded the landmark 1954 Supreme Court decision, 'Brown v. Topeka Board of Education' that ended segregation in public education in America. The unanimous 'Brown v. Topeka Board of Education' Supreme Court decision (9-0) overturned the "separate but equal" public facilities ruling in the 'Plessy v. Ferguson case (1896). The 'Brown v. Topeka Board of Education' decision states that separate but equal educational facilities are "inherently unequal" and violate the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Choices A and C are incorrect since the ruling only included Mexican-Americans and did not rule on de facto segregation. Choice D is incorrect since Mendez did not address disparities in educational funding. Equity in funding was addressed by the California Supreme Court in 'Serrano v. Priest' (1971). In Serrano, the court ruled that disparities in public school spending by individual school districts violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

The Hellenistic Age began with the death if Alexander The Great. Which of the following is NOT considered a characteristic of the Hellenistic Age? A) The fusion of Greek and Eastern cultures B) Economic centralization in Athens C) An increase D) An end to the Greek city-state system as a major political entity

B) Economic centralization in Athens The Hellenistic Age (323 BC to c. 30 BC) was a time of great economic growth and expansion. Rhodes, Alexandria, and Antioch replaced Athens in commercial importance. Dynasties were established in Macedonia, Egypt, and Persia following Alexander's death. The new "Hellenistic" world saw the expansion of Greek cultures, the rise of cities, and virtual disappearance of the Greek city-state, or polis, as an administrative center.

Which line in the table below INCORRECTLY associates the California insignia with the item? Line 1: State flower - California golden poppy Line 2: State bird - California condor Line 3: State tree - California redwood Line 4: Sate freshwater fish - California golden trout A) Line 1 B) Line 2 C) Line 3 D) Line 4

B) Line 2 The California valley quail in 1931 became the official state bird. The valley quail was selected because it is considered an indigenous game bird. The California condor is an endangered species until recently on the verge of extinction. The giant California redwood is almost entirely confined to forests in California. The profusion of the California golden poppy and its lore in California history resulted in the poppy being named the state flower in 1903. The California golden trout is one of the four native trout species of the rugged Kern River System.

During the Civil War, geographical consideration often determined military strategy. One of the major military strategies of the North was based on geographically dividing the South at the: A) Appalachian Mountains. B) Mississippi River. C) Gulf of Mexico. D) Ohio River Valley

B) Mississippi River. Northern control of the Mississippi River would effectively isolate five southern states from the Confederacy (Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee, and Texas). Controlling the Mississippi River would geographically split the Confederacy and limit the supply avenues open to the South. Choices A and D can be eliminated since both areas were already under Union control at the start of the Civil War. The military strategy of the North was based on the inevitability of the South having to fight a defensive war. This same approach let to a blockade of the southern coast. With the fall of Vicksburg in 1863, the Mississippi came under Union control.

Which of the following represents the proper chronological order (from earliest to most recent) based on the emergence of each party in the United States? A) Whig, Republican, Democratic, Federalist B) Federalist, Whig, Democratic, Republican C) Federalist, Democratic, Whig, Republican D) Democratic, Federalist, Republican, Whig

C) Federalist, Democratic, Whig, Republican The correct chronological order is Federalist Party (1789), Democratic Party (1824), Whig Party (1832), and Republican Party (1854). Simply by knowing which of the parties listed developed first (the Federalist) or which developed last (the Republicans) would allow you to eliminate two choices, A and D.

The vast majority of immigrants to the United States in the period from 1840 to 1880 primarily came from: A) Eastern and southern Europe. B) Northern and western Europe. C) Central and southern Europe. D) Northern and central Africa.

B) Northern and western Europe. From 1840 to 1880, approximately 10 million people immigrated to the United States, largely from northern and western Europe. This wave of immigration was referred to as the "old" immigration. The year 1882 marked the high point of the old immigration. Eighty-seven percent of all immigrants up to this date were from northern and western Europe. In contrast, the "new" immigrants came from eastern, central, and southern Europe. By 1890, the new immigrants totaled over 50 percent of the total immigrant population. This percentage rose to 80 percent by 1914. The new wave of immigration had profound effect on American society - socially, politically, and economically.

Which of the following is true regarding Andrew Johnson's presidency during Reconstruction? A) President Johnson favored a non-conciliatory approach to the defeated South. B) President Johnson vetoed numerous Radical Republican congressional acts. C) President Johnson was impeached by the Senate of the United States. D) President Johnson campaigned in favor of the Fourteenth Amendment's provision to extend citizenship to former slaves.

B) President Johnson vetoed numerous Radical Republican congressional acts. President Andrew Johnson's Reconstruction policy (1866-67) of leniency to the defeated South angered and frustrated the Radical Republicans in control of Congress. Johnson vetoes a number ob bills designed to protect the freedom of the former slaves. Among the acts vetoes were the acts creating the Freedmen's Bureau and several civil rights acts. Over the opposition of Johnson, the Radicals in Congress passed Reconstruction acts that divided the South into five military districts, disenfranchised white southern males, and forced states to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, which extended citizenship to former slaves, A constitutional crisis resulted when Johnson removed government official violation of the Tenure of Office Act. The House impeached Johnson but he was acquitted by one vote in the Senate (1867).

California has produced many national leaders, including three presidents. Which of the following California national political leaders was a native Californian who became President of the United States? A) Ronald Regan B) Richard Nixon C) Herbert Hoover D) Earl Warren

B) Richard Nixon Richard Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, CA, and was the 36th President of the United States. Although Regan lived in CA for many years, he was born in Illinois and was the 40th President. Herbert Hoover also lived in CA for many years but was born in Iowa. Earl Warren was never President; he was a famous Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.

Why was Europe referred to as Christendom during the Middle Ages? A) The majority of the ruling class were Christians B) The Church became the preserver of civilization in both political and religious life. C) Medieval society had fixed classes: nobility, clergy, and peasants. D) Kings and nobles deeded gifts of land to the Church in return for a promise of eternal salvation.

B) The Church became the preserver of civilization in both political and religious life. The Church became the preserver of civilization in the early Middle Ages and was it unifying force. As the Western Roman Empire was under relentless attack from barbarian tribes, people looked at the Church for salvation. Choice C is a true statement but does not address the question. Choice D is partially correct. The Church did enter into feudal contracts and became an extensive landholder. At one point in the Middle Ages, the Church owned approximately a third of the land. However, the land, or feif, was not obtained with a promise of eternal salvation attached.

The Magna Carta was a significant influence on the American Constitution. Which of the following was NOT a fundamental concept of the Magna Carta in American law? A) The importance of a written Constitution B) The concept of religious freedom C) The right to due process of law D) The protection against excessive bail

B) The concept of religious freedom In 1215, King John was forced by the nobles to sign the Magna Carta. The Magna Carta limited the power of the king and increased the power of the nobles. Certain rights were established by law. The concepts of representative government, taxation with representation, trial by jury, and due process of the law were inherent in the document. However, freedom of religion was inconsistent with feudal rule in the Middle Ages.

Which of the following had the most revolutionary impact on the economic development of the American West during the nineteenth century? A) The long drive B) The invention of the barbed wire C) The refrigerated railroad car D) The steamboat

B) The invention of the barbed wire You can eliminate choice A, moving cattle from one area to another (for example, from Texas to Wyoming), and choice C, the refrigerated railroad car (invented in the late nineteenth century, because neither was revolutionary in the economic development of the West. The steamboat (choice D) affected the economic development of the Mississippi basin but is too limited an answer to be correct. But barbed wire was revolutionary in its economic impact on the West because it doomed the open cattle range, making it possible for thousands of homesteaders to fence off land to prevent roaming cattle from destroying crops. The commercial practicality of barbed wire, made possible by the machine invented by J. F. Glidden in 1874, resulted in much open-range land being privately owned by 1890, encouraging the development of stock farming, centralization, and town building. Some historians compare the importance of barbed wire in the West to that of the cotton gin in the South.

Feudalism became the way of life in Europe following the collapse of the Roman Empire. Which best describes feudalism in the early Middle Ages? A) The church declined but still had a significant impact on society B) There were no formal countries, but the fiefdom held economic and political power C) Knights became the soldiers of the king D) Peasant uprisings were common during this period

B) There were no formal countries, but the fiefdom held economic and political power Feudalism was the government of the Middle Ages. The person who was allowed by a lord to use his land was called a vassal and the land was called a fief. In return for protection against invaders, people who used the land were expected to be loyal to the landowner. Feudal society was divided into three classes: the nobles, the clergy, and the peasants.

Direct quotes (shorter quotes that are fewer than 40 words)

Use quotations marks to enclose the exact words of the original author's words. Short direct quotes can be presented in two formats. For example: Research on personality types "yields the insight that every judgement made by an individual is conditioned by his personality type and that every point of view is necessarily relative" (Jung 207-208). Jung found that personality types "yields the insight that every judgement made by an individual is conditioned by his personality type and that every point of view is necessarily relative" (207-208).

In the decades immediately preceding the Civil War, approximately 65 percent of industrial expansion in the United States was in the Northeast. All of the following are reasons for this growth EXCEPT: A) availability of abundant natural resources. B) completion of the transcontinental railroad. C) access to the Great Lakes and ports for foreign shipments. D) availability of cheap labor.

B) completion of the transcontinental railroad. The transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, after the Civil War. While rail travel aided the industrialization of the Northeast, the transcontinental railroad did not affect this growth. When President Lincoln signed Pacific Railroad Act (1862), it called for building a railroad from Omaha, Nebraska to Sacramento, California. The reasons for the Northeast's dominance were directly related to available resources, efficient transportation, abundant supplies of power, and excellent access to markets.

A power NOT written into the Constitution but exercised by the Supreme Court as early as 1803 is: A) implied power B) judicial review C) the power to determine the number of justices on the Supreme Court D) the power to decide cases involving disputes between states

B) judicial review Judicial review was not provided for the Constitution but was exercised by the Supreme Court in the famous 'Marbury v. Madison' case (1803). Judicial review refers to the power of the federal courts to interpret the Constitution and to declare against acts of Congress unconstitutional. Judicial review allows the courts to exercise "checks and balances" over the legislative and executive branches. In 'McCulloch v. Maryland' (1819), the Supreme Court affirmed the right of Congress to use implied powers (choice A) and exercise the "necessary and proper" clause of Article 1. The power to determine the number of Supreme Court justices (choice C) is given to Congress.

Hamilton's Financial Plan favored all of the following EXCEPT: A) passing an excise tax on whiskey B) protecting the agricultural interests of the South C) favoring the industrial sector of the economy D) establishing a national currency

B) protecting the agricultural interests of the South Alexander Hamilton proposed a series of laws designed to protect the emerging industrial economy of the new nation. His plan called for using the power of the federal government to strengthen the manufacturing of the country. His plan came into direct conflict with the agricultural interests of the South. The southern states were against expanding the power of the federal government at the expense of the rights of the states. His plan for the protective tariff designed to protect emergent domestic industries against foreign competition especially angered the South. The industrial sector of the country was primarily in the North, and Hamilton's plan to protect the American manufacturer seemed to offer little in the way of direct benefit to the South. Hamilton's financial plan directly led to the rise of political parties in the new nation The Federalists (Hamilton and Adam) favored a strong central government and the Anti-Federalists (Jefferson and Madison) favored strong state governments.

The discovery of gold in California in 1848 and resulting statehood in 1850 changed the political landscape of the United States primarily because: A) territorial clashes with Mexico resulted in the Mexican War. B) there was a temporary resolution to the free/slave controversy. C) the South lost control of the House of Representatives. D) immigrants to California favored constitutional protection for slavery.

B) there was a temporary resolution to the free/slave controversy. The discovery of gold in California changed the political landscape. California went from a territory with approximately 15,000 settlers in 1847 to statehood with 92,000 in 1850. The question of whether California would be a slave or free state had a profound effect on national politics. Prior to 1850, the balance of slave and free states in the Senate was 15/15. When California became a free state, the balance shifted to the North. In effect, antislavery legislation could pass through Congress. The Compromise of 1850 averted a constitutional crisis when the South accepted California statehood in return for the Fugitive Slave Law. The Mexican War ended in 1848 (choice A). The South lost control of the House (based on population) in the 1830 (choice C).

The legal basis on which the United States obtained California from Mexico was: A) annexation. B) purchase. C) treaty. D) revolt.

C) treaty. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), which ended the Mexican War, handed over all lands between Texas and the Pacific ti the United States, including California. Acquisition of California fulfilled the vision of an American empire stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, the Manifest Destiny of the United States. Texas was acquired through annexation (choice A) in 1845. Purchase (choice B) enabled the United States to obtain Louisiana from France in 1803, a small strip of land south if the Gila River from Mexico (the Gadsden Purchase) in 1853, and Alaska from Russia in 1867.

Bill of Rights

Based on principles established in the Magna Carta in 1215, the 1688 English Bill of Rights, and the 1776 Virginia Bill of Rights. In 1791, the federal government added 10 amendments to the United States Constitution that provided the following protections: - Freedom of speech, religion, peaceful assembly, petition of the government, and petition of the press. -The right to keep and bear arms - No quartering of soldiers on private property without the consent of the owner - Regulations on government search and seizure - Provisions concerning prosecution - The right to a speedy, public trial and the calling of witnesses - The right to a trial by jury - Freedom from excessive bail or cruel punishment - These rights are not necessarily the only rights - Powers not prohibited by the Constitution are reserved to the states.

Newspaper Article

Brubaker, Bill. "New Health Center Targets County's Uninsured Patients." Washington Post, 24 May 2007.

Text Complexity Reading Instruction

By sixth grade, instruction should include student's cumulative knowledge and ability to 1) accurately quote text when explaining what is explicitly written; 2) draw inferences; 3) ascertain the main theme or author's main ideas; 4) summarize the text; 5) identify specific details; 6) compare and contrast events in the text; and 7) explain the relationships between two or more events or people. When conducting reading comprehension assessments based on grade-level expectations, teachers should evaluate skills to see if the students exceed expectations, meet expectations, approach expectations (with short-term intervention), or do not meet expectations (require intensive intervention). Three levels of reading - frustrated, instructional, and independent - provide general guidelines for text comprehension. Frustrated level: Text that is read accurately 89% or less of the time and is comprehended less than 75% of the time. Instructional level*: Text that is read accurately 90 to 94% of the time and is comprehended 75-89% of the time. Independent level: Text that is read accurately 95% of the time is comprehended 90-100% of the time. * Note: The instructional level of reading is the optimal level of text complexity reading instruction. In general, instructional-level text complexity should stretch the student's higher-level thinking abilities by steadily introducing more challenging text. After measuring students' level of text comprehension, match the text to students' skill level. Support the students' progress toward becoming independent readers by introducing more sophisticated text that challenges students to read frustrated-level text. Utilize text exemplars that represent examples of the level and quality of text complexity. Exemplars are selected from a wide variety of genres in literary and informational texts. Literature texts consist of stories, dramas, and poetry. Informational texts consist of historical, scientific, and technical texts. Young readers, grades K-3, use read-aloud stories, poetry, and informational texts. Exemplars do not represent a complete reading list, but are sample reading selections to help teachers choose similar texts in complexity, quality, and range for each grade-level band. To help students succeed, start by introducing a text that requires minimal instruction (i.e., new vocabulary and themes) followed by scaffolding strategies. The gradually increase the text difficulty level to more challenging reading material, both literary and informational. Continue to use scaffolding intervention strategies and track students' progress as you identify their understanding of explicit (and implicit) meanings of the text. Continue the process while adjusting (increasing or decreasing) the complexity of each text exemplar.

Early Twentieth-Century California

By the turn of the century, immigration continued to swell, with newcomers pouring in from the Midwest and from Japan. Economic competition in agriculture between the Japanese and transplanted Midwestern farmers revived earlier discriminatory efforts that had once targeted the Chinese. Along with immigrants, populism and the Progressive Era made their way to California, bringing reform to municipal and state governments long corrupted by the powerful railroad interests and machine politics.

The development of abolitionist thought was a result of man factors. Which of the following had the most profound effect on the national antislavery movement prior to the Civil War? A) 'The Red Badge of Courage' B) The Dred Scott Decision C) 'Uncle Tom's Cabin' D) "John Brown's Body"

C) 'Uncle Tom's Cabin' 'Uncle Tom's Cabin', written by Harriet Breecher Stowe in 1852, intensified both the antislavery debate and abolitionist attitudes in the United States. The book portrayed vivid tales of the injustices and inhumanity of slavery. By the eve of the Civil War (1860), the book had a profound impact on turning public opinion against slavery and had sold over two million copies. A popular legend has it that President Lincoln, on meeting Mrs. Stowe, proclaimed, "So you are the little lady who wrote the book that started the Civil War." The South condemned the book as an unfair portrayal of southern life. Choice B, The Dred Scott Decision (in 1877), was a Supreme Court case that prohibited slaves from suing the Federal government on the grounds that slaves were not citizens. This injustice was overturned by passage of the Fourteenth Amendment.

The following are dates and events leading to the American Revolution. Which of the following dates and events are correctly matched? A) 1765: Britain defeats France in the French and Indian War. B) 1770: Colonies stage the Boston Tea Party C) 1774: The First Continental Congress meets to consider action against Britain. D) 1776: Britain passes the Intolerable Acts to punish the colonies for resisting British rule.

C) 1774: The First Continental Congress meets to consider action against Britain. The First Continental Congress met in 1774 to protect the Intolerable Acts. As a result of the Boston Tea Party (1773), Britain passed a series of acts designed to punish the colonists; closing the port of Boston, trying these acts as "intolerable" and demanded their repeal. The year 1770 marked the date of the Boston Massacre, and 1765 was the date of the Stamp Act; both of these events were background causes of the American Revolution.

Which of the following decades saw the greatest percentage increase in migration to California? A) 1830-1840 B) 1870-1880 C) 1940-1950 D) 1990-2000

C) 1940-1950 Of the decades given, the 1940-1950 period saw the greatest percentage population increase. The economic impact of the post-WWII years is comparable to the impact of the Gold Rush in 1849. Like the Gold Rush era, the war years were a period of extraordinary population growth. In 1940, California ranked fifth among the states in population with approximately 7 million people. In 1950, the California population reached 10.5 million (approximately a 50 percent increase) and because the second-largest state in population. By the early 1960s, California surpassed New York as the most populous state.

Confucianism has influenced Chinese philosophy for over 2,000 years. Which of the following is the most closely associated with Confucianism? A) Attaining enlightenment and reaching nirvana B) Living by the Five Pillars and submitting to God C) Fulfilling one's role in society with honor and loyalty and veneration of ancestors D) Believing all living organisms continue eternally in cycle of birth, death, and rebirth

C) Fulfilling one's role in society with honor and loyalty and veneration of ancestors In the 5th and centuries BC, Confucius formalized his concepts about education, society, and government. The main principles of Confucianism are rooted in the belief that human conduct is based on social propriety, respect for one's ancestors and their families, and reverence for past traditions. Confucius stressed that society had to obey rules, but he also believed that rulers should respect the well-being of their subjects. By accomplishing this, society would be able stable and the ruler's subjects would be obedient and supportive. Choice A is a fundamental concept of Buddhism. The philosophy of Buddhism is based on the Four Nobel Truths and following the path to enlightenment. If accomplished, one could attain Nirvana and be free of passions, jealousy, and ignorance. Choice B is a fundamental concept of Islam. Islam is based on submission to the one God, Allah, following the teachings of Muhammed, and practicing your faith by completing the Five Pillars; profession of faith; praying five times a day; giving of alms; fasting during the month of Ramadan; and making a pilgrimage to Mecca. Choice D is a fundamental concept of Hinduism. Hinduism is a religious system based on accepting the One Supreme Reality (Brahman), a belief in reincarnation (a Hindu theory that a person has to live many lives to attain perfection), and devotion to gods and goddesses.

The Scientific Revolution transformed society and changed the way people looked at natural world. In doing so, science came in direct conflict with the teachings of the Church. Which scientist was tried by the Inquisition in the seventeenth century for supporting the heliocentric (sun-centered) theory of the solar system? A) Nicholas Copernicus B) Isaac Newton C) Galileo Galilei D) Rene Descartes

C) Galileo Galilei The Inquisition's primary purpose was to eradicate heresy and strengthen the Catholic Church. The Scientific Revolution began in earnest in the sixteenth century. Scientists worked out new theories about the universe. For more than a thousand years, the prevailing thought accepted by Ptolemy's geocentric theory that the earth was the center of the universe. Copernicus believed the sun was the center of the solar system, and the earth moved around it. Copernicus' theories were rejected by the Catholic Church. With development of the telescope, Galileo was able to prove Copernicus was correct. Galileo was questioned before the Inquisition. In 1633, fearing execution, Galileo recanted the heliocentric view of the solar system. Issac Newton was the most influential scientist of the Enlightenment and is credited with discovering the theory of gravity as well as the Three Laws of Motion. He philosophized about the "natural order" of the universe and that the laws of nature maintained order.

With the election of Hiram Johnson as governor of California, the Progressive Movement FAILED to achieve reforms in which of the following areas? A) Adding amendments to the California Constitution to protect workers' rights B) Passage of the initiative, referendum, and recall C) Passage of civil rights legislation D) Establishing a railroad commission

C) Passage of civil rights legislation The Progressive Movement in California attempted to protect the working class from the monopolistic control of big business, especially the railroad industry. Hiram Johnson was elected governor of California (1910) on a Progressive platform. The aim of the Progressives was to bring government closer to the people. The crown jewel of the California Progressive Movement was passage of the initiative, referendum, and recall (choice B). The Progressive Party in California, however, was nativist and strongly anti-Asian. The California legislature passed the Alien Land Act (1913), which prohibited Asian immigrants from both citizenship and land ownership.

'The Octopus: A California Story' (1901), by Frank Norris, vividly describes the negative impact of monopolies in the lives of many California citizens. Which of the following industries was the focus of 'The Octopus' A) The meatpacking industry B) The fishing and canning industry C) The railroad industry D) The oil industry

C) The railroad industry In 'The Octopus' (1901) by Frank Norris described the far-reaching and destructive practices of the California railroad monopolies. The story chronicles the domination of the railroad industries by the robber barons, who systematically destroyed small agricultural businesses with unfair prices. 'The Octopus' had a direct effect on the California reform movement, which led to legislation that prohibited rebates and other unfair business practices.

Based on the vote in Congress, the War of 1812 was unpopular in the Northeast. Why was the northeast section of the United States to this war? A) The impressment of U.S. sailors by England did not affect the Northeast. B) The Northeast had strong Loyalist ties with the former mother country. C) The was was being fought because of the expansionist goals of the West. D) The Federalist Part disliked a strong central government.

C) The was was being fought because of the expansionist goals of the West. The impressment of American sailors by the British and continued British violations of U.S. neutrality were the leading factors in declaring war against England in 1812. However, the Northeast viewed the war as a land grab by western war hawks (those who favored war) who wanted to obtain Canada for the United States. The War of 1812 intensified the sectional interests developing in the country following the Revolutionary War. The Federalist opposition to the War of 1812 harmed its credibility as a political party and led to its demise. One important result of the War of 1812 was that the new nation gained international respect as a country.

Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia are essentially different in all of the following EXCEPT: A) the predictability if their river systems B) natural protection against foreign invaders C) a bureaucratically administered state D) length of dynastic rule

C) a bureaucratically administered state Choice A is incorrect because of Egypt the Nile's annual floods were predictable, while in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), floods were often unpredictable and destructive. Choice B is incorrect because Egypt's barriers (desert and sea), as well as its isolation from other civilizations, greatly hindered foreign invaders, while the flat plains of Mesopotamia invited invasion. Consider the succession of political power in the region (Sumner, Babylonia, Assyria, Persia, and so on) as opposed to Egypt, which remained a distinct political entity. The only common characteristic listed is bureaucratic government. The pharaoh of Egypt and kings of Mesopotamia rules through the privileged class of nobles and priests.

Indicative mood

Used for facts, opinions, and questions. Fact: You can do that. Opinion: I think you can do that. Question: Do you know that you can do that?

Battle of Saratoga

October 17, 1777 - American commander: Horatio Gates - British commander: John Burgoyne - American victory - France and Spain declared war on Britain - Further weakened the British government under Lord North

The Physical Geography and Topography of California Represents Great Diversity

California is a land of varied climate, topography, critical resources, and great natural beauty. The third-largest state in land size, California covers an extensive area of 163,693 square miles. While its coastal climate is mild and even cool along the central and northern coast, the southeastern part of the state is hot and dry. Across much of this region stretch the parched and hostile landscape of the Mojave and Colorado deserts. The profile of the northern part of the state contrasts with that of the southern. Rainfall varies throughout the north from 15 inches to 50 inches per year. At the extreme end of the scale, the redwood forests of the northern coast can receive more than 100 inches of rain. California's high mountain ranges, including the Sierra Nevada, the Cascades, and the Trinity Alps, receive snow during the winter months. Here, resorts like Lake Tahoe and Mount Shasta can receive more than 10 feet of snow per year - and often more in a given winter season. This precipitation feeds California's most significant rivers including the Trinity River in the far northern part of the state, the Colorado River, and the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, which coverage into a geographically rare inverted delta in the northern Central Valley. Also notable is the largest alpine lake in the United States, Lake Tahoe, shared by California and Nevada.

Prehistoric Period

California's earliest peoples descended from those who first left Asia by crossing the Bering Sea land bridge, arriving in North America about 20,000 and 30,000 years ago. It would take another 10,000 years for various groups to reach California and beyond. The migrating groups that arrived in California found a land of rugged mountains, extensive coastline, mild climate, and rich soil lying between the Pacific coastal ranges and the Sierra Nevada. The rugged topography of mountains and deserts isolated California's indigenous peoples from cultures that developed on the Great Plains to the east and in Mexico in the south. The landscape made extended travel on foot within the region extremely difficult as well; thus, regional relations between tribal groups were limited, creating a diverse patchwork of isolated and distinct tribal groupings.

Recent Developments in California History

California's strong economy has been supported by its mild climate, its resources, and an abundant workforce. The state continues to draw newcomers, forcing officials and citizens to face multiple challenges of sustaining economic growth; providing adequate public services and education to a huge population; urban issues of poverty and violence; rising numbers of immigrants, both legal and illegal; and how to access and efficiently use its shrinking resources, particularly water.

Compromise of 1850

Calling upon the principle of popular sovereignty, allowed those who lived in the Mexican cession to decide for themselves whether to be free or slave territory.

Alonso Alvarez de Pineda

Charted the Gulf Coast from Florida to Mexico in 1519, claimed Florida for Spain, and then sailed the Gulf Coast.

Rights, duties, and responsibilities expected of US citizens.

Citizens are granted certain rights under the US government. The most important of these are defined in the Bill of Rights, and include freedom of speech, religion, assembly, and a variety of other rights the government is not allowed to remove. Duties of a US citizen include: - Paying taxes - Loyalty to the government, though the US does not prosecute those who criticize or seek to change the government. - Support or defend the Constitution - Serve in the Armed Forces as required by law - Obeying laws as set forth by the various levels of government. Responsibilities of a US citizen include: - Voting in elections - Respecting one another's rights and not infringing upon them - Staying informed about various political and national issues - Respecting on another's beliefs

Monroe Doctrine

Conceived by President James Monroe in 1823, this foreign policy warned European powers to cease colonization of Central and South America or face military intervention by the United States. In return, the United States would not meddle in the political affairs or standing colonies of Europe.

Coordinating conjunction

Connect equal parts of sentences. Include: and, but, yet, or, not, for and so. Examples: - The rock was small, but it was heavy. - She drove in the night, and he drove in the day.

Magazine Article

Cummins, Carrice. "Celebrating Teachers: Using Children's Literature to make a Difference." Reading Today, Oct. 2012, pp. 2-4.

Which of the following was the most important food for the Indians occupying the foothill regions of California prior to historic contact? A) Yucca plans B) Fish and large game C) Seeds and berries D) Acorn nuts

D) Acorn nuts The most important and only reliable food for the majority of California Indians, Indians of the foothills, was acorn nuts. You can eliminate choice B because coast and river Indians, not foothill Indians, would have eaten fish, and few Indians included large game animals as a regular part of their diet. While seeds and berries (Choice C) were a part of the Indians' diet, because grasses and wild oats covered many hills and valleys, and while yucca plants were used as both a food an basket source, prior to European contact (1500s), it was the acorn (the nut of the oak tree) that was the Indians' staple good source. Almost all California Indians depended on corn meal because oaks grew in most parts of California. After pounding the acorn kernel into a powder, Indians used water to leach the acorn's bitter tannic acid. The resulting meal could be boiled into a mush, baked into cakes, or stored.

Which of the following English colonies was NOT founded as a result of religious persecution? A) Maryland B) Rhode Island C) Pennsylvania D) Georgia

D) Georgia Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe, became the last of the original thirteen colonies. Oglethorpe brought debtors and former prisoners to Georgia to provide a population base to protect Georgia from Spanish territory expansion. The other choices were all established with religious freedom as a cornerstone of the colony. Maryland (Catholic), Rhode Island (extensive freedom for all religions), and Pennsylvania (Quakers) were established to provide religious freedom. Other colonies founded on the premise of religious freedom included Massachusetts (Puritans) and Delaware (Quakers). It is important to note that with exception of Rhode Island, religious freedom only extended to the dominant region of the colony.

The sea influenced the growth and development of many cultures. This was especially evident in the civilizations of Aegean. Which of the following Aegean civilizations developed a flourishing culture as a direct result of trade and commerce on the Aegean Sea? A) Sumerians B) Phoenicians C) Assyrians D) Mycenaeans

D) Mycenaeans Of the choices given, only the Mycenaeans were centers of Aegean civilization and depended on the Aegean Sea to develop and extend their culture. This was also true of Aegean civilizations such as Crete and Troy . The Phoenicians were the greatest seafaring civilization in the ancient world, developed extensive trade networks throughout the Mediterranean, and set up distant trade networks and trading colonies such as Tyre and Sidon. The Sumerians were the first civilization in Mesopotamia and would have sued the Tigris and Euphrates rivers for trade commerce, as well as areas surrounding the Persian Gulf. The Assyrian empire originated in the highland region of the upper Tigris River but grew to encompass the entire area of the Fertile Crescent. The Assyrians were a warrior nations who terrorized conquered people.

Historically, which of the following best describes the Hindu caste system? A) This flexible system allowed for upward social mobility. B) Social status depended solely on wealth. C) People should marry above their caste. D) No amount of success would allow a person to move from one caste to another.

D) No amount of success would allow a person to move from one caste to another. The concept of the caste system originated in India (1500 BC) as part of the teachings of Hinduism. The caste system divided people into four distinct and inflexible groups: Priests and teachers; rulers and warriors; merchants and artisans; and the lowest caste, peasants and servants. People who did not belong to any group were the untouchables. Members of one caste could not marry or even eat with members of another caste. The caste system was outlawed in India in 1950.

All of the following were necessary for the Industrial Revolution in England EXCEPT the: A) existence of large quantities of coal and iron. B) rapid increase in the English middle class. C) large supply of cheap labor. D) growth of the canal system.

D) growth of the canal system. The Industrial Revolution began in England largely due to favorable geographic and social conditions. England had abundant reserves of coal and iron. Rivers provided necessary waterpower to run machinery. The necessary labor force was in place following the enclosure movement that forced thousands of people from rural land to cities. Also, investment capital supplied by a burgeoning middle class provided money to purchase equipment for the emergent factories. Choice D was a result of the Industrial Revolution. The water and rail system greatly expanded to meet the demand of new industrial system. Other results of the Industrial Revolution included a tremendous increase in productivity, the rapid rise in industrial sites, and division of society into distinct classes of capital and labor.

Battle of Yorktown

October 19, 1781 - American commanders: George Washington, Comte de Rochameau, Comte de Grasse - British commanders: Lord Cornwallis, Banastre Tarleton - American Victory - Tarleton's surrender brought war to an end - Britain recognized the independence of the United States of America

Imperative mood

Used for orders or requests. Order: You are going to do this! Request: Will you do this for me?

Battle of Trenton

December 26, 1776 - American commanders: George Washington, Nathanael Greene - British commanders: Johann Rall - American victory - Victorious surprise attack on Hessian forces rallied American spirit and confidence in Washington's leadership

Oral Communication (Speech)

Defined as the physical process associated with oral communication as applied to phonological skills, speech fluency, and voice. Most children acquire speech fluency by first grade, but some children have special considerations in speech development that affect age-appropriate articulation, voice strength, sound patters, speech rhythm, and vocal quality. Signs of speech difficulties include stuttering, breaks in volume or pitch, breaks in fluency, difficulty in pronunciation, and difficulty expressing ideas. Classroom activities for children with speech difficulties should be modified and sensitive to differentiated learning (i.e., making eye contact when speaking and allowing ample time for a student to respond to a question). CSET candidates should be able to identify other influences that affect speech communication such as dialect and idiolect. Dialect refers to the distinctive variety of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation spoken by members of an identifiable regional group, nation, or social class. Idiolect is the particular variety of a language used by an individual speaker or writer, which may be marked by peculiarities of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.

Comparative adjective

Degree compares one person to thing to another person or thing. Ex: This work is more difficult that your work. | She is smarter than me.

Positive adjective

Degree is the normal form of an adjective. Ex: This work is difficult | She is smart.

Hyperbole

Deliberate exaggeration for effect Example: The whole world's problems are on my shoulders.

The Boston Tea Party

On December 3rd, 1773 the Sons of Liberty, dressed as Mohawks, dumped tea into the harbor from a British ship to protest the tea tex. The harsh British response further aggravated the situation.

Gold Discovered in California

During Mexican rule, Americans moving to California were dew and far between - trappers crossing the Sierra Nevada and traders traveling the rugged trail connecting Santa Fe, New Mexico, with the outpost of Los Angeles. By the 1840s, however, white settlers began to move from Missouri westward. It was a group of these settlers who, worried that the Mexican government was a bout to make a move against them, marched into Sonoma in 1846 and raised their grizzly bear flag, proclaiming California an independent republic. When word finally reached them that the United States was already at war with Mexico, the "Bear Flag Revolt" was abandoned, and the rebels that joined John C. Fremont in the "California Battalion" fighting to make California a part of the United States.

Implications of Teaching Research in the Classroom

Each year, students advance their academic performance and increase their skills in print and digital research. By the eighth grade, advanced research expectations include students' ability to - gather and analyze information from multiple print and digital sources - show a command of keyboarding skills - use search terms effectively - evaluate the credibility of each source - quote, summarize, or paraphrase information from sources without plagiarism - cite multiple sources that support the analysis of text - use a standard format for bibliographic references

Academic Journal (accessed from a website):

Eberle, Scott G. "Playing with the Multiple Intelligences: How Play Helps Them Grow." American Journal of Play, vol. 4 (June 1, 2011): 19-51. Accessed 3 December 2016.

Economics and Kinds of Economies

Economics is the study of the buying choices that people make, the production of goods and services, and how our market system works. The two kinds of economies are command and market. In a command economy, the government controls what and how much is produced, the methods used for production, and the distribution of goods and services. In a market economy, producers make decisions about methods and distribution on their own. These choices are based on what will sell and bring a profit in the marketplace. In a market economy, consumers ultimately affect these decisions by choosing whether or not to buy certain goods and services. The United States has a market economy.

The Rise of Islam

Emerging from the deserts of Arabia, Mohammed appeared as a messenger of God (Allah) and a prophet of Allah's monotheistic faith. According to Islamic traditions, Mohammed was last in line of prophet that traced back to Abraham and included Jesus. Working to unite the disparate tribes of Arabia under the articles of a single faith, Mohammed managed to conquer and bring most of the Arabian Peninsula under his control by the time of his death in A.D. 632. Under his successors, the conquest of surrounding regions in the name of Islam brought the lands of Mesopotamia, Persia, and all of North Africa and southwestern Asia into the Muslim fold, creating a vast Islamic empire. Through flourishing trade, Muslims would bring their advances in government, commerce, science, and the arts to the rest of the world.

Noun-pronoun agreement errors

Errors occur when nouns that refer to other nouns in a sentence don't agree in singular or plural number. Pronouns stand for a word so that writers can avoid using the noun(s) over and over again. Pronouns can either be singular or plural and must agree with the noun, verb, or other pronoun to which they refer. Remember that the number of a pronoun (i.e. whether it is singular or plural) must agree in number with its antecedent (the word, phrase, or clause to which it refers). Personal pronouns have distinctive singular and plural forms (he/they, his/their, him/them) Example: Steve left STEVE'S workplace and forgot to take STEVE'S iPad. (without pronouns) Steve left HIS workplace and forgot to take HIS iPad. (substituting pronouns)

Pronoun-antecedent errors

Errors occur when the number of the pronoun (singular or plural) doesn't agree with the antecedent (the word, phrase, or clause to which it refers). The antecedent ("ante" means "before") of a pronoun is the word to which the pronoun refers. Example: In the following example, the pronoun "his" refers to the antecedent "Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr." DR. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. delivered HIS famous "I Have a Dream" speech in 1963.

Subject-verb agreement errors

Errors occur when the verb(s) that refers to a noun(s) in a sentence doesn't agree in singular or plural number and gender. Focus on the verb(s). A plural subject goes with a plural verb; a singular subject goes with a singular verb. Example: Here on the table is an APPLE and THREE PEARS. Focus on the verb (is) and ask yourself what the subject is. In this sentence, the subject (an apple and three pears) follows the verb. Since the subject is plural, the verb must be plural-are instead of is. The correct sentence should read: Here on the table ARE an apple and three pears.

Argument Writing

Essay or research papers Although all types of essay writing assignments are considered important, the CCSS place a special emphasis on argument writing. The techniques applied to reasonably argue a position not only help students increase their critical-thinking skills, but also prepare them for college or a career. Argument essays attempt to convince the reader that something is true by: 1) stating an issue, problem, or topic; 2) investigating the issue by conducting research; 3) evaluating the issue to establish a position or claim; and 4) providing substantive support with relevant evidence, sound reasoning, and logic that defends the position (i.e., credible examples, facts, and counterclaims - pros and cons). Argument essays are especially useful for social students and science subjects whereby the writer can address an issue or scientific claim and formulate an argument of interpretation. For example, a teacher may ask students to write argument in which they strongly agree or disagree with the following topic, "In order to reduce air pollution, people should ride buses or bicycles rather than driving cars." To organize a strong argument essay, students may research the effects of vehicle emissions on the environment to provide a chain of scientific evidence to support their position. Note: Although argument writing and persuasive writing are terms that are sometimes used interchangeably, argument writing is grounded in convincing the reader with evidence (logos), and persuasive writing is grounded in convincing the reader with feelings (pathos).

Choral Reading

Or unison, reading, students read along as a group with you (or another fluent adult reader). They might follow along as you read from a big book, or they might read from their own copy of the book you are reading. Predictable books are particularly useful for choral reading because their repetitious style invites students to join in. Begin by reading the book aloud as you model fluent reading. Students should read the book aloud with you three to five times total (though not necessarily on the same day). After that time, students should be able to read the text independently.

Informative writing

Essays Also known as explanatory writing. It is a mode of writing in which the purpose is to inform, explain, clarify, describe, or define a subject to the reader. For example, informative writing can provide instructions, processes, and procedures to readers. Informative writing is meant to provide information from a factual, objective perspective. Essays focus on explaining unbiased information about a topic and never give the writer's opinion about the topic. The writer frequently uses a scholarly third-person tone. Essays provide sound information and explanations to help the readers understand a topic while providing accurate and complete examples. Examples of informative writing include literary analysis, resumes, instruction manuals, business letters, summaries, and historical reports. In any given student writing task or assignment for informative writing, the student should draw from primary and secondary sources, but can also incorporate personal observations, readings, and experiences to provide evidence that support the conclusion. The writer should also cite specific quotes and paraphrases from each written assignment to explain the response. Remember that writers are required to identify each cited reference (author's last name, title, etc.)

Narrative writing

Essays Also known as expressive or creative writing. It is used to provide entertainment, information, or instruction. This type of writing tells a real or imaginary story and draws from personal thoughts and experiences. Whether fiction or nonfiction, the events in a narrative work are presented in a storylike fashion that builds to a scene of climactic action. Narrative writing often includes a timeline and appeals to the reader's senses by including details pertaining to sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell. Examples of narrative writing include stories, autobiographies, anecdotes, and memoirs. Creative writing includes poems, plays, fables, and myths.

Rene-Robert de La Salle

Explored the Great Lakes and the Illinois and Mississippi Rivers from 1679-1682. Claiming all the land from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Appalachians to the Rockies for France.

Elements of an effective speech presentation

Eye contact: A good speaker establishes eye contact with the audience in a manner that is engaging and appropriate. A good speaker avoids looking over the heads of the audience, or addressing just one member or one section of the audience. Volume and tone of voice: An effective speaker's tone varies naturally and appropriately according to the content. His or her volume is clear and suitable for the audience and venue. A good speaker modulates his or her volume at appropriate points in the delivery to engage the audience in the content. Pacing and clarity: Effective speakers enunciate clearly and properly, using a natural pace that is governed by the syntax and content. Words are never slurred and do not run together. Good speakers do not use fillers such as um, ah, and like. Hand gestures: Effective speakers know when to use hand gestures and how to employ them appropriately ti enhance their presentation. Poor speakers keep their hands in their pockets, play with their hair, or fidget inappropriately. Posture: Good speakers face the audience squarely with a natural stance; they do not shift their weight or stand askew; they do not learn informally to one side or the other, nor do they lean on a lectern or podium. Visual aids: The phrase "a picture is worth a thousand words" illustrates the importance of incorporating visual aids in the delivery if the speech. Visual aids help to increase the speaker's credibility, maintain focus, improve audience understanding, and increase audience interest. Visual aids can be printed (displays, posters, charts, maps, images, handouts, worksheets) or technology-based (multimedia, smart boards with a document reader, computer slide shows such as PowerPoint, films). Bias and stereotyping: Good speakers are sensitive to reducing bias and stereotyping and avoiding inaccurate, demeaning, or discriminating language in their speeches. When presenting speeches, be aware of audience differences in culture, language, race, gender, age, or disability. Effective speeches are respectful of the audience and use appropriate language and tone.

Capitalization

Follow these four key rules for capitalization. - Capitalize the first letter of the first word at the beginning of each sentence - Capitalize proper nouns and titles. Remember, nouns are a person, place, or thing. For example, although the word "president" is not capitalized when used in a sentence, it is capitalized when it is paired with a name (President Obama). Remember to capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound proper noun. For example: Lorenzo Lamas-Craig. - Capitalize the first word within quotations if the quotation is a complete sentence or if the quotation is a direct quote. Example: In an international study of climate change, scientific researchers concluded by affirming that "Global warming is the result of humankind's reliance on fossil fuels."

Stages of the Writing Process

For any writing assignment, there are five step leading to the finished product; prewriting, writing (drafting), revising (rewriting), editing (proofreading), and publishing (submitting your paper). Writers who practice these stages gain control over any writing assignment.

Subjunctive mood

For wishes and statements that go against fact. Wish: I wish that I were going to do this. Statement against fact: If I were you, I would do this. (This goes against fact because I am not you. You have the chance to do this, and I do not have the chance.)

Coral Reefs

Formed by millions of tiny, tube-shaped polyps, an animal life form encased in tough limestone skeletons. Once anchored to a rocky surface, polyps eat plankton and miniscule shellfish caught with poisonous tentacles near the mouth. Polyps use calcium carbonate absorbed from chemicals given off by algae to harden their body armor and cement themselves together in fantastic shapes of many colors. Polyps reproduce through eggs and larvae, but the reef grows by branching out shoots of polyps. There are three types of coral reefs: - Fringing reefs: These surround, or "fringe," and island. - Barrier reefs: Over the centuries, a fringe reef grows so large that the island sinks down from the weight, and the reef becomes a barrier around the island. Water trapped between the island and the reef is called a lagoon. - Atolls: Eventually, the sinking island goes under, leaving the coral reef around the lagoon

Samuel de Champlain

Founded Quebec and set up a fur empire on the St. Lawrence Seaway, also explored the coasts of Massachusetts and Rhode Island between 1604 and 1607.

Renaissance

French word for rebirth, and is used to describe the renewal of interest in ancient Greek and Latin art, literature, and philosophy that occurred in Europe, especially Italy, from the 14th through the 16th centuries. Historically, it was also a time of great scientific inquiry, the rise of individualism, extensive geographical exploration, and the rise of secular values. Notable figures of the time include: - Petrarch: An Italian scholar, writer, and key figure in northern Italy, which is where the Renaissance started and where chief patrons came from the merchant class. - Leonardo da Vinci: Artist and inventor - Michelangelo and Raphael: Artists - Desiderius Erasmus: Applied historical scholarship to the New Testament and laid the seeds for the Protestant Reformation - Sir Thomas More: A lawyer and author who wrote 'Utopia' - Niccolo Machiavelli: Author of 'Prince of Discourses', which proposed a science of human nature and civil life - William Shakespeare: A renowned playwright and poet.

Gilded Age and Infamous Robber Barons

From the 1870s to 1890s, was so named because of the enormous wealth and grossly opulent lifestyle enjoyed by a handful of powerful families. This was the time when huge mansions were built as summer "cottages" in Newport, Rhode Island, and great lodges were built in mountain areas for the pleasure of families such as the Vanderbilts, Ascots, and Rockefellers. Control of the major industries was held largely by the following men, who were known as Robber Barons for their ruthless business practices and exploitation of workers: Jay, Gould, rail roads; Andrew Carnegie, steel; John D. Rockefeller, Sr., oil; Phillip Danforth Armour, meatpacking; J.P. Morgan, banking; John Jacob Astor, fur pelts; and Cornelius Vanderbilt, steamboat shipping. Of course, all of theses heads of industry diversified and became involved in multiple business ventures. To curb cutthroat competition, particularly among the railroads, and to prohibit restrained trade, Congress created the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Sherman Anti Trust Act. Neither of these, however, were enforced.

Context

Gives the reader a sense of appropriateness for a different writing situations. For example, one clearly follows different writing conventions when writing a research report, a summary, an essay, a descriptive piece, or an argument. The writing context often dictates the appropriate tone, as well as the vocabulary, organization, and so on.

Phonics Classroom Instruction

Good phonics instruction is systematic and explicit. Systematic is a plan of instruction that includes a carefully selected set of instructions to help children understand the relationship between the letters (graphemes) of written language and the individual sounds (phonemes) of spoken language. It teaches children to use these relationships to read and write words. Explicit phonics instructional lessons provide teachers with precise directions for teaching the relationship. Most effective when it begins in kindergarten or first grade. Approximately 2 years of phonics instruction is sufficient for most students. The fundamental goal of a good phonics program is that teachers systematically help students learn to automatically identify the sound of associated with the corresponding letter. Teachers of reading programs sometimes use different terms to describe this special relationship between sounds and letters: grapheme-phonemic correspondence, letter-sound association, sound-symbol, and sound-spellings. For example, using letter-sound associations, the sound for "c" is represented by /k/ in cat and /s/ in cent.

Making use of prior-knowledge

Good readers draw prior knowledge and experience to help them understand what they are reading. You can help your students make use of their prior knowledge to improve their comprehension. Before your students read, preview the text with them. As part of previewing, ask the students what they already know about the content of the selection (for example, the topic, the concept, or the time period). Ask them what they know about the author and what text structure he or she is likely to use. Discuss the important vocabulary used in the text. Show students some pictures or diagram to prepare them for what they are about to read.

Using mental imagery

Good readers often form mental pictures, or images, as they read. Readers (especially younger readers) who visualize during reading understand and remember what they read better than readers who do not visualize. Help your students learn to form visual images of what they are reading. For example, urge them to picture a setting, character, or event described in the text.

Parliamentary System

Government involves a legislature and a variety of political parties. The head of government, usually a Prime Minister, is typically the head of the dominant party. A head of state can be elected, or this position can be taken by a monarch, such as in Great Britain's constitutional monarchy system.

Using graphic organizers

Graphic organizers illustrate concepts and interrelationships among concepts in a text using diagrams or other pictorial devices. Graphic organizers are known by different names, such as Venn diagram, maps, webs, graphs, charts, frames, or clusters. Semantic organizers (also called semantic maps or semantic webs) are graphic organizers that look somewhat like a spider web. In semantic organizer, lined connect a central concept to a variety of related ideas and events.

Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca

He got lost on foot in Texas and New Mexico. Estevanico, or Esteban, a Moorish slave, was a companion who guided them to Mexico.

Qualitative measurement: (Measuring Text Complexity)

Identify the difficulty level of text by using a handwritten qualitative analysis measure that identifies specific criteria for text complexity: meaning (literacy texts); purpose (informational texts); structure, language clarity, and conventions; and knowledge demands. Sample worksheets are available online by searching "text complexity analysis worksheets." Analysis worksheets rate text complexity from easy yo challenging in the following categories: - Levels of meaning and purpose: Des the text have a single meaning or multiple meanings? Is the meaning explicitly or implicitly (hidden) stated? - Structure: How is the text organized (simple or complex)? Is the text conventional or unconventional (literary)? Is there a chronological order or are events out of order (literary)? Is there a logical order of ideas and connecting ideas? Is it easy to identify the main purpose, themes, and format, or are they difficult to identify (informational)? Are the sections labeled or unlabeled (informational)? - Language clarity and conventions: Is text clear or ambiguous? Does the text contain words and phrases with multiple meanings or single meanings? Is the text conversational, academic, or specific? Is there figurative language (literary)? - Theme and knowledge demands: Are the themes familiar to the student? Does the text prompt the reader's interest in new experiences? Does the text suggest multiple perspectives?

Differentiated Reading Instruction

If a student is reading below the frustrated level of reading comprehension, the teacher should adjust instruction to accommodate the student's cognitive or learning abilities. Reading levels must match individual reading levels for each student until the student can progress toward new levels of instructional and independent reading. Struggling readers often achieve high reading levels through additional support and resources as evidence by text complexity reading outcomes. Important reading outcomes from text complexity instruction include a steady growth of differentiated learning, reading comprehension, and independent reading. While matching the student with an appropriate text may require the teacher to assign a frustrating reading task to the student, the text should not be so difficult that the student finds text comprehension unachievable.

Symbol

Usually concrete objects or images that represent abstract ideas Example: The eagle is often used as a symbol of freedom.

Colonization of Virginia and Virginia Company

In 1585, Sir Walter Raleigh landed on Roanoke Island and sent Arthur Barlow to the mainland. which they named Virginia. Two attempts to establish settlements failed. The first permanent English colony was founded by Captain John Smith in Jamestown in 1607. The Virginia Company and the Chesapeake Bay Company successfully colonized other Virginia sites. By 1619, had a House of Burgesses. The crown was indifferent to the colony, so local government grew strong and tobacco created wealth. The First Families of Virginia dominated politics for tow centuries, and four of the first five United States presidents came from these families. The Virginia Company sent 24 Puritan families, known as Pilgrims, to Virginia on the Mayflower, In 1620, it landed at Plymouth, Massachusetts instead. The Plymouth Plantation was established and survived with the help of natives. This is where the first Thanksgiving is believed to have occured.

Colonization in Massachusetts

In 1629, 400 Puritans arrived in Salem, which became an important port and was made famous by the witch trials in 1692. In 1628, the self-governed Massachusetts Bay Company was organized and the Massachusetts Indians sold most of the land to the English. Boston was established in 1630 and Harvard University was established in 1636.

Colonization of Pennsylvania

In 1681, William Penn received a royal charter for the establishment of a colony for Quakers. However, religious tolerance allowed immigrants from mixed group of denominations, who prospered from the beginning.

Missouri Compromise

In 1820, there were 11 free states and 11 slave states. The fear of power imbalance between slave and free states when Missouri petitioned to become a slave state brought about this agreement. Maine was brought in as a free state; the southern border of Missouri was set as the northernmost line of any slave territory; and the western states could come in as free states, while Arkansas and Florida could be slave states.

The Shot Heard Round the World

In April, 1775, English soldiers, on their way to confiscate arms in Concord, passed through Lexington, Massachusetts and met the colonial militia called the Minutemen. A fight ensued. In Concord, a larger group of Minutemen forced the British to retreat.

California water delivery system

In a state of more than 36 million people, with 23 million of those living in dry southern part of the state and 6.5 million living in the "fruit basket" of the Central Valley, fresh water is a precious resource and its availability a pressing issue. While about 75% of the state's water resources originate north of Sacramento, 80 percent of the demand lies in the southern two-thirds of the state. Engineering has proven to be the controversial solution to California's water problems, with the creation of the Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct to provide water to the Bay Area of San Francisco and the California, Los Angeles, and Colorado aqueducts that meet the water needs of Los Angeles and San Diego counties. With populations and demand continuing to grow, California must consider new solutions to this centuries-old problem. 1. Central Valley Project brought water from Northern to Southern California a. Series of dams and reservoirs first started during the Depression b. Shasta Dam is the largest water reclamation project in the state. 2. Los Angeles Aqueduct brought water from Owens River to Los Angeles a. William Mulholland spearheaded controversial project. b. Negative impact on Owens Valley and Mono Lake. 3. Salton Sea helps irrigate the Imperial Valley.

Presidents and Vice Presidents from 1972-74

In a two-year time span, the United States had two presidents and two vice presidents. This situation resulted first from the resignation of Vice President Spiro T. Agnew in October of 1973 because of alleged kickbacks. President Richard M. Nixon then appointed House Minority Leader General R. Ford to be vice president. This was accomplished through Senate ratification, a process that had been devised after Harry Truman succeeded to the presidency upon the death of Franklin Roosevelt and went through nearly four year of his presidency without a vice president. Nixon resigned the presidency in August of 1974 because some Republican party members broke into Democratic headquarters at the Watergate building in Washington, DC, and then the president participated in covering up the crime. Ford succeeded Nixon, and had to appoint another vice president. He chose Nelson Rockefeller, former governor of New York.

Great Depression and Dust Bowl

In the 1920s, the rich got richer. After World War I, however, farmers were in a depression when foreign markets started growing their own crops again. Increased credit buying, bank war debates, a huge gap between rich and poor, and a belief that the stock market would always go up got this nation into financial trouble. The Stock Market Crash in October 1929 that destroyed fortunes dramatized the downward spiral of the whole economy. Banks failed, and customers lost all their money. By 1933, 14 million were unemployed, industrial production was down to one-third of its 1929 level, and national income had dropped by a half. Adding to the misery of farmers, years if breaking sod on prairies without adequate conservation techniques caused the topsoil to fly away in great dust storms that blackened skies for years, causing deaths from lung disease and failed crops.

The Rise of Democracy and the Western Movement

In the decades after the War of 1812 and prior to the Civil War, two new parties emerged on the political landscape. The Whigs, born from the ashes of the Federalist Party, fought for their national vision against the Democratic Party, and updated version of Jefferson's Democratic-Republicans. Dominating the era was the monumental figures of Tennessean Andrew Jackson. "the hero of New Orleans." Opposing the old Hamiltonian view of an American dominated by financial elites, the Democratic Jackson championed the cause of the "common man" and the expansionist frontier western spirit - what journalist John O'Sullivan called the nation's "Manifest Destiny."

Greek Contributions: 4000-323 B.C.

Organized warfare - Mycenae: Sparta, Phalanx Literature - Epic Poetry ('The Illiad: The Odessy'), Plays (drama, tragedy, comedy) History - Herodotus (The Persian Wars), Thucydides (The Peloponnesian War) Architecture - Columns and Colonnades, Parthenon Arts - Theatre, Sculpture, Decorative pottery Government - Democracy (Athens), Oligarchy (Sparta), Bureaucracy (Alexander the Great)

Action Verb

Verb that shows what the subject is doing in a sentence. In other words, an action verb shows action. A sentence can be complete with one word: an action verb. Action: He sings. | Run! | Go! | I talk to him every day. | She reads.

Reading Informational Text

Informational text is a subcategory of nonfiction text and employs different purposes, structure, and style. The primary purpose of informational text is to inform, explain, and instruct the reader about historical, scientific, and technical events. For example, a biography is a nonfiction narrative that tells a story about a person's life in a linear manner. The nonfiction story sequentially builds to a scene of climatic action by creating the plot, character, setting, conflict, and themes. On the other hand, informational text does not use characters to create a plot or climactic action, and the information may not be reported in a linear manner. An informational text reports straightforward evidence about key facts, details, and data about a person's life (birth, family, education, milestones, career, and so on) similar to information retrieved from Wikipedia. Other examples of informational text are print and digital interdisciplinary textbooks, reference books, procedural manuals, handouts, professional books, newspapers articles, and magazine articles. Informational text often helps readers understand the "who, what, when, where, why and how" of events, ideas, and people from around the world. Informational text includes features that help readers locate information quickly and economically. These features include print features (font, title, headings, labels, bullets, captions), graphic features (charts, graphs, diagrams, maps, tables, figures, timelines), organizational features (preface, table of contents, index, glossary, appendix), and illustrational features (photos, drawings)

The Renaissance (c.1350-1600)

Initiated in the trade-enriched, independent city-sates of Italy, the revival of intellectualism, literature, philosophy, and artistic achievement known as the Renaissance spread westward and into northern Europe. The Renaissance continued the road started in the Middle Ages that would lead to modern Europe.

Exploration and Colonization (1450-1763)

Intense interest in exploiting a lucrative trade in spices from Asia drove a period of exploration in search of trade routes to the Far East. The discovery of the vast continents of the Western Hemisphere was a direct result of exploratory voyages launched by Spain. Joining Spain in a chance to exploit these new lands were rivals Portugal, France, the Netherlands, and England. It was England that would emerge to dominate settlement of North America through the founding and expansion of its thirteen permanent colonies. In short order, the colonies developed regional characteristics defined by geography that were critical to their economic development. While distance geographically, economically, and in many ways socially all of England's colonies based their governing systems, to one degree or another, on concepts of limited government, representation, and the rights of Englishmen guaranteed in a Bill of Rights. These long-standing traditions of England's government were transplanted in America by its new settlers, with the first important steps taken by the earliest colonies of Plymouth (Massachusetts) and Virginia. Amidst inviting economic and political conditions, the colonies flourished and their populations grew steadily. A stream of immigrants from England and other countries of Western Europe, a burgeoning birth rate, and the forced arrival of approximately one-half million slaved from Africa swelled the colonial population. As the colonies grew and prospered, they created a society in many ways different from those in the homelands they left behind. A tradition of free public education was started in the villages of New England, religious tolerance supplanted an early religious dogmatism first established by the Puritans in Massachusetts, and a conscious choice was made to leave the idea of hereditary aristocracy behind in Europe. A society of mobile rather than fixed social classes existed with movement through the ranks neither legally guaranteed nor barred to anyone, with the exception of slaves.

Linking Verbs

Intransitive verbs that show a condition (i.e., the subject is described but does no action). Link subject of a sentence to a noun or pronoun, or they link a subject with an adjective. You always need a verb if you want a complete sentence. However, linking verbs are not able to complete a sentence. Common linking verbs include appear, be, become, feel, grow, look, seem, smell, sound, and taste. However, any verb that shows a condition and has a noun, pronoun, or adjective that describes the subject of a sentence is a linking verb. Linking: Incorrect: I am. Correct: I am John | I smell roses. | I feel tired.

Step 4: Proofreading

Is the final stage of reevaluating the written essay. Some writers are confused about the differences in the terms revising, editing, and proofreading. The terms editing and proofreading can be used interchangeably, but the term revising is very different in the stages of the writing process. During the revising stage, major changes are commonplace, but during the editing (proofreading) stage only minor changes are made. The editing stage is a fine-tuning or polishing stage. This is the stage that writers use to check the text for mechanical and diction errors (spelling, punctuation, grammar, capitalization, etc.), sentence structure errors, and bibliographic reference errors. This step allows the writer to ensure that the final draft is as accurate and error-free as possible using the conventions of standard written English.

Importance of Cross-Cultural Comparisons in World History Instruction

It is important to make cross-cultural comparisons when studying world history so that the subject is holistic and not oriented to just Western civilization. Not only are the contributions of civilizations and the world important, but they are also interesting and more representative of the mix of cultures present in the United States. It is also critical to the understanding of world relations to study the involvement of European countries and the United States in international commerce, colonization, and development. Trade routes from ancient times linked Africa, Asia, and Europe, resulting in exchanges and migrations of people, philosophies, and religions, as well as goods. While many civilizations in the Americas thrived and some became very sophisticated, many eventually became disastrously entangles in European expansion. The historic isolation of China and the modern industrialization of Japan have had huge impacts on relations with the rest of the world. The more students understand this history and its effect on the modern world, the better they will able to function in their own spheres.

Spelling Inventory

Skill: Spelling Standard assessment tools: Francine Johnston's Primary and Elementary Spelling Inventories and Pearson's "Words Their Way: Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary, and Spelling Instruction Description: These tests measure the student's ability to spell words correctly. Based on the results, a student's spelling skills can be classified into developmental spelling stages. In this way, skills are examined that directly tie to reading. This assists in planning appropriate spelling and reading instruction.

The Progression of Reading CCSS for ELA and Literacy

K: Actively engage in group reading activities with purpose and understanding 1: With prompting and support, read prose and poetry [informational texts] of appropriate complexity for first grade. 2: By the end of the year, read and comprehend literature [informational texts] in the grades 2-3 text complexity band proficiently, with scaffolding as needed at the high end of the range. 3: By the end of the year, read and comprehend literature [informational texts] at the high end of grades 2-3 text complexity band independently and proficiently. 4: By the end of the year, read and comprehend literature [informational texts] in the grades 4-5 text complexity band proficiently, with scaffolding as needed at the high end of the range. 5: By the end of the year, read and comprehend literature [informational texts] in the grades 4-5 text complexity band independently and proficiently 6: By the end of the year, read and comprehend literature [informational texts, history/social studies texts, science/technical texts] in the grades 6-8 text complexity band proficiently, with scaffolding as needed at the high end of the range. 7: By the end of the year, read and comprehend literature [informational texts, history/social studies texts, science/technical texts] in the grades 6-8 text complexity band proficiently, with scaffolding as needed at the high end of the range. 8: By the end of the year, read and comprehend literature [informational texts, history/social studies texts, science/technical texts] at the high end of 6-8 text complexity band independently and proficiently.

Academic Journal

Kafka, Ben. "The Demon of Writing Paperwork, Public Safety, and the Reign or Terror." Representations. 98.1 (2007): 1-24. Print.

England's Magna Carta (1215)

Key provisions: - King's authority limited by law - Rights of the king's subjects declared (i.e., habeas corpus) - Respect for legal procedures Modern influence: - Constitutionalism - Individual rights - Due process of the law

Is the meaning clear? (Analyzing Poetry)

Make sure you understand the meaning of all the words in the poem, especially words you think you know but which don't seem to fit in the context of the poem. Also make sure you understand the grammar of the poem. The word order of poetry is often skewed, and in a poem, a direct object may come before the subject and the verb. ("His sounding lyre the poet struck" can mean a poet was hit by a musical instrument, but as a line of poetry, it probably means the poet played his harp.

Boston Massacre

March 5th, 1770 A Boston mob harassed British soldiers, who then fired point-blank into the crowd Colonial Reaction: Townshend Acts repealed, and all duties on imports into the colonies eliminated except for tea.

Southern Colonies

Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia Broad/fertile coastal plains, warm winters, long/hot summers Cash crop farming, tobacco, indigo, rice, no measurable manufacturing

Impact of Industrial Revolution

Mechanization and inventions were the practical consequences of the scientific revolution. With a variety of factors favoring a new direction in economic development, these inventions were the engine that drove a revolution in manufacturing, industrial productivity, and transportation. In turn, the competing interests of industrial owners and the working class gave rise to an intellectual debate over economic systems and the distribution of their benefits.

California's Independence from Mexico (1846-1848)

Migrations of American pioneer families in the 1840s swelled the American population in California. 1. American pioneers settled in the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys. 2. They increased the demand that California become part of the United States

Critisms to Phonics Instruction

Most critics of phonics instruction argue that children should receive complementary instruction in both phonics and phonemic awareness. To be able to blend sounds together to decode words, children need phonemic awareness to break words into sounds. Evidence shows that reading programs that only focus on letter-sound relationships are not as effective as those that focus on both phonics and phonemic awareness. Proponents of phonics instruction, however, assert that the alphabetic system is well suited to mnemonic memorization techniques. For example, once students learn how to spell phone, rather than foan, students learn to instantly recall the word by using their memorization skills. Students can apply this skill to remember any irregularly spelling word because these types of words contain letter-sound relationships.

Implications of Teaching Text Comprehension Instruction in the Classroom

Multiple strategies are available to help students gain reading comprehension competency. Teachers can help students improve reading comprehension skills by practicing the following strategies: 1. Ask questions about the text they are reading 2. Ask students to summarize or paraphrase parts of the text. 3. Help students clarify words and sentences they don't understand. 4. Ask students to predict what might occur in the next in the text. 5. Talk about the content. 6. Model or "think aloud" about their own thinking and understanding 7. Lead students in a discussion about text meaning 8. Help students relate the content of their reading to their life experiences and to other texts they have read

Bleeding Kansas

Name applied to the state when a civil war broke out between pro- and anti-slavery advocates while Kansas was trying to formalize its statutes before being admitted as a state.

Collective nouns

Names for a person, place, or thing that may act as a whole. Examples: class, company, dozen, group, herd, team, and public.

Middle Colonies

New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware Open fertile plains, mild to cold winters, long summers, ports on the Atlantic Large-scale corn and grain production, commerce, small-scale manufactoring

Stages of Extending Suffrage in the US

Originally, the Constitution of 1789 provided the right to vote only to white male property owners. Through the years, suffrage was extended through the following five stages. 1. In the early 1800s, states began to eliminate property ownership and tax payment qualifications. 2. By 1810, there were no more religious tests for voting. In the late 1800s, the 15th Amendment protected citizens from being denied the right to vote because of race or color. 3. In 1920, the 19th Amendment prohibited the denial of the right to vote because of gender, and women were given the right to vote. 4. Passed in 1961 and ratified in 1964, the 23rd Amendment added the voters of the District of Columbia to the presidential electorate and eliminated the poll tax as a condition for voting in federal elections The Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibited disenfranchisement through literacy tests and various other means of discrimination. 5.In 1971, the 26th Amendment set the minimum voting age at 18 years of age.

Partner Reading

Paired students take turns reading aloud to each other. More fluent readers can be paired with less fluent readers. The stronger reader reads a paragraph or page aloud first, providing a model of fluent reading. Then the less fluent reads the same text aloud. The stronger student gives help with word recognition and provides feedback and encouragement to the less fluent partner. The less fluent partner rereads the passage aloud until he or she can read it independently. Partner reading need not be done with a more fluent and a less fluent reader. Two readers of equal ability can practice rereading after hearing the teacher read the passage.

Step 2: Writing a Draft

Paragraph 1: Introduction - Introduces the main thesis or topic of the essay. Write a strong opening paragraph that contains a topic (thesis) statement, and then explicitly state two or three supporting points that will be discussed in the essay Paragraph 2: Body (first supporting point) - Develops the most important supporting point or argument discussed in paragraph one. First, restate the supporting point and then connect the point to the main topic by providing supporting examples and evidence. The last sentence should summarize the paragraph and transition the reader to prepare for paragraph three. Paragraph 3: Body (second supporting point) - Develops the second-most important supporting point or argument discussed in paragraph one. First, restate the second supporting point and then connect the point to the main topic by providing supporting examples and evidence. The last sentence should summarize the paragraph and transition the reader to prepare for paragraph four. Paragraph 4: Body (third supporting point) - Develops the last supporting point or argument discussed in paragraph one. First restate the third supporting point and then connect the point to the main topic by providing supporting examples and evidence. The last sentence should summarize the paragraph and transition the reader to prepare for paragraph five. Paragraph 5: Conclusion - The final paragraph is a summary of the main points discussed in your intro (in the same order). The conclusion should connect ideas back to the main topic and should be about the same length as the introduction.

Phonemic Awareness Versus Phonics

Phonemic Awareness: 1. instruction emphasizes phoneme sounds 2. tasks are usually oral 3. children have an awareness of individual sounds in spoken words 4. children use mostly auditory and oral skills 5. children learn to manipulate sounds Phonics: 1. Graphemes or letters in print 2. Tasks are associated with the sound-spelling relationship in print 3. children have an awareness of printed written words and their sounds (sound and written symbol relationship). 4. children use both visual and auditory skills 5. children learn to read and write letters according to sounds and the spelling of the letters.

Paralle Sentence Structure

Phrases in a sentence are parallel when they have the same matching grammatical structure. The basic rule is that when there are two or more linked constructs, they must show the same grammar construction. Here is an example of an error in faulty parallel sentence structure: He liked swimming, weight lifting, and to run. To run is incorrect. It should be an -ing word like the other items. The correct sentence should read: He liked swimming, weight lifting, and running.

Feudalism Outcomes

Political - Stability - Leading lords emerged as kings - Foundation for nation-states Economic - Self-sufficiency - Foundation for urbanization a. Productive surpluses and specialization of skills would lead to trade b. Trade would lead to growth of town and cities Christian value system institutionalized by the Church

Short Stories

Popular forms of literature in the elementary school classroom, include adventure stories, historical fiction, mysteries, myths, science fiction, satire, allegories, and graphic novels. The short story is a condensed story, usually ranging in length from 2,000 to 10,000 words, most often with a purpose that is singular or limited. It is made up of elements such as plot, character, setting, conflict, point of view, and theme. Dramatic elements of a short story develop from the plot and have a sequence of orderly stages: 1. Exposition: The introduction of setting, main characters, and conflict. 2. Rising action: The event(s) that allows the protagonist to make a commitment toward a course of action 3. Climax: The turning point in the story 4. Falling action: The events that immediately follow from the protagonist's action in the climax 5. Denouement (resolution): The conclusion; the point when the conflict is resolved and loose ends are tied up. This is the stage when the moral of the story is intimated or stated directly.

Systematic and Explicit Phonics Instruction

Programs of systematic phonics instruction clearly identify a carefully selected set of letter-sound relationships and then organize these relationships into a logical, well-defined sequence. Children learn to use these relationships to automatically decode words, Systematic instruction is the most effective way to teach phonics. It is particularly beneficial for children who are having difficulty learning to read and who are at risk for developing future reading problems. Effective systematic and explicit phonics instruction: - helps teachers systematically and explicitly instruct student in how to relate letters and sounds, how to break spoken words into sounds, and how to blend sounds to form words - helps students understand why the are learning the relationships between letters and sounds - helps students apply their knowledge of phonics as they read words, sentences, and text - helps students apply what they learn about sounds and letters to their own writing - can be adapted to the needs of individual students based on assessment - includes alphabetic knowledge, phonemic awareness, vocabulary development, and the reading of text.

New Government—"The Constitution"

Ratified June 21, 1788 - Separation of Powers: Executive along with Legislative and Judicial branches. - Checks and Balances: a. Executive: veto power over legislation; appointment of federal judges, ambassadors, and other government officials b. Legislative: override presidential vetoes; approve presidential appointments; impeachment of president c. Judicial: legislative oversight; independence guaranteed through lifetime appointments - Federal System: shared between the central government and the states - Powers of Congress: The power to tax, declare war, make treaties, etc. a. Regulate trade, mint, and distribute a single currency; declare war b. Impose tariffs and establish immigration laws. c. The power to tax, borrow money, and maintain the military forces of the nation. - The Great Compromise: Created a bicameral, or two-house, Congress to balance the interests and influence of large and small states a. House of Representatives: representatives apportioned based on the size of their population b. Senate: all states grated two senators - Bill of Rights: Added to protect the rights of individuals and safeguard the sovereignty of the states over their own affairs (Tenth Amendment) - Amendments: Established process for amendment that required three-fourths approval of the states and two-thirds of each house of Congress

Reading Assessments

Reading assessments help to 1) target areas of literacy strengths and weaknesses; 2) monitor student reading development; and most importantly, 3) aid the teacher in planning direct, individualized reading instruction that will benefit the student

Reconstruction and 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments

Reconstruction was the period from 1865-1877, during which the South was under strict control of the U.S. government. In March, 1867, all state governments of the former Confederacy were terminated, and military occupation began. Military commanders called for constitutional conventions to reconstruct the state governments, to which delegates were to be elected by universal male suffrage. After a state government was in operation and the state had ratified the 14th Amendment, its representatives were admitted to Congress. Three constitutional amendments from 1865 to 1870, which tried to rectify the problems caused by slavery, became part of the Reconstruction effort. The 13th Amendment declared slavery illegal. The 14th Amendment made all persons born or naturalized in the country U.S. citizens, and forbade any state to interfere with their fundamental civil rights. The 15th Amendment made it illegal to deny individuals the right vote on the grounds of race. In his 1876 election campaign, President Rutherford B. Hayes promised to withdraw the troops, and did so in 1877.

The Reformation

Renaissance secularism created tension between princely kingdom and the authority of the Church. There also emerged within the Church questions about its worldly rather than spiritual interest in acquiring power and wealth. This internal struggle led to a rift in the Church, the rise of Protestant faiths, and more than a century of religious warfare.

Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854

Repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820 to allow the lands of the Louisiana Purchase to settle the slavery issue by popular sovereignty. Outraged Northerners responded by defecting from the Whig Party and starting the Republican Party.

Folktales

Short stories that come from oral traditions. Folktales are adapted from different global cultures and enrich our world with customs and beliefs. They are generally defined as prose narratives that follow traditional storylines that arise from oral traditions in history. The original author of the folktale is sometimes never known. This genre includes fairy tales, legends of all types, fables, tall tales, and humorous anecdotes. Most folktales have arisen through a similar process: recombining traditional elements ("motifs") and/or transferring and established plot ("tale-type") from one hero, one location, or one era to another. Folktales may be classified into the following three categories: Legends: narratives that often include creation stories and explain tribal beginnings. These tales may incorporate supernatural beings or quasihistorical figures (e.g. King Arthur, Lady Godiva). Legends are told and retold as if they were based on facts, and they always set in a specific time and place. Fairy tales: presented as entirely fictional pieces, and they often begin with a formulaic opening line, such as "Once upon a time..." or "In a certain country there once lived..." Recurring plots recount the supernatural adventures and mishaps of youngest daughters, the misadventures of transformed princes, and encounters with mermaids, wood fairies, and elves (e.g., Cinderella, Rumplestiltskin, Snow White, Sleeping Beauty, Hansel and Gretel). Animal Folktales: bound in every culture; in most cases, the animal characters are clearly anthropomorphic (having human characteristics) and display human personalities.

Correlative conjunction

Show the connection between pairs. Either...or | neither...nor | not only...but also Examples: - Either you are coming or you are staying. | He ran not only three miles but also swam 200 yards.

Concepts of Print Assessment

Skill: Print conventions of reading Standard assessment tool: Marie Clay's Concepts About Print (CAP) Assessment Description: CAP tests the emergent reader's (kindergarten through first-grade) reading readiness. Teachers can gain insights about the student's involvement with printed language, including the student's ability to identify the front and back covers of a book; identify (or point to) the title of the book; identify directional reading from left to right; identify that print tells the story; identify where the story begins; identify capital (big) versus lowercase (little) letters in a page; identify other concepts of letters, words, and sentences; identify a few letters on a page; identify where the teacher should begin the next sentence; and recognize that spaces have a purpose.

Oral fluency Assessment (Oral Fluency)

Skill: Reading fluency and comprehension Standard assessment tool: Fry's Oral Reading Assessment Description: An oral reading assessment, also known as an oral fluency assessment, establishes if the student requires further practice in decoding words. Also evaluated are accuracy, reading rate, reading level, and comprehension level. The one-on-one test measures the student's ability to read words correctly per minutes (WCPM). This assessment should be administered a few times a year by grade level. The results of the student's WCPM score will show an overall average to determine if the student's fluency is above, at, or below grade-level abilities.

Phonological Awareness (Assessment)

Skills: Phoneme deletion Standard assessment tool: Rosner's Test of Auditory Analysis Skills (TAAS) Description: The TAAS evaluated the student's auditory ability by identifying sounds in spoken words. The average pre-K student should have a command of deleting a syllable from a two-syllable compound word, but this assessment is given in Kindergarten to evaluate the student's understanding of sound separation. When prompted by the teacher, the student is asked to say a word. For example, say the word "cowboy," and then say the word again without saying "boy." Responses are recorded on the answer sheet provided. The TAAS demonstrates if the student is able to delete sounds to show what part(s) of the word remains after the deletion.

Making a Formal Amendment to the Constitution

So far, there have been only 27 amendments to the federal Constitution. There are four different ways to change the wording of the constitution: two methods for proposal and two methods for ratification: 1. An Amendment is proposed by a two-thirds vote in each house of Congress and ratified by three-fourths if the state legislatures. 2. An amendment is proposed by a two-thirds vote in each house of Congress and ratified by three-fourths of the states in special conventions called for that purpose. 3. An amendment is proposed by a national convention that is called at the request of two-thirds of the state legislatures and ratified by three-fourths of the state legislatures. 4. An amendment is proposed by a national convention that is called by Congress at the request of two-thirds of the state legislatures and ratified by three-fourths of the states in special convention for that purpose.

Native Americans and Early Cultures in America

Some 20,000 to 30,000 years ago, during the last Ice Age, the first humans crossed over the Bering Sea bridge into the Americas. As they migrated southward, they inhabited the hemisphere from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego. Their widespread dispersion led to a diversity of languages and cultures, the most advanced of which were located in Mesoamerica and South America.

19th Century Social and Religious Leaders

Some important social and religious leaders from the 19th century were: - Susan B. Anthony: A women's rights and abolition activist, she lectured across the nation for suffrage and wage rights, and labor organizations for women. - Dorothea Dix: She created the first American asylums for the treatment of mental illness and served as the Superintendent of Army of Nurses during the War Between the States. - Frederick Douglass: An escaped slave who became an abolitionist leader, government official, and writer. - William Lloyd Garrison: An abolitionist and the editor of the 'Liberator', the leading anti-slavery newspaper of the time. - Joseph Smith: He founded the Latter-Day Saints (Mormonism) in 1829. - Horace Mann: A leader of the common school movement that made public education a right of all Americans. Elizabeth Cady Stanton: With Lucretia Mott, she held the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848, demanding women's suffrage and other reforms. Brigham Young: The leader of the Mormons when they fled religious persecution, built Salt Lake City, and settled much of the West. He was the first governor of the Utah Territory.

Juan Ponce de Leon

Spanish Explorer; in 1513, he became the first European in Florida; established the oldest European settlement in Puerto Rico; discovered the Gulf Stream; and searched for the fountain of youth.

Reader's Theater

Students rehearse and perform a play for peers or others. They read aloud from scripts that have been derived from books that are rich in dialogue. Students play characters who speak lines or portray a narrator who shares necessary background information. Readers' theater provides readers with a legitimate reason to reread text and to practice fluency. Readers' theatre also promotes cooperative interaction with peers and makes the reading task appealing.

Monitoring comprehension

Students who are good readers monitor their comprehension to evaluate their understanding of the text. Strategies to remedy reading comprehension problems as they arise are as follows: - Identify WHERE the difficulty occurs ("I don't understand the second paragraph on page 76.") - Identify WHAT the difficulty is. ("I don't get what the author means when she says, 'Arriving in America was a milestone in my grandmother's life.") - RESTATE the difficult sentence or passage in their own words. ("Oh, so the author means that coming to America was a very important event in her grandmother's life.") - LOOK BACK through the text. ("The author talked about Mr. McBride in Chapter 2, but I don't remember much about him. Maybe if I reread the chapter I can figure out why he's acting this way now.") - LOOK FORWARD in the text for information that might help them to resolve the difficulty. ("The text says, 'The groundwater may form a stream or pond to create a wetland. People can also bring groundwater to the surface.' Hmm, I don't understand how people can do that...Oh, the next section is called 'Wells.' I'll read this section to see if it tells how they do it.")

Summarizing, paraphrasing, and predicting

Summarizing, is synthesizing the important ideas in a text. Summarizing requires students to determine what it is important in what they are reading, to condense this information, and to put it into their own words. Instruction in summarizing helps students identify or generate information, and remember what they read. Paraphrasing focuses on students restating written text in their own words. This skill helps students concentrate to untangle difficult text. Students should look for the main point of the text (or chapter) and try to restate the content of the written material. Predicting is when students make predictions about the text to help them to continuously anticipate what will happen next. This skill helps students think critically about the text and increases their metacognitive abilities.

Alliteration

The repetition of usually initial consonant sounds in two or more words or syllables Example: Found in a poem entitled "The Searchers" by Kenyan poet John Roberts. I remember a dog ran out from an alley, sniffed my trousers, scented rags... The /s/ sounds in the words sniffed and scented mimic the sounds of smelling, thereby creating an image for the reader of the act of smelling.

Past perfect tense

The second action happened in the past. The first action came before the second. Ex: Before I walked to the store (Action 2), I had walked to the library (Action 1).

Supply and Demand, Scarcity and Choice, and Money and Resources

Supply is the amount of a product or service available to consumers. Demand is how much consumers are willing to pay for the product or service. These two facets of the market determine the price of goods and services. The higher the demand, the higher the price the supplier will charge; the lower the demand, the lower the price. Scarcity is a measure of supply in that demand is high when there is a scarcity, or low supply, of an item. Choice is related to scarcity and demand in that when an item in demand is scarce, consumers have to make difficult choices. They can pay for an item, go without it, or go elsewhere for the item. Money is the cash or currency available for payment. Resources are the items one can barter in exchange for goods. Money is also the cash reserve of a nation, while resources are the minerals, labor force, armaments, and other raw materials or assets a nation has available for trade.

Phoneme substitution

Teacher will ask the student to replace a phoneme in a word (beginning, middle, or ending sounds) with another phoneme to form a new word. Example: "Tell me what word is formed when you replace the /b/ sound in ball with the /t/ sound." tall

Phoneme segmenting (orally separating sounds)

Teacher will say a word aloud and the student will count out the number of phonemes by breaking up the word into individual sounds Example: "Tell me the individual sounds of the word bat." /b/ /a/ /t/

Phoneme blending (orally blending sounds)

Teacher will say each phoneme segment sound of a word and the student will combine the sounds to identify the word Example: "Listen carefully to the sounds I am saying and out the sounds together, /c/, /a/, /t/." cat

Phoneme manipulation

Teachers can use a variety of instructional methods, but blending and segmenting phonemes words - is likely to produce superior benefits. For example: 1. Directions from teacher. "Listen: I'm going to say the sounds in the word jam- /j/ /a/ /m/. What is the word?" 2. Teacher encourages student to say the word out loud. "Now you say the sounds in the word jam." 3. Teacher writes the word down. "Now let's write the sounds in jam: /j/, write j; /a/, write a; /m/, write m." 4. Teacher encourages reading the word together after writing the word jam on the board. " Now we're going to read the word together: jam."

Clarifying

Teaching students to ask their own questions to clarify comprehension improves their active mental processing of text. By clarifying reading comprehension, students become aware of whether they can understand what they are reading. Students learn to ask themselves questions that require them to integrate explicit and implicit information form different segments of text. For example: Explicit: Student clarify information that is directly stated by the author. ("What is the author's primary purpose or the main idea?" "What are the supporting ideas, specific facts, or author's argument?") Implicit: Students clarify information that is not directly stated by the author. Students will need to "read between the lines" to gather evidence to support the author's conclusion. ("What is implied by the author?" "What can the reader infer from the text?" "What conclusions can be drawn from the text?" "What is the author's tone or attitude?")

Impact of World War II on California: Social

Tensions of war and rising immigration affected race relations: -1942: Forced detention of thousands of Japanese and Japanese Americans -1943: Zoot Suit Riots; Mexicans primary targets; African-Americans and Filipinos also victimized

Match the student's task or purpose with the appropriate text: (Measuring Text Complexity)

Text complexity instruction involves more than evaluating grade-level text expectations; it is a balance between assigning students the appropriate grade-band text and facilitating the students' comprehension of the text. To determine if the text should be used and in the classroom, the teacher should ask, "Is the content age-appropriate and are the students interested and motivated to read the subject matter?" If the answer is "no," the text may not be appropriate to use in the classroom at this time. If the answer is "yes," plan instruction that matches the student's task with the text while providing knowledge and skills of language that meet ELA Standards. Remember, the CSET emphasizes specificity and differentiated instruction. A determination of reading placement should match each individual student's cognitive abilities, reading skill level, motivation, interest, and prior experience with the text (content and/or theme).

Articles of Confederation and the Constitution

The Articles of Confederation, designed to protect state's rights over those of the national government and sent the colonies for ratification in 1777, had two major elements that proved unworkable. First, there was no centralized national government. Second, there was no centralized power to tax or regulate trade with other nations or between states. With no national tax, the Revolution was financed by printing more and more money, which caused inflation. In 1787, a convention was called with write a new constitution. This constitution created the three branches of government with checks and balances of power: executive, legislative, and judicial. It also created bicameral legislature so that there would be equal representation for the states in the Senate and representation for the population in the House. Those who opposed the new constitution, the Anti-Federalists, wanted a bill of rights included. The Federalists platform was explained in the "Federalists Papers," written by James Madison, John Jay, and Alexander Hamilton. The Constitution went into effect in 1789, and the Bill of Rights was added in 1791.

Employment Act of 1946

The Employment Act of 1946 established the following entities to combat unemployment: - The Council of Economic Advisers (CEA): Composed of a chair and two other members appointed by the President and approved by the Senate, this council assists the President with the development and implementation of U.S. economic policy. The Council members and their staff, located in the Executive Office, are professionals in economics and statistics who forecast economic trends and provide analysis based on evidence-based research. - The Economic Report of the President: This is presented every January by the President to Congress. Based on the work of the Council, the report recommends a program for maximizing employment, and may also recommend legislation. - Joint Economic Committee (JEC): This is a committee composed of 10 members of the House and 10 members of the Senate that makes a report early each year on its continuous study of the economy. Study is conducted through hearings and research, and the report is made in response to the president's recommendations.

Louisiana Purchase

The Louisiana Purchase un 1803 for $15 million may be considered Thomas Jefferson's greatest achievement as president. The reasons for the purchase were to gain vital port of New Orleans, remove the threat of the French interference with trade along the Mississippi River, and double the territory of the United States. The purchase both answered and raised new questions about the use of federal power, including the constitutionality of the president making such a big purchase, Jefferson asking Congress for permission, and Jefferson taking the biggest federalist action up to that time, even though he was an anti-federalist. Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to map no river that followed all the way west, their expedition and the richness of the land and game started the great western migration of settlers.

The Later Middle Ages (c. 1000-1500)

The Middle Ages were a time of transition in Europe. Out of the feudal customs and traditions that included Greek and Roman classical culture, influences from the Arab world and the East, and tenets of Judeo-Christian belief, evolved a modern Europe and the foundations of Western civilization emerged.

Spain and Portugal during the later Middle Ages

The Reconquista reestablished Christian control over Muslim Spain in 1492, Portugal in 1250 a. The Spanish state was marked by strong, absolutist rule b. The monarch instituted inquisitions and also expelled the Jews

Spanish Conquest

The Spanish first became aware of California in the 1500s after Cortes' conquest of Mexico in 1519. Cortes' and others explored farther north but failed to find any fabled cities of gold or to imagine any great promise for future settlement. Focusing on the richer parts of its empire in Mexico, Peru, and the Philippines, Spain presumed possession of California but paid it little attention. Not until the mid-1700s did outside interest in the region finally prompt the Spanish to make their presence in California a permanent one. As a result, a string of 21 missions were built, linked by California's first transportation route, the 'El Camino Real'.

Fluency

The ability to read a text accurately, effortlessly, and with expression (prosody). Fluency is important because it provides a bridge between word recognition and text comprehension. Because fluent readers do not have to concentrate on decoding words, they can focus their attention on text comprehension. Fluent readers simultaneously recognize words, comprehend their meanings, and make connections between those words and their background knowledge. Less fluent readers focus their attention on figuring out the words and tend to have a little attention left for comprehending the text. Fluency develops gradually over time and through experience practice. To read with prosody, readers must be able to divide the text into meaningful chunks of phrases and clauses. Readers must know where to pause appropriately within, and at the end, of each sentence.

Present tense

The action happens at the current time. Ex: He walks to the store every morning. To show that something is happening right now, use the progressive present tense: I am walking.

Future tense

The action is going to happen later. Ex: I will walk to the store tomorrow.

Present perfect tense

The action started in the past and continues into the present. Ex: I have walked to the store three times today.

Literal language

The actual definition of the word Example: Winter's end is the end of winter.

Personification

The assignment of a human trait to a nonhuman item or characteristic Example: The angry sea crashed against the wall.

Common Nouns

The class or group of people, places, and things. (Note: Do not capitalize) Examples: People: boy, girl, worker, manager Places: school, bank, library, home Things: dog, cat, truck, car

Common Traits and Cultural Identities of Early Empires of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome

The common traits of these empires were: a strong military; a centralized government; control and standardization of commerce, money, and taxes; a weight system; and an official language. Mesopotamia had a series of short-term empires that failed because of their oppression of subject peoples. Egypt also had a series of governments after extending its territory beyond the Nile area. Compared to Mesopotamia, these were more stable and long-lived because they blended different peoples ti create a single national identity. Greece started as a group of city-states that were united by Alexander the Great and joined to create an empire that stretched from the Indus River to Egypt and the Mediterranean coast. Greece blended Greek values with those of the local cultures, which collectively became known as Hellenistic society. Rome was an Italian city-state that grew into an empire extending from the British Isles across Europe to the Middle East. It lasted for 1,000 years and became the foundation of the Western world's culture, language, and laws.

Closed and Open Primaries in a Direct Primary System

The direct primary system is a means for members of a political party to participate in the selection of a candidate from their party to complete against the other party's candidate in a general election. A closed primary is a party nominating election in which only declared party members can vote. Party membership usually established by registration. Currently, 26 states and the District of Columbia use this system. An open primary nominating election in which any qualified voter can take part. The voter makes a public choice at the polling place about which primary to participate in, and the choice does not depend on any registration or previous choices. A blanket primary, which allowed voters to vote in the primaries of both parties, was used at various times by three states. The Supreme Court ruled against this practice in 2000.

The Age of Enlightenment (1700-1789)

The disintegration of traditional feudal loyalties, the rise of powerful monarchies, and the collapse of a single religious doctrine caused European intellectuals to think about new ways of unifying and governing nation-states. Their exploration of new ideas in the "Age of Reason" was encouraged by the exciting process and discoveries of the scientific revolution.

Effects Economy can have on Purchasing Decisions of Consumers

The economy plays an important role in how careful consumers are when using their resources and what they perceive as needs as opposed to what they perceive as wants. When the economy is doing well, unemployment figures are low, which means that people can easily attain their basic necessities. As a result, consumers are typically more willing to spend their financial resources. Consumers will also be more willing to spend their resources on products and services that consumers enjoy having and believe increase their quality of life. On the other hand, when the economy is in a slump, consumers are much more likely to cut back on their spending because they perceive a significantly higher risk of being unable to acquire basic necessities due to a lack of financial resources.

Proper Nouns

The names of a specific person, place, or thing (Note: Capitalize all these nouns) People: Abraham Lincoln, George Washington, Martin Luther King, Jr. Places: Los Angeles, California/ New York/ Asia Things: Statue of Liberty, Earth*, Lincoln Memorial * Note: when you talk about the planet that we live on, you capitalize Earth. When you mean the dirt, rocks, or land, you lowercase earth

General Nouns

The names of conditions or ideas. Conditions: beauty, strength Idea: truth, peace

Whig Party

The party existed from 1833-1856. It started in opposition to Jackson's authoritarian policies and was particularly concerned with defending the supremacy of Congress over the executive brach, states rights, economic protectionism, and modernization. Notable members included: Daniel Webster, Henry Clay, Winfield Scott, and a young Abraham Lincoln. The party had four presidents: William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, John Tyler (expelled from the party), and Millard Fillmore. However, the party only won two presidential elections. Harrison and Taylor were elected in 1840 and 1848, respectively. However, both died in office, so Tyler and Fillmore assumed the presidency. In 1852, the anti-slavery faction of the party kept Fillmore from getting the nomination. Instead, it went to Scott, who was soundly defeated. In 1856, the party supported Fillmore and the National American Party, but lost badly. Thereafter, the split over slavery cause the party to dissolve.

Apostrophes

The placement of an apostrophe depends upon its function. Apostrophes are used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters in a contraction (it's, I've, I'm, don't, we're, who's), but can also show possession. Apostrophes show possession of singular nouns by adding 's. Example: This student's term paper. (ONE student wrote the term paper. Apostrophes show the possession of plural nouns. If the plural noun ends in "s," just add an apostrophe to the end. Example: This is the students' term paper. (More than one student wrote term paper.) If the plural noun (regular) ends in "s," add na apostrophe after the "s." Example: These are the students' term papers. (More than one student wrote more than one term paper.)

Positive and negative economic effects of abundant natural resources

The positive economic aspects of abundant natural resources are in an increase in revenue and new jobs where those resources have not been previously accessed. For example, the growing demand for oil, gas, and minerals has led companies to venture into new regions. The negative economic aspects of abundant natural resources are: - Environmental degradation, if sufficient regulations are not in place to counter strip mining, deforestation, and contamination. - Corruption, if sufficient regulations are not in place to counter bribery, political favoritism, and exploitation of workers as greedy companies try to maximize their profits. - Social tension, if the resources are privately owned such that the rich become richer and the poor do not reap the benefits of their national resources. Class division become wider, resulting in social unrest. - Dependence, if the income from the natural resources is not used to develop other industries as well. In this situation, the economy becomes dependent on one source, and faces potential crises if natural disasters or depletion take away that income source.

Principles of the Constitution

The six basic principles of the Constitution are: 1. Popular Sovereignty: The people establish government and give power to it; the government can function only with the consent of the people. 2. Limited Government: The Constitution specifies limits on government authority, and no official or entity is above the law. 3. Separation of Powers: Powers is divided among three government branches: the legislative (Congress), the executive (President), and judicial (federal courts). 4. Checks and Balances: This is a system that enforces the separation of powers and ensures that each branch has the authority and ability to restrain the powers of the other two branches, this preventing tyranny. 5. Judicial Review: Judges in the federal courts ensure that no act of government is in violation of the Constitution. If an act is unconstitutional, the judicial branch has the power to nullify it. 6. Federalism: This is the division of power between the central government and local governments, which limits the power if the federal government and allows states to deal with local problems.

The New Nation

The struggles of the new Constitutional government of the United States were numerous. The unstable financial foundations of the nation lacked a central vision and structure to guide the economic future; circumstances arise that challenged the Constitutional limits placed on the authority of the government, and America's relations with its nemesis Great Britain remained hostile and explosive. Alexander Hamilton's response to the financial troubles gave rise to two political parties with vastly different views regarding the use of government's power and the overall direction of the nation. Foreign policy challenges further hardened the lines between Alexander Hamilton and his Federalist Party, and the anti-Federalists lined up behind Thomas Jefferson and his Democratic-Republican Party.

Step 1: Prewriting

The writer plans and organizes with will be written while focusing on the task, purpose, and intended audience. Task: Refers to the motivation for writing the essay. Writing tasks are clearly definable and specific to the assignment. Purpose: The purpose of a writing assignment is the function of the essay - either to inform readers or to persuade readers. Audience: The writer should always consider identifying the intended reading audience and know their expectations - students, peers, instructors, or a general audience. The most common methods of prewriting skills tested on the CSET are note taking, outlining, and graphic organizers.

Important Contributions of Ancient Civilization of Sumer, Egypt, and Indus Valley

These three ancient civilization are distinguished by their unique contribution to the development of world civilizations. - Sumer used the first known writing system, which enabled the Sumerians to leave a sizable written record of their myths and religions; advanced the development of the wheel and irrigation; and urbanized their culture with a cluster of cities. - Egypt was united by the Nile River. Egyptians originally settled in villages on its banks; had a national religion that held their pharaohs as gods; had a central government that controlled civil and artistic affairs; and had writing and libraries. - The Indus Valley was also called Harappan after the city of Harappa. This civilization stared in the 3rd and 4th centuries BC and was widely dispersed over 400,000 square miles. It had a unified culture of luxury and refinement, no known national government, an advanced civic system, and prosperous trade routes.

Committees of Correspondence

These were set up throughout the colonies to transmit revolutionary ideas and create a unified response.

Domestic Accomplishments or Progressive Era

To the Progressives, promoting law and order meant cleaning up city governments to make them honest and efficient, bringing more democracy and humanity to state governments, and establishing a core of social workers to improve slum housing, health, and education. Also during the Progressive Era, the national government strengthened or created the following regulatory agencies, services, and acts to oversee business enterprise. - Passed in 1906, the Hepburn Act reinforced the Interstate Commerce Commission. In 1902, Roosevelt used the Justice Department and lawsuits to try to break monopolies and enforce the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. The Clayton Anti-Trust Act was added in 1914. - From 1898 to 1910, the Forest Service guided lumber companies in the conservation and more efficient use of woodland resources under the direction of Gifford Pinchot. - In 1906, the Pure Food and Drug Act was passed to protect consumers from fraudulent labeling and adulteration of products. - In 1913, the Federal Reserve System was established to supervise banking and commerce. - In 1914, the Fair Trade Commission was established to ensure fair competition.

Transitional words and phrases

Transitional words and phrases continue the flow of ideas and move the reader toward new ideas. Sometimes subtle and sometimes obvious, transitions help the reader understand not only ideas, but also their relationship to one another. Good transitions can make a difference in the continuity of ideas and thoughts. Words and phrases like first, initial, and a primary consideration indicate the beginning of a chain of login. Words and phrases like another, also, and in addition let the reader know that there is a continuation and further development of reasoning. To show another point of view, words and phrases such as although and however help provide contrast. A sentence near the end of the final paragraph with the words finally or lastly lets the reader know that the essay is drawing to a close.

Integration of Knowledge and Ideas

Types of Questions: - Analyze graphs and diverse media in text. - Evaluate arguments and claims - Make logical assumptions and draw conclusions - Analyze similar themes in two or more texts; compare and contrast

Text Complexity

Types of Questions: - Comprehend literary and information texts

Craft and Structure

Types of Questions: - Identify the author's tone or attitude - Interpret a word or phrase in context and explain how the word choice(s) shapes a meaning - Determine technical, connotative, and figurative meanings - Analyze how the structure and organization of texts relate to each other (specific sentences, paragraphs, chapters, stanzas, or scenes). - Analyze how the author's point of view shapes the content and style.

Implications of Teaching Vocabulary Instruction in the Classroom

Vocabulary instruction teaches students the complexity of language and subtlety of word meanings. According to the CCSS, the most effective vocabulary-building strategy is to link a vocabulary word to its contextual meaning. This strategy helps to shape the students' "internal representation" of the specific word choice to its intended meaning. While some words are used daily, others are used infrequently. Education professors and authors Isabel Beck, Margaret McKeown, and Linda Kucan have classified everyday high-frequency and low-frequency vocabulary words into organized categories: Tier 1: Basic everyday words that do not require instruction and do not challenge the average native speaker. Tier 2: High-frequency "general academic" words that have multiple meanings. These words appear in multiple academic subjects: informational texts, literary texts, and technical texts. Tier 2 words are the focus of mist direct instruction. These words provide the best indicators of a student's vocabulary growth. Tier 3: Low-frequency, context-specific words appear in specific and specialized subject areas. For example, molecules, radioactive, Congress, Pythagorean, and intelligence quotient.

Participants of WWI and WWII

WWI began in 1914, was fought by the Allies, Britain, France, Russia, Greece, Italy, Romania, and Serbia. They fought against the Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey. In 1917, the United States joined the Allies, and Russia withdrew to pursue its own revolution. World War I ended in 1918. WWII was truly a world war, with fighting occurring on nearly every continent. Germany occupied most of Europe and Northern Africa. It was opposed by the countries of the British Empire, free France and its colonies, Russia, and various national resistance forced. Japan, and Axis ally of Germany, had been forcefully expanding territories in Korea, China, Indonesia, the Philippines, and the South Pacific for many years. When Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in 1941, the United States joined the Allied effort. Italy changed from the Axis to the Allied side mid-war after deposing its own dictator. The war ended in Europe in April 1945, and in Japan in August 1945.

US Role in World War II

WWII began in 1939. As with World War I, the United States tried to stay out of World War II, even though the Lend-Lease program transferred munitions to Great Britain. However, on December 7th, 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. Since Japan was an ally of Germany, the United States declared war on all the Axis powers. Although there was fighting in both Europe and the Pacific, the decision was made to concentrate on defeating Hitler first. Since it did not have combat within its borders, the United States became the great manufacturer of goods and munitions for the war effort. Women went to work in the factories, while men entered the military. All facets of American life were centered on the war effort, including rationing, metal collections, and buying war bonds. The benefit of this production was an end to the economic depression. The influx of American personnel and supplies eventually brought victory in Europe in April of 1945, and in Asia following August.

US involvement in WWI

When World War I broke out in 1914, America declared neutrality. The huge demand for war goods by the Allies broke a seven-year industrial stagnation and gave American factories full-time work. The country's sympathies lay mostly with the Allies, and before long American businesses and banking were heavily invested in an Allied victory. In 1916, Woodrow Wilson campaigned on the slogan "He kept us out of war." However, when the British ship the Lusitania was torpedoed in 1915 by a German submarine and many Americans were killed, Woodrow had already warned the Germans that the United States would enter the war if Germany interfered with neutral ships at sea. Eventually, when it was proven that Germany was trying to incite Mexico and Japan into attacking the United States, Wilson declared war in 1917, even though America was unprepared. Nonetheless, America quickly armed and transferred sufficient troops to Europe, bringing the Allies to victory in 1918.

Segmenting

Which children break words into their individual phonemes, they are segmenting the words. They are also segmenting when they break words into syllables and syllables into onsets and rimes.

Francisco Vasquez de Coronado

While searching for gold in 1540, he became the first European to explore Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona

Characteristics of Chinese and Indian Empires

While the Chinese. had the world's longest lasting and continuous empires, the Indians had more of a cohesive culture than an empire system. their distinct characteristics are as follows: - China: Since the end of the Warring States period in 221 BC, China has functioned as an empire. Although the dynasties changed several times, the basic governmental structure remained the same into the 20th century. The Chinese also have an extensive written record of their culture which heavily emphasizes history, philosophy, and a common religion. - India: The subcontinent was seldom unified in terms of government until the British empire controlled the area in the 19th and 20th centuries. In terms of culture, India has had persistent institutions and religions that have loosely united the people, such as the caste system and guilds. These have regulated daily life more than any government.

What is the dramatic situation? (Analyzing Poetry)

Who is (are) the speaker(s)? Can you tell if the speaker is male or female? Where is the speaker? When does this poem take place? What are the circumstances? Sometimes you'll be able to answer all of these questions and sometimes you'll be able to answer only a few questions (and sometimes only vaguely). Already you've begun to understand the poem.

A New Economy (1876-1900)

With the Civil War behind them and an expanding nation in front of them, Americans enthusiastically pursed industrial growth. Industry contributed to new innovations in transportation, further settlement of the nation, the growth of cities, increased productivity, and new leisure activities.

Early Civilizations

With the advent of the domestication and cultivation of crops, for the first time, humans were able to abandon nomadic hunting and gathering and settle in one place. From this singular development in human history, great civilizations took root and flourished. The first of these centered on four major river systems in the Near East, Africa and Asia. While other smaller civilizations developed in these regions, the first four provided the foundation from which all other emerged.

Pronoun

Words that are used to stand in for a noun. May be classified as personal, intensive, relative, interrogative, demonstrative, indefinite, and reciprocal. Personal: Nominative is the case for nouns and pronouns that are subject of a sentence. Objective is the case for nouns and pronouns that are an object in a sentence. Possessive is the case for noun and pronouns that show possession of ownership. Singular First Person - Nominative: I - Objective: me - Possessive: my, mine Second Person Normative: you Objective: you Possessive: your, yours Third Person Normative: he, she, it Objective: him, her, it Possessive: his, her, hers, its Plural First Person Normative: we Objective: us Possessive: our, ours Second Person Normative: you Objective: you Possessive: your, yours Third Person Normative: they Objective: them Possessive: their, theirs Intensive: I myself, you yourself, he himself, she herself, the (thing) itself, we ourselves, you yourselves, they themselves Relative: which, who, whom, whose Interrogative: what, which, who, whom, whose Demonstrative: this, that, these, those Indefinite: all, any, each, everyone, either/neither, one, some, several Reciprocal: each other, one another

Early childhood to kindergarten developmental expectation

Young children rely on story reading from picture books with minimal prompts, and begin an awareness that text progresses from left to right. Children scribble and recognize distinctive visual cues in environmental print, such as the letters in their names. Teachers often observe children pretending to read and using private speech.

Panfilo de Narvaez

docked in Tampa Bay with Cabeza de Vaca in 1528, claimed Florida for Spain and then sailed the Gulf Coast

political science and government

including political institutions' power and authority, monarchy, totalitarianism, republicanism, democracy, limited government, and the roles and responsibilities of citizenship

economics

including scarcity, the operation of supply and demand, the circular flow model of economic exchanges, and international trade and economic globalization

anthropology

including the nature and content of culture and the historical and cultural development of human society, including hunting and gathering, nomadic pastoralism, domestication of plants and animals, and the creation and evolution of human settlements and cities

Enlightened despotism grew out of the earlier absolutism of Louis XIV and Peter the Great;

it advocated limited responsibility to God and church

Secondary key words

literacy checklists, running records, writing rubrics, reading logs, collection of student work, spelling inventories, fluency tests, oral reading inventories, phonics surveys, phonological awareness surveys, phonological awareness assessments, high-frequency word recognition assessments, observational survey, concepts about print test, alphabetic knowledge assessments, comprehension assessments, vocabulary assessments

sociology

related to individuals: interpersonal relationships: institutions, including family and community and social structure, including occupation, socioeconomic class, ethnicity, and gender

Advance fluency Instructional Strategies

- Instruction should include all grade-level expectations. Adaptations can be made as needed according to academic proficiencies and cultural implications

Intermediate fluency Development Expectations

- Use instruction that includes analyzing complex reading, writing, and speaking assignments - Apply reading instruction assignments that include the students' ability to paraphrase, define, compare, contrast, summarize, describe, and explain text - Help students expand language through oral presentations and discussions - Ask students to write in a daily journal - Assign reading assignments for a variety of genres from fiction and nonfiction texts - Encourage the use of media, technology, and the Internet - Increase students' ability to problem-solve in reading and writing assignments

Early Production Instructional Strategies

- Use preproduction strategies, especially visual aids (pictures, graphics, media). - Use question prompts that require a "yes/no" or "either/or" answer - Use question prompts that require a familiar one- or two-word response - Help students expand one- or two-word responses - Use games and role playing to help students learn new vocabulary - Use handouts and worksheets with fill-in-the-blank (cloze) exercises

Children-directed speech

0-24 months Primary caretakers (parents) play an active role in the development of their child's language as identified in child-directed speech (motherese). In child-directed speech, primary caretakers often modify their speech to make it easier for a child to learn language. For example, modifying sentence structure, repeating key words, and focusing on present objects. First words are spoken by 12 months and are usually familiar objects or persons (holophrases). First sentence are spoken by 18 to 24 months and are usually two-word sentences (telegraphic speech).

Implications of Teaching Language Acquisition in the Classroom

1. Teachers must be aware that the process of language development is multifaceted, including physical sounds, cognitive thought, and social interactions 2. Teachers should recognize that language cognitively, linguistically, and emotionally begins at home. Parents play an active role in teaching language to children. Adults teach language to children through infant-directed speech, recasting, echoing, expanding, and labeling 3. Teachers should recognize that children will acquire the use of English even when their native language is the only language spoken at home 4. Teachers who provide language instruction based on language development expectations (including ELL students) must meet the requirements of "No Child Left Behind." According to the requirements, curriculum and instruction are differentiated based upon each student's specific zone of proximal development (the gap between what a student can perform on his or her own and what the student may require assistance with) 5. Teachers who are instructing diverse classroom populations should differentiate primary language acquisition from secondary language learning 6. Teachers should recognize Lev Vygotsky's language acquisition theory, which supports the conceptual views that language is essential to the development of thinking 7. Teachers should support appropriate student private speech in order to facilitate self-regulation and help students access a higher level of intellectual and behavioral functioning

Fast mapping

2-5 years old As a child learns new vocabulary, they begin fast mapping to figure out the meaning of words. It is a mental process in which young children are able to use the context of a word of phrase and accurately arrive at the word's meaning. Nouns (objects) are easier to fast map than verbs (actions). For example, researchers Carey and Barlett (1978) shows a group of toddles two objects (one blue, one beige). The color not familiar to the toddlers, but the color beige was not familiar. The toddlers were able to quickly decipher the meaning of beige when the researchers asked the children to "bring me the beige one." All of the children were able to differentiate (fast map) the two objects because of their familiarity with the color blue.

Private speech

3 years old Is "talking out loud to oneself with no intention to communicate with others." It helps children integrate language and thought. Psychologist Lev Vygotsky suggested that children begin to use private speech at age 3 to become more competent at language. The use of private speech helps children self-regulate. Through self-regulation, children organize, guide, and control their behavior. According to Vygotsky, private speech is responsible for all higher levels of intellectual functioning.

Holophrase

8-12 months A composite of a one-word and nonverbal gesture to express a complete and meaningful thought. As toddlers recognize that symbols (words) represent a specific object, desire, or event, they say one-word and/or gestured expression to communicate their thoughts and feelings. Holophrases include symbolic gestures and representational gestures. For example, symbolic gestures are observed when a toddler shakes his head to indicate no when he doesn't want to eat something or when he blows on food to mean hot. Representational gestures are demonstrated by the infant or toddler when he shows the parent what he desires (e.g., holding up a bottle to show the parent he wants more to drink).

Phonological awareness

A "listening skill" that typically develops in pre-kindergarten. It is the ability to hear, think about, and manipulate sounds. When children are competent in phonological awareness, they know that 1) sounds make up words; 2) sounds can be manipulated into new words; 3) words can be separated into individual sounds, syllables, and rhymes; and 4) words have meaning. Phonological awareness is important because if children can relate sounds to printed words, they can begin to decode and make sense of how sounds and letters are organized in print. Note: Phonological awareness and phonemic awareness are not interchangeable. Phonemic awareness is "one" component of phonological awareness.

Phonics

A method of teaching reading and spelling that stresses symbol-sound relationships; it is used most often in beginning instruction. There is a predictable relationship between phonemes (the sounds of spoken language) and graphemes (the letters and spellings that represent those sounds in written language). The goal of phonics is to help children learn and use the Alphabetic Principle (predictable relationships between written letters and spoken sounds).

Preproduction Developmental Expectations

A period when second language students begin to internalize the English language. Students have minimal or no language and comprehension skills. Students typically respond with physical gestures such as nodding "yes" or shaking their head "no," pointing to an object, drawing a picture, or physically acting out.

Early Production Developmental Expectations

A period when students have limited comprehension and language skills, but can speak familiar one- or two- word responses (telegraphic speech)

Krashen's Second Language Acquisition Theory

A person who learns English as a second language after learning a primary language (the language spoken at home) is commonly referred to as an ELL. Although some of the second language instructional strategies for teaching ELL students may follow the same primary learning stages, it is important to differentiate primary language acquisition. Primary language is an unconscious acquisition experience. Secondary language is a conscious learning experience. Linguistic scholar Stephen Krashen hypothesized that primary language acquisition is an unconscious mental process. Infants are not consciously aware of learning how to speak or how to apply the rules of grammar. Children will often repeat words just because it "sounds and feels right" when the words are formed together. On the other hand, when ELL students learn a second language, they must consciously participate in the learning experience to study the rules, conventions, and patterns of the second language. Hence, primary language acquisition is an implicit, unconscious mental process, whereas secondary language acquisition is an explicit, conscious mental process. Krashen's natural order hypothesis offers instructional guidelines for teaching English as second language. These guidelines state that a second language is acquired in predictable stages of learning. How quickly ELL students can progress through these adaptable stages depends upon the formal education in their primary language, knowledge of English length of time in the country, and the instructional setting.

Linguistics

A scientific system to study language. Its operational mechanisms govern the way all written and spoken words appear in the following areas: Structure: morphology (unit of meaning) and syntax (how words are arranged to create meaning) Sound: phonology (speech sounds) Meaning: semantics (analysis of word meaning)

While teaching an art lesson in a Project Head Start classroom, the teacher walks in the room to observe the children's paintings. Raymond holds up his painting and exclaims "This tree was made by me!" Next Melanie holds up her painting, saying, "I make it!" Nicole eagerly displays her painting and says, "I paint my hands," and David shows his painting and says, "Me paint." Based on language development and the understanding of syntax, which response most closely exhibits the speech pattern of a 5-year old? A. "This tree was made by me!" B. "I make it!" C. "I paint my hands." D. "Me paint."

A. "This tree was made by me!" A 5-year old, unlike a preschooler, knows how to speak with correct syntax. A 2-year old uses just enough words to get his meaning across (telegraphic speech), such as this two-word sentence, while a 5-year old has the ability to combine words into phrases and sentences.

A first-grade teacher notices that a student is struggling with reading. He is in the lowest-achieving reading group, and although the teacher has tried some strategies to improve his reading, he is making minimal progress. What are the next steps the teacher should take in working with this student? A. Assess his reading and target instruction to meet identified skill needs. In addition, keep anecdotal records of reading behavior and communicate with his parents to gain assistance. B. Request the help of specialists, such as the reading specialist resource specialist, or counselor at the school, to make a joint decision on how to best help the student. C. Send home more homework for the child to practice reading skills at home with his parents.

A. Assess his reading and target instruction to meet identified skill needs. In addition, keep anecdotal records of reading behavior and communicate with his parents to gain assistance. The first step of effective classroom intervention is to diagnose and assess the student's reading ability while maintaining records of the student's reading behavior. According to the CCSS, it is important for the teachers to identify skill needs and develop explicit strategies for intervention.

In context, which is the best version of the ALL CAPS portion of sentence below? For example, men like John D. Rockefller and Andrew CARNEGIE, WHO BECAME major figures. A. Carnegie became B. Carnegie, both of whom became C. Carnegie, both of who became D. Carnegie, and they both became

A. Carnegie became Both A and D are correct the original sentence frame by removing who. Choice D's structure, however, still makes it a fragment.

In preparation for presenting oral material, students are taught how to structure a speech. Which of the following is the most appropriate initial strategy used by the presenter to communicate effectively? A. Consider whether your goal is to inform, persuade, or motivate, and then develop an outline for your speech B. Include contrast words like although, however, and but to highlight differences that will develop in the oral presentation C. In the body of the speech, detail all main points and provide information to support each point D. Summarize the main points of the oral presentation and emphasize the storyline

A. Consider whether your goal is to inform, persuade, or motivate, and then develop an outline for your speech The student must establish goals for the intended audience and then develop an appropriate structure to deliver one's message. The basic structure of a speech taught at appropriate levels contains three parts: an opening or introduction, a body, and a conclusion. An effective introduction normally utilizes an outline format to logically organize the speaker's ideas and provide structure to the presentation. the introduction also answers important questions such as the topic of the speech and the main points that will be presented. The body of the speech develops the main points with supporting evidence, illustrations, and anecdotes. The conclusion restates the main points of the speech and hopefully inspires the audience.

What is a simple definition of scaffolding in the context of language and literacy development? A. Scaffolding is a temporary means of support to assist students with more complex tasks in reading, writing, thinking, and understanding until they are ready to proceed at a higher level on their own. B. Scaffolding is a technique used with students that provide needed instruction to complete literacy tasks. C. Scaffolding in the context of language and literacy development provides students with the necessary skills in order to function within a classroom. D. Scaffolding is a means to assess English Language Learner students so they can function within the regular classroom and achieve proficiency in quickly developing reading and reading comprehension skills.

A. Scaffolding is a temporary means of support to assist students with more complex tasks in reading, writing, thinking, and understanding until they are ready to proceed at a higher level on their own.

Read the poem below and answer the question that follows. Gather ye rosebuds while ye may: Old time is still a-flying And this same flower that smiles today Tomorrow will be dying The figure of speech in the word "flower" used in the third line of the poem is an example of: A. personification B. Simile C. Metaphor D. irony

A. personification Knowing simile, choice B, is a comparison using like or as and that, irony, choice D, is a technique in which a writer conveys a meaning opposite from the words actually used, would allow you to eliminate both of these choices. Metaphor, choice C, represents a comparison of something as though it was something else.

Biological factors

According to Noam Chomsky, linguistic authority and researcher, language acquisition is biologically inherited by all human beings. However, there is evidence that describes a biological optimal period for language acquisition. Linguist Eric Lenneberg hypothesized a "critical period" for learning language. If children do not acquire language by age 5, language fluency is much more difficult to master especially the formation of grammatically correct sentences.

Concepts of prints

An important predictor of learning to read. It is the familiarity with print conventions such as reading left to right, top to bottom. The direction of print on a page, the use of the spaces to denote words, and the ideas that print represents word and pronunciation.

Cognitive factors

As children grow mentally, they expand their ability to retain information. If cognitive growth is slowed, words could be more difficult to mentally internalize. According to Lev Vygotsky, language and cognitions are interconnected. If children are not competent in their primary language, their cognitions and their ability to form clear thoughts about other academic subjects would be impeded. If their cognition are impended, then their ability to acquire language will be delayed.

Social Factors

As children interface and practice language skills during different stages of growth, they develop robust language skills. Stephen A. Krashen's "Natural Order Hypothesis" states that primary language acquisition is an unconscious mental process influenced by environmental factors. If children are not exposed to social interactions by means of parents or other children, their language growth may be inhibited.

Mr. Gutierrez, a third-grade teacher, is developing his daily schedule as well as his long-range classroom goals. According to the California Language Arts Framework, what is the minimum amount of time per day to be allocated for language arts instruction? A. 3.5 hours B. 2.5 hours C. 1.5 hours D. half an hour

B. 2.5 hours According to the California Language Arts Framework, in an effective primary language arts program, a daily minimum of 2.5 hours of instructional time should be allotted to language arts instruction in grades K-3. In 4th-8th grade, 2 hours (or two periods) of instructional time are allocated to language arts instruction daily through core instructional periods or within a self-contained classroom.

Which of the following sentences shows the correct usage of the word(s) in ALL CAPS? A. Although he had appeared as a guest on several popular cable news shows in recent months, yesterday's interview IS THE FIRST TIME THE GOVERNOR HAS ADMITTED his interest in running for senator. B. Although he had appeared as a guest on several popular cable news shows in recent months, yesterday's interview WAS THE FIRST TIME THE GOVERNOR HAS ADMITTED his interest in running for senator. C. Although he had appeared as a guest on several popular cable news shows in recent months, yesterday's interview HAD BEEN THE FIRST TIME THE GOVERNOR HAD ADMITTED his interest in running for senator. D. Although he had appeared as a guest on several popular cable news shows in recent months, yesterday's interview SHALL BE THE FIRST TIME THE GOVERNOR HAS ADMITTED his interest in running for senator.

B. Although he had appeared as a guest on several popular cable news shows in recent months, yesterday's interview WAS THE FIRST TIME THE GOVERNOR HAS ADMITTED his interest in running for senator. The description of the interview as yesterday's places the action in the past. Logically, it follows that the tense a the main verb must be then be past tense - therefore, the correct verb is choice B. Choice A uses the present tense. Choice C uses the past perfect tense of the verb, which should be used to indicate that an event preceded another event in the past. Choice D is not only future tense, but shall is a nonstandard form of expression (except with first person)

In the following conversation, a kindergarten teacher is preparing a special-needs student for a phonemic awareness test. After reading, answer the question that follows. Teacher: I'm going to say the sounds in a word. The sounds are /k/-/i/-/t/. When I put those sounds together, they say kit. Now I'm going to say some more sounds, and I want you to put them together to make a word. This time, the sounds are /f/-/i/-/t/. Can you put those sounds together to make a word? Student: /f/-/i/-/t/. That says fit! Teacher: That's right, fit. Now I'd like you to do this for some more words. This assessment would be an appropriate way to measure which of the following phonemic awareness tasks? A. Identifying phonemes and their letters B. Blending the phonemes in a given word C. Matching phonemes in rhyming words D. Segmenting the phonemes in a given word

B. Blending the phonemes in a given word Phoneme blending is the act of listening to a sequence of separately spoken phonemes and then combining them to form a word. Matching phonemes in rhyming words is not a phonemic awareness task. An example of segmenting would be asking students to break a word into the beginning, middle, and ending sounds, such as separating hen into /h/-/e/-/n/.

A first-grade teacher plans a mid-year reading lesson for a class with many ELLs from a diverse sociocultural backgrounds. Which of the following should the teacher consider first before preparing her lesson? A. Preparing visual tools (e.g., pictures, illustrations, diagrams) B. Preparing a portfolio for each child with strategies for individual instructional needs C. Preparing strategies for teaching reading lessons written in their native language(s) to meet their individual needs D. Including read-aloud reading material that is culturally sensitive

B. Preparing a portfolio for each child with strategies for individual instructional needs In a balanced, comprehensive reading program, the teacher must provide reading material to meet the reading level of all students in the class. To develop materials that help children become skilled readers, the teacher must first develop and prepare individual student portfolios that diagnose and meet individual needs. Important instructional tools can be included in reading lessons, but they should be introduced after initial assessments and possible intervention strategies are conducted.

Which one of the following paired writing and organizational techniques best describes the discovery process in writing an effective essay? A. Content and body while focusing on the task, purpose, and unity B. Deduction and induction while focusing on the task, purpose, and unity C. Brainstorming and prewriting while focusing on the task, purpose, and unity D. Rhetoric and arrangement while focusing on the task, purpose, and audience

C. Brainstorming and prewriting while focusing on the task, purpose, and unity First, you must look for an initial step in the writing process, prewriting, choice C. The terms for the idea-discovering process are brainstorming and prewriting. Prewriting is the initial brainstorming step in which a writer gathers ideas and examples.

Which of the following best illustrates the correct in-text citation? A. "Humanity's deepest desire for knowledge is justification enough for our continuing quest." A Brief History of Time (<= underlined) by Hawking (p.14). B. Stephen Hawking, in his book, A Brief History of Time (<= underlined), suggests that "humanity's deepest desire for knowledge is justification enough for continuing quest" (14). C. To illuminate my point, as human beings we have deep yearning to continue our search for knowledge. Further, it is our goal to be able to investigate and explain the world we live in. D. Hawking's book suggests that "humanity's deepest desire for knowledge is justification enough for out continuing quest." (14).

B. Stephen Hawking, in his book, A Brief History of Time (<= underlined), suggests that "humanity's deepest desire for knowledge is justification enough for continuing quest" (14). The answer should illustrate the correct usage of MLA style citation. Most academic sources use MLA style, but American Psychological Association (APA) style and Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) are acceptable references. If you reference a direct quote from an original author, always use quotation marks around the author's words. However, if you paraphrase and restate an original author's direct quote, you can exclude the quotation marks.

Which of the following grade-level skills should be expected from an average fourth-grade class of students who are using the Internet to conduct research to write a paper? A. Students should demonstrate a sufficient command of keyboarding skills to write a three-page paper in single sitting. B. Students should demonstrate a command of searching for information relevant to the topic while taking notes C. Students should demonstrate a sufficient command of quoting or paraphrasing Internet sources without plagiarism D. Students should demonstrate a command of evaluating the credibility and accuracy of Internet sources.

B. Students should demonstrate a command of searching for information relevant to the topic while taking notes Fourth graders are able to collaborate with others while using technology and are able to take notes and concentrate on essential information related to their topic while using the Internet. However, fourth-grade students have not mastered the organizational skills necessary to analyze multiple Internet sources in order to write a paper. Three pages are not expected until sixth grade.

Which of the following best describes a primary source for researching leaders of national civil rights movement campaigns? A. The film Selma, about the civil rights leader Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. campaign to secure voter rights. B. The speech given by Mexican-American civil rights leader Caesar Chaves upon ending his fast C. A thesis paper written about the "The Civil Rights Act of 1964" D. A report on "Civil Rights and Immigration," published by the United States Commission on Civil Rights

B. The speech given by Mexican-American civil rights leader Caesar Chaves upon ending his fast

Kindergarten student performance are conducted at the end of the school year. One student is able to name the letters of the alphabet and has mastered print concepts. However, the student is unable to identify rhyming words. What should the kindergarten teacher conclude about this student? A. The student has completed most of the requirements of kindergarten and will be successful in first-grade reading B. The student has not mastered a phonemic awareness skill (that is, rhyming words) that should be mastered by the end of kindergarten C. The student will not be able to perform at grade level in first grade. D. The student needs direct instruction and practice in phonemic letter recognition skills.

B. The student has not mastered a phonemic awareness skill (that is, rhyming words) that should be mastered by the end of kindergarten One of the best predictors of a child's future reading success is the mastery of Alphabetic Principle, phonemic awareness, and concepts of print. Phonemic awareness skills such as rhyming, counting syllables, substituting sounds, and blending phonemics help kindergarten students from simple sentences required in the first-grade reading programs.

On Monday, Mr. Nguyen notices that many of his seventh-grade students have difficulty comprehending expository texts. The next day, Mr. Nguyen introduces an unfamiliar informational text. Which instructional strategy would be the most effective in facilitating comprehension of informational text? A. Using comprehension strategies that include drawing logical conclusions B. Using comprehension strategies that include graphic organizers, outlining, and note taking. C. Using cooperative learning so a greater number of students will understand the text D. Using comprehension strategies that include identifying context clues

B. Using comprehension strategies that include graphic organizers, outlining, and note taking. Information text is a subcategory of nonfiction text. The main purpose of informational text is to inform the reader about historical, scientific, or technical events. To facilitate comprehension of informational texts, teachers should teach various comprehension strategies that include, but are not limited to, different media, or formats such as self-monitoring, rereading, note taking, outlining, summarizing, mapping, videotaping, videoconferencing, and using learning logs. Using graphic organizers, outlining, and note taking will help students concentrate on refining key features from popular print informational texts.

Read the passage below and answer the question that follows. The emphasis on children's health and fitness has even reached the White House; in a campaign to end childhood obesity in the United States, the First Lady launched an initiative called "Let's Move" to encourage healthy lifestyles among kids. The CDC recommends that children participate in one hour or more of physical activity per day to improve cardiovascular health, muscle strengthening, and bone strengthening. Studies suggest that a comprehensive physical education program is the most significant factor in development of cardio-respiratory endurance, which includes the ability of the hearth, blood vessels, and respiratory system to sustain work by delivering oxygen and nutrients to the tissues of the body over a period of time. The most important education we can give our children is one that gives them the tools to maintain a healthy heart. A sixth-grade teacher asks students to read the passage above and write down a summary of the author's main point of view regarding physical education. Which of the following best characterizes the author's main point? A. Physical education should be considered equally important as traditional academic fields in a well-rounded education. B. Physical education has become even more important since the implementation of the "Let's Move" initiative C. Physical education should be top priority in a child's schooling D. Physical education should be included in a student's core curriculum when possible

C. Physical education should be top priority in a child's schooling By sixth-grade students should be able to 1) accurately quote text when explaining what is explicitly written; 2) draw inferences; 3) ascertain the main theme or the author's central ideas; 4) summarize the text; 5) identify specific details; 6) compare and contrast events in the text; and 7) explain the relationships between two or more events or people. In this question, the best method of isolating the main point of the passage is to paraphrase the passage by summarizing and distilling the author's ideas.

Read the passage below and answer the question that follows. 1) The fundraising practices of the political parties in this country are clearly out of control. 2) A previously undisclosed transcript has revealed that Richard Nixon's secret White House slush fund, which was used to silence Watergate burglars, came from illegally donated campaign money. 3) After Nixon resigned, his successor, General Ford, pardoned him. 4) General Ford has joined presidents Carter and Bush in urging campaign funding reforms. 5) Recent hearings have shown all too clearly that both parties have been guilty of highly questionable fundraising practices. 6) Unless laws are changed, the shoddy practices of the last 30 years will undoubtedly continue. Which of the following numbered sentences is the LEAST relevant to the main idea of this paragraph? A. Sentence 1 B. Sentence 2 C. Sentence 3 D. Sentence 4

C. Sentence 3 The paragraph is about campaign fundraising and the need for reform. All the other references to former presidents are relevant to this issue, but Ford's pardon of Nixon is not.

During a history lesson, a fourth-grade classroom teacher requests that students submit a writing sample about what it must be like to be a child of immigrants coming to the United States. One student submits the following writing sample: When my dad came, he did not speek English because he was born in a diffrent country, called Guatemala. No one could understand him because of his axcent. He was a good electrichen. I think my dad is amazzing. In analyzing the student's spelling errors, how should the teacher begin to interpret the student's spelling development, and how might the teacher plan for further spelling instruction? A. First, the teacher must identify the spelling errors in this student's paper. The teacher should return the paper to the student for correction so the student can add the misspelled words to his weekly spelling list. B. After identifying the student's spelling errors, the teacher should add these words to her weekly class spelling list to enable her students to achieve mastery of these words. In future spelling lessons, the teacher should group her students according to the words they are having difficulty spelling and then provide activities to help them spell with these words. C. The teacher should identify the misspelled words in this student's writing sample and add this sample to other samples of this student's work. For further information about this student's spelling development, the teacher should administer a spelling inventory and analyze the results. This would provide her with more information on which to base word-study lessons for her class. D. The teacher notices on this sample that this student has made some errors in words that have doubled consonants, but she needs more information to determine this student's spelling development. Future lessons should include class activities with the misspelled words from each student.

C. The teacher should identify the misspelled words in this student's writing sample and add this sample to other samples of this student's work. For further information about this student's spelling development, the teacher should administer a spelling inventory and analyze the results. This would provide her with more information on which to base word-study lessons for her class. Before answering this question, ask yourself, "Is this student making appropriate errors for a fourth grader?" In this case, the answer is yes. The teacher can gain more information about the student's spelling stages if she collects samples of the student's writing, from both formal inventories and daily writing . This allows the teacher to compare the student's spelling abilities.

In most dictionaries, the explanation of the meaning of pronunciation symbols is usually found: A. in the beginning of the spelling section of the dictionary B. in an appendix of the dictionary C. at the bottom of each page D. with each word, before the definition of the word

C. at the bottom of each page Most American dictionaries repeat the explanation of the pronunciation symbols at the bottom of every page so the reader can look from the word to the bottom page without having to look elsewhere in the book.

The purpose of revising text when writing an essay is to: A. check over and public your final draft B. critically evaluate the final draft C. critically evaluate the first draft D. organize your thesis statement

C. critically evaluate the first draft The writing process consists of a series of steps that help writers organize their ideas. The stages of the writing process are 1) prewriting (organizing and planning the first draft); 2) writing a first draft; 3) revising (critically evaluating and rewriting the first draft); 4) editing your final copy for accuracy (correct mechanics, spelling, punctuation, and language), and 5) publishing.

A fourth-grade teacher is working with a student who is trying to decide the word upsetting. Read the passage below and use it to answer the following question about their conversation. Teacher: Can you read this word? Student: Yes. It's upsing Teacher: Does upsing make sense? Student: No. I guess not. Teacher: You've read part of the word. Try again. Student: Oh! Its upping. Teacher: You've read the first syllable. Now I want you to focus on the middle part of the word. Can you try the word again? Student: Up-set-ing Teacher: You just read all of the syllables in the word. Try putting them together quickly to read the word. Student: Upsetting, upsetting. I got it. The word is upsetting! Teacher: Great job! You figured out the word upsetting . Based on the above conversation, this student would most clearly benefit from: A. participating in an organized, effective phonics program B. paying attention to structure and syntactic cues C. explicit instruction and guided practice decoding multisyllabic words C. instruction in decoding prefixes and suffixes

C. explicit instruction and guided practice decoding multisyllabic words Explicit and systematic instruction is particularly beneficial for children who are having difficulty learning to read because it teaches the student a logical and sequential relationship pf letters and sounds.

Use of information below to answer the question that follows. Einstein, Albert, The Meaning of Relativity, 5th Edition, 1956, Princeton University Press, pp. 26-29 The reference above it almost likely an example taken from the bibliography of a(n): A. literary periodical B. anthology of essays C. student's term paper D. newspaper editorial

C. student's term paper The Meaning of Relativity would probably not be in a literary periodical because it is not considered a literary work. A newspaper editorial would probably not be about the meaning of relativity, but even if it was, the information taken would not be four pages, and a standard bibliographic notation would be given. An anthology is a compilation of works or small pieces

2nd-3rd Grade Alphabetic (Learning Fluency) Developmental Expectation

Children are beginning to develop fluency in reading text and recognize words by patterns and sight. Children attempt to read words using phonics knowledge. Children can read/reread text within a story. Children now rhyme and blend words to make sense of the meaning of words to make sense of the text. The older student now begins to recognize "chunks," or phonograms and can identify similarities and differences of sounds within words.

Read the following paragraph and carefully arrange the four sentences in the most logical order. 1) The effect of the medication will not change. 2) However, you might take wrong pill or take a pill at the wrong time. 3) If you are taking several pills, be sure to pay close attention to the change in shape or color. 4) Changing from a brand-name medicine to generic, you may find that the pill is a different shape or a different color. A. 4-2-3-1 B. 2-3-1-4 C. 3-4-1-2 D. 4-1-3-2

D. 4-1-3-2 Sentence 1) logically follows sentence 4) because sentence 4) speaks of a change, and sentence 1) begins with comments on something that will remain unchanged. Sentence 2), which begins with However, logically follows sentence 3) which begins with If. And the sentence pair 3) and 2) logically follows the pair 4) and 1).

Which of the following are NOT examples of phonological awareness? A. Deleting and identifying word boundaries B. Distinguishing initial, medial, and final sounds C. Blending sounds together D. Adding letters to form words

D. Adding letters to form words Deleting and identifying word boundaries, distinguishing initial, medial, and finals sounds, and blending sounds together are all phonological activities. Examples of appropriate tasks for deletion (for example, "saying pill without the p"), manipulation (reordering phonemes in a syllable), and addition (adding extra phonemes to a word or syllable). Adding letters to form words is not a phonological awareness task.

Ms. Chen, a sixth-grade teacher, frequently asks students to respond to literature through purposeful writing opportunities. When creating writing lessons, it is most important that Ms. Chen's lessons and activities relate to the specific instructional needs of her students and involve different modalities that connect reading, listening, speaking, and writing. According to the ELA and CCSS requirements, which of the following types of essay-writing tasks should be emphasized in Ms. Chen's sixth-grade writing lessons? A. Creative Writing B. Explanatory Writing C. Negative Writing D. Argument Writing

D. Argument Writing According to the CCSS, teachers should be familiar with providing students with instruction for three types of writing projects: arguments, informational/explanatory, and narrative. The goal of instruction is to develop writing competence that extends well beyond the classroom. Although choices A, B, and C are all valid writing tasks to keep in mind when planning instruction, the CCSS recognize the importance of students' ability to write "sound arguments on substantive topics and issues" for college and career readiness, choice D. Children are not able to produce logical arguments until the sixth grade. This is why the term "opinion" is used in the grades K-5 classrooms. At the sixth-grade level, the argument essay is the most important and developmentally appropriate of the writing tasks listed.

A fifth-grade teacher is trying to increase the prosody of Ralph and Elvia, both second-language learners. How could the teacher best address their needs? A. By using timers to record repeated silent readings and plotting reading rates on graphs B. By providing differentiated instruction in prosody during English Language Learner time C. By practicing automaticity and reading rate at a fluency station during Universal Access time. D. By modeling reading with appropriate phrasing and expression

D. By modeling reading with appropriate phrasing and expression An effective teacher knows that explicit, systematic strategies for building prosody (reading with expression) include modeling ands phrase-cued reading. Silent reading is less likely to have an impact on fluent reading than oral reading.

Which of the following factors is a measure of text complexity as determined by the English Language Arts of Common Core State Standards? Line 1: Qualitative text evaluation Line 2: Quantitative text evaluation Line 3: Matching the reader to the text A: Line 1 only B: Line 2 only C. Lines 1 and 2 only D. Lines 1, 2, and 3

D. Lines 1, 2, and 3 The first component of the CCSS model, qualitative measurement of text complexity, assess the purpose, structure, language conventionality, and clarity of text. The second component, quantitative measurement of text complexity, assess word length, frequency, sentence length, and text cohesion. The third component, matching reader and task, assess the reader's motivation, knowledge, and experiences with the appropriate text. All three factors must be considered in measuring text complexity.

A second grader is unable to blend phonemes into a word that is said aloud by the teacher. For example, after hearing /c/ /a/ /t/, the child says "kitten." A. The student would benefit from manipulating magnetic letters while working in a small group to match sounds with letters B. The student would benefit from practice in blending skills with a volunteer or teacher's aide C. The student is unaware of syllables and needs explicit instruction in this area. D. The student needs more instruction in phonemic awareness, including formal and explicit reading instruction.

D. The student needs more instruction in phonemic awareness, including formal and explicit reading instruction. Matching sounds to letters is not a phonemic awareness task. Syllables, is a phonological awareness skill that identifies larger chunks of sounds in words.

Irena is an English Language Learner who joins Ms. Acosta's seventh-grade class mid-year. Following a round of assessments, Ms. Acosta determines that Irena decodes extremely well and reads fluently. However, her comprehension performance is inconsistent. Sometimes she seems to understand everything in a grade-level text, while other times she has difficulty retelling a story with accuracy. Ms. Acosta then assess Irena's vocabulary knowledge and notes some weak areas. What are some logical next steps for instruction? A. Provide Irena easier reading material that is at her instructional reading level. B. Place Irena in a group with other English Language Learners. They should focus on vocabulary and phonics instruction. C. Provide systematic vocabulary and phonemic awareness instruction. Irena needs more exposure to the sounds of the English language. D. Use this information to plan appropriate vocabulary and academic language interventions in relation to Irena's specific reading needs.

D. Use this information to plan appropriate vocabulary and academic language interventions in relation to Irena's specific reading needs. A teacher should never assume that all ELL have the same needs and must be assigned to the same groups.

Students are expected to recognize writing assignment arguments that are supported by valid reasoning and evidence. All of the following are necessary elements in writing an unbiased opinion piece that supports specific point of view EXCEPT: A. reasons that are supported by facts and details B. an organizational structure that supports the writer's purpose C. visual or multimedia sources to evaluate the accuracy of each source D. a clear introduction, body, and concluding paragraph based on the information presented

D. a clear introduction, body, and concluding paragraph based on the information presented When reading text for research or to develop an informational base for an essay paper, students need to be taught how to recognize bias, the validity of sources, and the ability to differentiate between fact and opinion.

Phoneme identity

Instructional Intervention: Teacher will ask the student to identify a common sound among different words. Example: "Tell me the sound that is the same in dog, doll, and dig." /d/

Phoneme isloation

Instructional Intervention: Teacher will ask the students to isolate individual sounds (phonemes) in words. Example: "Tell me the first sound you hear in the word ball." /b/

Universal Language Acquisition Theory

Language acquisition is a theory based upon the formative work of Noam Chomsky, which states that language is innate and universally inherited by all human beings. Chomsky suggests that infants are neurologically prewired to learn language. For example children intuitively know how to combine a noun with a verb to form grammatically correct phrases. Although Chomsky is one of the most influential linguistic scholars of the modern age, other linguistic scholars have equally compelling language acquisition viewpoints. According to contemporary linguists, the acquisition of language develops when children interact with their social environment. For example, when children are exposed to the linguistic construction and patterns of words by hearing people talk, new brain pathways are formed (neuroplasticity). Hence, cognitions, behavior, and emotions stimulated by environmental changes enhance language abilities.

Onset-rime

Onset refers to the first phonological unit, or part of the word before the vowel (e.g., the letter "b" in book). Rime refers to the part of the word - vowels or consonants - that follow the onset (e.g., the letters "ook" in book). Note: Not all words have onset and rime. Teaching children onset-rime helps them decode new words.

3rd - 8th grade (Remedial Reader) Reading Instruction

Reading instruction includes reteaching all of the modalities taught as a "beginning reader" : - assessment of identified reading weakness - teaching explicit strategies based on diagnosis - linking instruction to prior knowledge - increasing instruction time - dividing skills into smaller steps while providing reinforcement and positive feedback

Advance fluency Developmental Expectations

Students have competency in English oral and written communication. Students should be participating fully in grade-level classroom activities.

4th - 8th Grade (Orthographic Fluent Reader) Developmental Expectations

Students read larger units if print and use analogy to decode larger words. Decoding becomes fluent and is representative of adult readers. Reading, accuracy, and speed are stressed.

2nd-3rd Grade Alphabetic (Learning Fluency) Reading Instruction

Systematic and explicit instruction including: - phonics, phonemic awareness, blending, segmenting, and decoding - vocabulary word-attack skills, spelling - text comprehension - listening and writing - encouraging students to make predictions about stories - exercises that include filling in open-ended sentences

K-1st Grade Alphabetic (Decoding) Reading Instruction

Systematic and explicit instruction including: - phonics, phonemic awareness, blending, segmenting, and decoding - vocabulary word-attack skills, spelling - text comprehension - listening and writing - encouraging students to make predictions about stories - exercises that include filling in open-ended sentences

4th - 8th Grade (Orthographic Fluent Reader) Reading Instructions

Systematic and explicit instruction, including: - word-attack skills (multisyllabic words) and words within families - decoding - spelling and vocabulary - text comprehension (context skills) - utilizing metacognition

3rd - 8th grade (Remedial Reader) Developmental Expectation

The key approach to successful reading programs is preventing rather than remedial while understanding that there is a full range of learners in the classroom. Students who are struggling to read are taught from the same systematic framework taught in the early grades of successful readers.

Pragmatics

The ability to engage in conversational speech (allowing time for a response). Pragmatics studies ways in which the context of verbal and nonverbal communication can change the meaning of communication and comprehension. When communicating, the meaning of language can change depending upon the context, the relationship between people, and other social/cultural factors (i.e., second-language learners). Pragmatics and language development work hand-in-hand to produce meaningful language-based comprehension.

Blending

The ability to fluidly combine individual sounds to form words. It is also used to combine insets and rimes in order to form syllables, and it is used to combine syllables to form words.

Phonemic (phoneme) awareness

The ability to hear, identify and manipulate the individual sounds— phonemes—in spoken words. It is the understanding that sounds work together to make words, and it is the most important determinant toward becoming a successful reader. To become proficient readers, children must be able to understand and produce specific sounds of the English language and understand how the sound system works. Such awareness does not appear when young children learn to talk. This ability is not necessary for speaking and understanding spoken language. Phonemic awareness is only necessary when children learn to read print so they can become aware of how sounds and printed words work together. This insight is not always easily achieved, but with instructional interventions, most students can develop this skill by first grade.

Semantics

The analysis and study of meanings of words, phrases, and sentences. This is useful as a strategy in decoding to analyze the word that "sounds" correct in a sentence.

Syntax

The examination if various ways that words are organized to create meaning, the study of how sentences are formed, and the pattern or structure of word order in sentences.

Phoneme

The smallest part of spoken language that makes a difference in the meaning of words. English has about 41 phonemes. A few words, such as a or oh, have only one phoneme. Most words however, have more than one phoneme: The word if has two phonemes (/i/ /f/); check has three phonemes (/ch/ /e/ /k/), and stop has four phonemes (/s/ /t/ /o/ /p/). Sometimes one phoneme is represented by more than one letter.

Idiolect

The specific speech habits of an individual speaker or writer, which are often marked by peculiarities of language, grammar, or pronunciation.