CSET SUBSET III PHYSICAL EDUCATION DOMAIN 1: MOVEMENT SKILLS AND MOVEMENT KNOWLEDGE

ESTABLISH A SAFE ENVIRONMENT

A safe environment has two components. The first refers to the actual physi- cal environment. This includes equipment safety and that the class size is conducive to providing a safe activity; that communication systems are in place in case of an emergency (located in the main office or health office); that proper instruction exists for students to use equipment; and that there is sufficient super- vision at all times. The second component refers to the psychological subjective environment of the stu- dents. All activities should ensure that students feel physically, emotionally, and socially safe during the instructional process.

HEART RATE FORMULAS

Aerobic activity should include a 20-minute activity at your target heart rate. Calculate your Target Heart Rate (THR) THR = 220 minus your age multiplied by 70% to 85% (0.70 to 0.85) Maximum Heart Rate (MHR) = 220 - age Lower Limit Threshold Upper Limit Threshold Target Heart Rate (THR) Resting Heart Rate (RHR) 70% of your MHR 85% of your MHR 70% to 85% of your MHR (lower and upper threshold) Heart rate taken while standing still (average of three heart rates taken before getting out of bed in the morning) To check your heart rate, count the beats for ten seconds (use your index finger, not your thumb). Multiply the number of beats by six to equal your heart rate per minute.

INCLUDE CLASS MANAGEMENT

An effective classroom management system sets the stage for high-quality physi- cal education instruction by providing the time and opportunity for learning to occur. It promotes student engagement and maximizes instructional effectiveness. Effective class management does not just happen; it is carefully and systematically planned.

HAMSTRINGS

BACK THIGH MUSCLES

CRANIUM

BONES OF THE HEAD

STERNUM

BREAST BONE

GLUTEUS MAXIMUS

BUTTOCK MUSCLES

GASTRONOMIES

CALF MUSCLES

CLAVICLE

COLLAR BONE

Sample Classroom Fitness Activity

CSET candidates should be prepared to create and develop an appropriate grade-related physical fitness activity for constructed-response questions. Although there are several approaches to developing a successful classroom activity, it is important to first consider the suggested guidelines mentioned in the previous section. The following example is an illustration of a classroom activity for kindergarten through third grade.

OBJECT MANIPULATION SKILLS CATCHING

Catching involves using the hands to stop and control a moving object. During the early stages of learning, it is more difficult for children to learn to catch than to throw because tracking the object requires mature hand-eye coordination. ❏ Children often fear being hit by the object, so early instruction can begin with beach balls, balloons, and fleece balls. ❏ As children develop gross and fine motor abilities, instruction should include reducing the size of the object to catch. This helps children develop perceptual abilities. ❏ Instruction should include practice in catching balls that bounce up from the floor to teach rebound angles.

QUADRICEPS

FRONT MUSCLES OF THE THIGH

COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS

Fitness objectives in elementary school activity programs should include an understanding of the health-related components of physical fitness. A healthy lifestyle is a priority, and the recognition of fitness components can help teachers design activities that will benefit the physically diverse populations of students. Fitness activities should be individualized and uniquely designed to meet the needs of each child to help ensure that the fitness experience is positive and enjoyable. Aspects of the physiological function of fitness activities are included in the components of fitness listed in the following table: MUSCULAR STRENGTH, ENDURANCE, FLEXIBILITY, BODY COMPOSITION, CARDIO-RESPIRATORY (AEROBIC)

FRICTION

Friction can be defined as the resistance of motion of two moving objects. For example, when children play kick ball on grass, the ball may move more slowly than when they play kick ball on asphalt. There is more resistance because of the friction of the coarse, grassy surface.

FITT GUIDELINES INTENSITY

How difficult is the activity level (mild to moderate)? gives an indication of how difficult the activity might be. This principle is important to monitor so that instruction can be increased or deceased, depending on the intensity of the activity. Remember to always monitor cardio-respiratory exertion.

FITT GUIDELINES TIME

How long does it take to perform the activity? The duration of the activity is dependent on the intensity and type of activity. The minimum of aerobic activity should be 8 to 10 minutes, but the ideal aerobic time should be at least 20 minutes during a 1-hour activity.

FITT GUIDELINES FREQUENCY

How often does the activity occur? is the number of sessions that the activity might take to achieve the desired results.

TIBIA

INNER BONE OF THE LOWER LEG

balance

Instruction in concepts of balance in the body (e.g., "balance on one foot; balance on your hands while stretching your body"; "form a tripod with your body," etc.).

shape

Instruction in concepts of how the body can form different shapes (e.g., "allow your body to form different shapes, wide or tall"; "stand like a pole"; etc.).

space

Instruction in concepts of sharing space with others (e.g., "run in a zigzag fashion without bumping into others"; "point to a spot and see if you can run straight toward it, touch it, and run back without touching someone else"; "do warm-up exercises one arm's length apart"; etc.).

quality

Instruction in the concepts of speed, contrast, force, and relaxation (e.g., "how fast or how slow can you move?"; "tense one part of your body and then relax another part of your body"; etc.).

PATELLA

KNEE CAP

ULNA AND RADIUS

LOWER ARM BONES

MOTION

Newton's laws of motion apply to all movement. In biomechanics, the awareness of body movements can be associated with force, acceleration, and velocity as they relate to maximum effort. The force of the energy in the body causes change in physical motion.

Guidelines for Fitness Development Programs

Physical fitness programs are designed with age- and grade-related abilities in mind. This means that teachers should be sensitive to students' grade level, age, fitness level, and abilities. Since part of an instructional fitness activity is to challenge students to perform at higher levels of progressive skills, teachers should use systematic guidelines before implementing fitness programs. Many different fitness guidelines are available to help in creating fitness activities. The table that follows is an example of a guideline that emphasizes the principles of FITT. This is an acronym for "frequency, intensity, time, and type of activity."

ENCOURAGE PRACTICE

Practice can be spaced out over time (distributed practice) or completed in one instruc- tional period (mass practice). Distributed practice generally leads to more effective learning, especially in the early stages. Therefore, students practice a number of different skills during each class period. Practice can involve the entire skill (whole practice), or the skill can be broken down into small units (part practice). For example, the triple jump involves a hop, a skip, and a jump. Whole practice would involve performing the hop, skip, and jump together. Part practice would involve practicing the hop, then practicing the skip, and then practicing the jump.

NONLOCOMOTOR SKILLS PUSHING

Pushing is a controlled, forceful action performed against an object. It moves the body away from the object while applying force. ❏ Pushing should exert force with steady, even, and controlled effort. The student accomplishes this action by broadening and supporting the base of the body while placing the body in a forward stride position. ❏ The line of force is directed toward a specific target. ❏ Teachers should instruct students to maintain a reasonable alignment in their back as the body builds up force for the push.

SCAPULA

SHOULDER BLADE

DELTOIDS

SHOULDER MUSCLES

ABDOMINALS

STOMACH MUSCLES

K-3 Basic Station Activity

Set up stations to provide varied activities (e.g., station 1: nonlocomotor; station 2: locomotor; and station 3: object manipulation). Rotate after ten minutes.

NONLOCOMOTOR SKILLS STRETCHING

Stretching is perhaps the most valuable of all nonlocomotor movements. Its movement carries body parts away from the body's center core and moves joints and muscles through a range of movements. ❏ All physical education activities should begin with a stretching warm-up exercise. ❏ Teachers should understand that some discomfort is normal, but stretching is necessary for maintaining and increasing flexibility. ❏ Ask children to stretch as far as is comfortably possible while keeping their movement smooth.

BICEPS

TOP MUSCLES OF THE UPPER ARM

PHYSICAL FITNESS

The ability to carry out tasks with vigor and alertness. It is a form of body conditioning that is part of a child's normal growth and development. Purposeful exercise programs and a sound diet counteract heart disease and related circulatory problems. Establishing health and physical fitness programs in elementary schools is a well-recognized discipline for improving the ability to complete tasks that require endurance, strength, and flexibility.

GRAVITY

The center of the human body can be associated with the "center of gravity." It is the point around which the mass of the body is equally distributed. The body has a balanced base of support and is affected by height, position, and changing movements. During movement and exercise activities, the body adjusts to maintain its stability.

A Fitnessgram is a complete exercise and fitness program for elementary students. The assessment portion of the Fitnessgram tests aerobic capacity, body composition, and muscular fitness. The benefits of utilizing a Fitnessgram report card in an elementary physical education program would include all of the following except: A. providing group exercise recommendations based on assessment results. B. indicating current and past test performance. C. calculating body fat by using a body mass index. D. evaluating performance based on criterion-referenced health standards.

The correct answer is A. A Fitnessgram assessment measures aerobic capacity, body composition, and muscle fit- ness (strength, endurance, and flexibility). These three components of physical fitness are identified with general health and fitness. In a Fitnessgram, aerobic capacity is measured by the one-mile run/walk; body composition is measured both by percent fat (calculated from triceps and calf skin-folds) and body mass index (calculated from height and weight); and muscular fitness is measured by using curl-ups to measure abdominal strength, push-ups to measure upper-body strength, trunk lifts to measure trunk extensor strength, and shoulder stretches to measure flexibility. The Fitnessgram report card is highly personalized and is designed to provide students, teachers, and parents with a report of an individual child's fitness test results. Criterion-referenced standards do not compare one student to another. Student scores are reported based on standards that are based on levels of fitness.

n planning a physical education activity for an elementary school, which of the following activities might present the most probable religious objection to the activity? A. Teaching a folk dance as part of a comprehensive dance and fitness activity B. Mandating stretching exercises before starting a vigorous activity C. Allowing boys and girls to participate in co-educational tennis D. Introducing co-educational aerobic and anaerobic fitness activities in grade 5

The correct answer is A. Of the choices given, teaching dance involves the greatest potential for cultural or reli- gious objections to the activity. Most primary grade dance activities involve touching the dance partner (holding hands, swing steps, etc.). Although dance is a required component of most comprehensive physical education programs and can be introduced at the kindergarten level with folk dancing, dance participation could raise potential religious objections. The physical education teacher must be cognizant of cultural, religious, gender, ability, or disability issues when planning activities.

Which locomotor transport skill is described in the following example? The balance is on one foot; the body is then thrust forward into space, with the individual landing on the same foot as the take-off foot. A. Hop B. Skip C. Gallop D. Jump

The correct answer is A. Visualize the locomotor movement being described. The hop is the only choice listed that uses only one foot. Hopping is a basic structured locomotor movement. In hopping, both the body lean and the position of the hands help balance the movement of landing on one foot. Skipping (B) is a series of step-hops done with alternate feet.

Which of the following is the correct formula to calculate your target heart rate for aerobic activity? A. The number 220 minus your age multiplied by 0.70 equals the target heart rate. B. The number 200 plus your age multiplied by 0.50 equals the target heart rate. C. Your weight minus your age multiplied by 1.0 equals the target heart rate. D. Your pulse rate added to your weight divided by 2 equals the target heart rate.

The correct answer is A. When considering health-related fitness, the target heart rate is generally set at 70 percent of an individual's maximum heart capacity. The purpose of reaching and maintaining a target heart rate is to reach a level at which the aerobic training will most benefit the cardiovascular system. The formula is derived at by taking the number 220 (which represents the maximum heart rate for an excellently trained, young individual), subtract- ing your age, and taking seventy percent of the figure as your target heart rate for aerobic activities. Maintaining the target heart rate (in health-related fitness) is achieved through long-duration and low-intensity activities.

Which of the following is the correct order from simplest to most complex in an elementary tumbling program? A. Balance stunts, individual stunts, animal movements, inverted balance B. Animal movements, balance stunts, inverted balance, individual stunts C. Animal movements, inverted balance, balance stunts, individual stunts D. Inverted balance, animal movements, individual stunts, balance stunts

The correct answer is B. Animal movements are the most simplistic and easiest to accomplish in an elementary tumbling program. Knowing this will help you to narrow your answer to choice B or C. The next step is to look at the next item in the sequence. Balance stunts (B) require slightly more technical accomplishments, followed by inverted balance. Individual stunts are the most difficult activity.

What would be the primary purpose for a physical education teacher to instruct her third-grade students to point to the scapula, patella, and Achilles tendon while performing a stretching exercise? A. To conceptualize the fitness aspects of exercise B. To connect physical skills with interdisciplinary knowledge C. To make the activity fun and challenging D. To meet the requirements of Title IX of the Educational Amendments Act passed by Congress

The correct answer is B. The California Physical Education State Framework emphasizes an integrated, multidis- ciplinary curriculum. An effective physical education program is interdisciplinary. For example, physical and bio- logical sciences provide information on the biomechanics of body movement. Stretching exercises provide an excellent opportunity to incorporate an interdisciplinary approach to physical education. Students can quickly learn the proper location and name for the bone and muscle groups by pointing to them while performing exer- cises. Since stretching is done on a regular basis, science concepts can be reinforced regularly.

Which of the following most accurately describes the proper follow-through body motion when a third- grader throws a ball? A. The feet must remain stationary in preparation for the throw. B. As the trunk rotates, weight is completely shifted to the foot opposite the throwing side of the body. C. In the initial throwing motion, the person throwing steps forward with the foot that is on the same side as the throwing arm. D. Weight is shifted from the front to the back foot.

The correct answer is B. The concept of applied force is fundamental in developing the efficient body mechanics used when throwing. In the mature stage of throwing a ball (usually developed by the age of seven), weight is shifted from the back foot to the front foot as the ball is being released. Weight transfer is essential in throwing, batting, and striking skills. A child who throws primarily with the arm (A) will not be able to generate the maxi- mum force for power or distance. Shifting the weight from the front to the back foot (D) is associated with a pitcher's rocking motion as he or she prepares to throw a ball.

improper posture can be the result of a weakness in the abdominal wall as well as in the musculature of the upper back and neck. Identifying and correcting improper posture is a goal of all elementary physical education programs. Of the following, what is the best evidence that a lateral deviation in posture exists? A. The back curves slightly. B. The pelvis is noticeably tilted forward. C. One shoulder is higher than the other. D. The body is symmetrical in relation to the spinal column.

The correct answer is C. A lateral deviation in posture indicates that the spinal column is asymmetrical. The spi- nal column often appears to resemble an S-curve, with one shoulder higher than the other. Choice B is an indica- tor of poor posture but does not signify a lateral deviation. The degree of the forward/backward plane of the body can also indicate improper posture.

Which of the following examples best describes a structured movement activity? A. Rolling a ball around a room, alternating the pace you choose to traverse the room B. Crawling over and under a series of poles supported by cones C. Throwing a ball with your right hand while stepping forward with your left foot D. Demonstrating how many different ways you can imitate flight

The correct answer is C. A structured movement incorporates specific, quantifiable skills. Therefore, structured skills impose limitations on the activity being performed. Since the activity can be quantified, it can be judged as to its "correctness." Examples of unstructured activities—choices A, B, and D—allow the individual to make fundamental decisions that determine the outcome of the activity.

A kindergarten introductory physical education lesson includes the following activity: The teacher instructs students to walk forward for eight counts using high steps, and walk backwards for eight counts using low steps. The primary purpose of this activity is to reinforce: A. body imaging. B. balance. C. rhythmic movement. D. hand-eye coordination.

The correct answer is C. An important goal of a primary physical education program is to develop skill progres- sions that involve rhythmic activities. Rhythmic activities in kindergarten should include fundamental rhythms, creative rhythms, folk dance, and musical games. Fundamental rhythms are associated with movement activities that children are already familiar with (walking, running, and jumping). Practicing a walking movement pattern allows for the introduction of rhythmic activities (walking forward with high steps). A child walking on a balance beam is an example of a balance activity, Choice B. A child making animal shapes is an example of body imag- ing, Choice A. A child hitting a balloon with his or her hand while the balloon is still in the air is an example of a hand-eye coordination activity, Choice D.

Which of the following is a nontraditional game that can be safely taught in an elementary physical education program? A. Roller skating B. Dodge ball C. Frisbee golf D. Skateboarding

The correct answer is C. Nontraditional sports are those that are not generally considered to be in the mainstream of activities played by students. However, nontraditional sports can be incorporated into a comprehensive physical education program. Examples of nontraditional sports include inline skating, roller hockey, ping pong, biking, and fishing. Traditional sports include swimming, football, volleyball, soccer, and baseball. The key to this question is recognizing a safe nontraditional sports activity. Dodge ball, roller skating, and skateboarding are frowned on by physical educators because of the inherent safety issues (A, B, D). Frisbee golf is a safe, nontraditional sport that encourages cooperation and teamwork.

Which of the following is not a measurable element of health-related fitness? A. Cardio-respiratory endurance B. Body composition C. Coordination D. Musculoskeletal fitness

The correct answer is C. The question can be answered through the process of elimination. Before looking at the answer choices, you could have focused on key words "not," "measurable," and "health-related" in the question. This helps you to eliminate any answer choice that is health related. Health-related fitness is associated with dis- ease and illness prevention by the maintenance of a healthy lifestyle. As a physical education term, health-related fitness is not directly related to sports skills or fitness abilities such as dribbling a basketball or catching a foot- ball. Notice that sports-related (not health-related) fitness emphasizes skills such as coordination (C). The ele- ments of health-related fitness can be evaluated and measured—(A) by calculating your target heart rate; (B) by measuring the proportion of body fat to lean body mass; and (D) by calculating the amount of time a muscle or muscle group can exert force prior to fatigue.

A second-grade physical education activity involves throwing a beanbag through a target placed 15 feet from the student. The performance objective of this activity most likely emphasizes: A. gross-motor coordination. B. object-handling skills. C. cross-lateral throwing movement. D. static balance.

The correct answer is C. Visualize a student performing this skill. You should eliminate static balance (D) because the term implies a stationary activity. While object-handling skills (B) are necessary for this activity, they would not be emphasized. (Juggling is a good example of object-handling skills.) The emphasis in this activity is on throwing. One of the performance objectives involved in practicing with a beanbag is to develop cross-lateral coordination and throwing for accuracy. In cross-lateral throwing, the student steps forward with the foot oppo- site the throwing hand, transferring weight and increasing strength and distance. Gross-motor activities (A) involve the whole body (running, jumping, etc.).

Which of the following physical activities does not utilize the locomotor walking pattern as a requirement of the activity? A. The approach step in bowling B. Race walking C. Basic square dance step D. Slide step

The correct answer is D. After reading the question, you should have focused on key phrases, "does not utilize" and "locomotor walking." Since locomotor skills are used to move the body from one place to another, you are looking for an answer that does not accomplish this task. Locomotor skills could include walking, running, galloping, skip- ping, and leaping. An excellent example of a simple locomotor skill is walking. When walking, the feet move alter- nately, with one foot always in contact with the ground. The approach step in bowling (A) is a walking motion. In race walking (B), your heel must always be in contact with the ground. The basic square dance step is a walking motion (C). However, the slide step (D), is always done to the side. The leading foot steps to the side and the other foot follows quickly. In slide stepping, the same foot always leads, whereas in locomotor, feet alternate positions.

14. If a third-grade student cannot sustain the locomotor movement of skipping for a distance of fifty feet, one of the best methods to improve this skill is to: A. require the student to practice the skill until it is mastered. B. isolate the student from the class so that, when practicing skipping, the child's self-esteem will not suffer. C. offer a reward to the student for any attempts to improve on skipping skills. D. individualize the instruction by breaking down the pattern and reinforcing the components.

The correct answer is D. Breaking down an activity into its component parts facilitates learning. Individualized instruction provides the maximum opportunity to improve on the locomotor skill of skipping. Choice B could actually reinforce negative self-image by isolating the student from the class.

Many exercises are considered reasonably safe, but can be potentially harmful when executed incorrectly. Which one of the following exercises is considered the safest to perform? A. Neck-circling exercises for relaxation of the neck muscles B. Hands-behind-the-head sit-ups to improve abdominal strength C. Deep-knee-bend exercises to strengthen the knee and hip extensors D. Curl-ups to develop the upper abdominal muscles

The correct answer is D. The primary reasons why individuals exercise are for health and physical fitness. Major benefits of exercise include improved cardiovascular health, greater lean body mass, improved strength and muscu- lar endurance, and reduced risk of disease. However, many exercises are potentially dangerous. Neck-circling exer- cises can hyperextend the neck and should be avoided; hands-behind-the-head sit-ups can pull the head and neck into hyperextension; deep-knee-bend exercises can stretch ligaments and damage cartilage. Curl-ups or crunches are reasonably safe exercises used to develop abdominal strength and prevent pulling on the neck.

10. Which of the following is not a true statement regarding isometric exercises? A. Isometric exercises are useful for building strength. B. Isometric exercises involve a held contraction against an immovable base. C. Isometric exercises can be performed in virtually any location and with little, if any, danger of injury. D. Isometric exercises are considered comprehensive because several muscle groups can be strengthened simultaneously.

The correct answer is D. The value of isometric exercises is in producing strength in a relatively short period of time (A). Isometric exercises "isolate" specific muscle groups, and are not considered comprehensive because they are designed to work only one muscle group at a time. During isometric exercises, it is common not to see visible movement since it is a static, strength movement. In isometrics, a muscle group often contracts against an immovable object (B). Isotonic exercises usually involve the use of weights or heavy calisthenics.

TRANSFER LEARNING

The learning of one skill can have a positive or negative effect on the learning of another skill. When the impact is positive, it is called a "positive transfer of learning." When the impact is negative, it is called a "negative transfer of learning." Providing students with information about the ways in which skills are similar helps them positively transfer the appropriate learning from the first learned skill to the second. For example, the overhand movement pattern is used in the overhand volleyball serve, tennis serve,and badminton smash. When learning the tennis serve, after having learned the volleyball serve, students should be alerted to the similarities between the two serves. Differences between skills are brought to the attention of the students to minimize the potential interference of the first skill in the learning of the sec- ond skill. For example, at the elementary level, students are alerted to the differences between galloping and skipping at the time when the second skill is taught.

body awareness

The sense of being aware of movement in different parts of the body is an important aspect in the cognitive, social, and physical development of children. Body awareness is called proprioception, which is how the body senses the parts of itself (e.g., hands, feet, legs, and arms). Since awareness involves an autonomous sense of the body in relation to personal space, shifting weight, and changing body movements, it is important for teachers to include motor activities that help strengthen perceptual body awareness. The patterns and themes of body awareness help children maintain a sense of personal boundaries, develop patterns of movement through space, understand the concept of shape, and sustain a sense of balance. Exercises that help encourage children to become aware of their physical body include: shape, balance, quality, space, and exploring

TRICEPS

UNDERNEATH MUSCLES OF THE UPPER ARM

HUMERUS

UPPER ARM BONE

FEMUR

UPPER LEG BONE

BASIC CONCEPTS OF BIOMECHANICS

Understanding the physiological responses in the human body helps teachers to apply the laws of biomechanics and physics to athletic performance. CSET candidates should be able to apply the principles of physics to physi- cal fitness as they relate to motion, gravity, and friction. Biomechanics contributes to the explanation and predic- tion of the mechanical characteristics of movement, exercise, play, and sports activities.

FITT GUIDELINES TYPE

What kind of activity is it? The type of activity describes the mode of activity. Most activities can be adapted to comply with the FITT model, so teachers should focus on activities that will help them achieve their desired instructional goals. All activities should include a warm-up, strength development, aerobic activity, and a cool-down.

EMPLOY EFFECTIVE TEACHING BEHAVIORS

When all is said and done, what matters most for students' learning are the commitments and capabilities of their teachers" (Darling-Hammond, 1997). Successful teachers have high expectations for every student and use effective teaching behaviors to ensure that every student achieves the grade-level or course-level standards. "Effective teaching behaviors" refers to the decisions that teachers make regarding the use of time and their interaction with students. Physical education teachers use research-based, effective teaching behaviors to support student learning. These include the following: plan- ning for every lesson; using time effectively; providing effective practice; providing positive specific or cor- rective feedback; keeping students engaged in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity at least fifty percent of the instructional time; keeping students engaged in academic learning; improving speed and accuracy; and applying motor learning concepts to instructional practices.

FITNESS ACTIVITY GUIDELINES

When assessing the guidelines for fitness activities, teachers should be aware that the natural patterns of move- ment in children and adolescents are different from those of adults. For example, during recess, children use basic aerobic and bone-strengthening activities, such as running, hopping, skipping, and jumping, to develop move- ment patterns and skills. They alternate brief periods of moderate and vigorous physical activity with brief peri- ods of rest. Any episode of moderate or vigorous physical activity, however brief, counts toward the daily recommendation of 60 minutes per day. Children also commonly increase muscle strength through unstructured activities that involve lifting or moving their body weight or working against resistance. Children don't usually follow or need formal muscle-strengthening programs, such as lifting weights.

object manipulation skills

are complex motor patterns that are basic to specialized sports and are performed with some kind of object (e.g., a ball or bat). Object manipulation requires hand-eye or foot-eye coordination, and thus requires developmentally appropriate gross and fine motor abilities. If children do not learn manipulation skills, they sometimes have difficulty developing mature patterns of movement (e.g., throwing or catching). Object manipulation is particularly valuable in hand-eye coordination as children learn to track objects in space. Early manipulative skills help form the foundation for many later sports activities. Primary-grade children can begin with throwing beanbags or large rubber balls, preparing them for upper-grade activities such as baseball or water polo. When preparing activities using object manipulation, it's important to identify the appropriate age-related physical development of the child before developing physical activities. Object manipulation skills include throw- ing, catching, kicking, and striking. The CSET short constructed-response questions may ask you to describe and give examples of how to perform basic object manipulation movements. The following table provides a brief description of some object manipulation movements along with basic instructional suggestions.

nonlocomotor skills

are often referred to as static movements because they are passive movements performed while standing in place. Movements are executed by twisting, turning in place, bending, swaying while moving toward or away from the body center, raising or lowering parts of the body, or stretching in place. These move- ments are important skills that lead to effective body management such as body control, flexibility, and balance. The range of movement is around the body's joints and surrounding muscles, and these movements are often used in activity warm-up exercises. The CSET short constructed-response questions may ask you to describe and give examples of how to perform basic nonlocomotor movements. The table that follows provides a brief descrip- tion of some nonlocomotor skills along with basic instructional suggestions.

locomotor skills

basic movement skills that are performed in different directions and at different speeds. They are dynamic movements that propel the body upward, forward, or backward. These movements are the foundation of gross motor coordination, involving large and small muscle movements. By the end of the second grade, students are expected to make smooth transitions between sequential locomotor skills; in the upper grades, they are expected to demonstrate more complex skills combining locomotor and manipulation skills (e.g., dribbling a basketball). There are many different combinations of movement patterns that can describe the type of locomotor skills: walking, running, jumping, skipping, leaping, galloping, and sliding. The CSET short constructed-response questions may ask you to describe and give examples of how to perform basic locomotor movements. The following table provides a brief description of some locomotor skills along with basic instruc- tional techniques.

COOL-DOWN

exercises are just as important as warm-up exercises. Current research indicates that cool-down activities (e.g., simple calisthenics, breathing exercises, and light walking) are as essential to preventing injuries as warm-up activities.

WARM UP

exercises involve muscles to be used during the physical activity. Try to isolate muscle groups and be sure to ask students not to overextend or bounce. A fitness activity always begins with a sufficient warm-up activity (e.g., light aerobics, calisthenics, walking, slow jogging, etc.).

ELEMENTS OF MOVEMENT

help teachers create dynamic and interesting fitness activities. A few examples of the movement elements of space, shape, time, force, flow, and rhythm are provided in the dance section of the Visual and Performing Arts review. When planning an activity, remember to include a logical progression of motor skills based on the increasing or decreasing degree of difficulty, give feedback and reinforcement to provide a sound basis for future activities, and include the ability to transfer previous learning of movement techniques to new skill areas.

exploring

instruction in the concepts of moving over, under, around, and through, and leading with certain body parts (e.g., "make a bridge with a partner and then have a third person go under the bridge"; "lead with your head when walking"; etc.).

PHYSICAL FITNESS

ncludes any activity with bodily movements that produce a contraction of skeletal muscles and increase energy through exercise, sports, dance, and other movement forms. Physical education programs, recesses, intramural sports programs, and athletic programs involve physical activity, but each serves a different purpose. Recess, intramural sports, and athletic programs provide opportunities for student learning but do not constitute standards-based physical education instruction. They are not a substitute for a high-quality physical education program. According to the Physical Education Framework for California Public Schools, all physical education instruction should do the following: -ESTABLISH A SAFE ENVIRONMENT - INCLUDE CLASS MANAGEMENT - EMPLOY EFFECTIVE TEACHING BEHAVIORS -TRANSFER LEARNING - ENCOURAGE PRACTICE

INSTRUCTIONAL COMPONENTS

provide students with step-by-step instruction as stated in the components of fitness, the FITT model, and the guidelines for developing a lesson.

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

provides students with a targeted activity (e.g., dribbling a basketball) along with modeling of the activity and verbal cues. In grades K-3 (see the Basic Station Activity example that follows), activities should be noncompetitive, and in grades 4-9, activities should be related to sports. All activities should be: ■ Safe ■ Enjoyable (promoting self-image) ■ Inclusive (active for all students) ■ Developmentally appropriate

Discussion and Evaluation

provides students with the needed feedback on activities that include proper body mechanics, sportsmanship, learning objectives, and social aspects of the activity.

NEWTONS THIRD LAW

states that if one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts an equal force on the first object but in the opposite direction. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. For example, when a baseball player uses a bat to hit a pitched ball, the force with which the bat hits the ball (and angle) causes the ball to move in an equal and opposite force and direction.

NEWTON'S FIRST LAW

states that when an object is in motion, it will remain in motion until there is an outside force that acts upon it. For example, when a basketball is thrown toward a basket, there can be a few outcomes. If the ball is thrown using very little strength, the effects of gravity (an outside force) will overcome the velocity of the ball and it will fall short of the basket. If the ball is thrown with too much strength, the ball will overcome the effects of gravity and hit the back board (another outside source) and change its direction.

NEWTONS SECOND LAW

states the relationship between an object's mass, acceleration, and applied force. Continuity of movement is responsible for producing the maximum force and velocity. To illustrate this concept of force, teachers can have upper-grade students sit in a chair while trying to throw a basketball into a hoop. Students should recognize their inability to follow through with motion. They should then ask the students to throw the basketball when standing up. The force of the entire body in motion should produce an accelerated velocity that results in a force-producing movement to achieve the desired result of the ball reaching the basketball hoop.

basic movement skills

undamental to physical education activities in elementary school. The concepts of body awareness as students perform locomotor, nonlocomotor, and manipulative skills (discussed next) help cre- ate safe and enjoyable activities in the classroom. In the early grades, K-2, teachers help students become aware of space, basic movement, effort, and cooperative activities. In the upper-elementary and middle grades, 3-9, the fundamental movement skills developed earlier are applied as activity-specific motor skills in a wide variety of settings. The classroom objectives are to increase competency in building motor control, motor skills, and move- ment patterns already established and refined in earlier grades.

LOCOMOTOR SKILLS GALLOPING

❏ Galloping is a forward directional movement. As the lead foot steps forward, the back foot steps up to meet the lead foot. ❏ Galloping movements can be taught by having the class hold hands and slide in a circle to a rhythmic beat. Shift this movement into having the children face the direction of the movement while continuing to slide. Alternate between large and small gallops.

LOCOMOTOR SKILLS JUMPING

❏ Jumping creates activity-specific muscle strength and agility. ❏ Jumping requires the body to leap with both feet and to land with both feet. Arms can be used to create an upward momentum and then to create a downward motion that helps balance the landing. Knees bend at the landing to act as shock absorbers. The order of impact is usually the balls of the feet followed by the heels. Ask children to "jump and touch the ceiling." ❏ Jumping incorporated into primary-grade activities helps children create patterns (e.g., jumping like a kangaroo, a frog, and a rabbit). Jumping incorporated into upper-level grades can be used in combination with sports and athletic activities (e.g., warm-up activities, gymnastics, basketball, etc.).

OBJECT MANIPULATION SKILLS KICKING

❏ Kicking is a striking action performed by the feet. ❏ Teachers should know several types of kicking: (1) Punt kicking is described as the ball being dropped from the hands and kicked before it touches the ground; (2) place kicking is described as placing the ball on the ground and kicking it from the stationary position; and (3) soccer kicking is a form of kicking that requires an extension of the hip to increase the range of motion. ❏ Instruction should include reducing the size of the projectile object as skill levels develop.

LOCOMOTOR SKILLS SKIPPING

❏ Skipping is a series of step-hops completed with alternate feet. ❏ Primary school children love to skip. To help them learn to skip, have them take a step and a small hop on the same foot and then ask them to shift to the other foot. Set a goal of smoothness and rhythm, rather than speed and distance.

LOCOMOTOR SKILLS SLIDING

❏ Sliding is accomplished by movement on one side of the body. It is a one-count movement; as the leading foot steps to the side, the other foot quickly follows. ❏ Sliding is done on the balls of the feet while shifting weight from the leading foot to the trailing foot. ❏ Teachers should have the children change direction so both sides of the body can practice. ❏ Sliding should be performed in a smooth and controlled manner, without bouncing.

OBJECT MANIPULATION SKILLS STRIKING

❏ Striking takes place when an object is hit with an implement such as a bat, a racket, or the hand. ❏ Striking involves movement of the body to create the force necessary for the maximum speed of the object. ❏ Instruction should include practice on stationary objects in primary grades before children can progress to moving objects. A good example of a stationary object is "T-ball," in which the ball is placed on a "T" stand and is struck.

OBJECT MANIPULATION SKILLS THROWING

❏ Throwing requires an object to be propelled into space. Movement force originates from flexing the hip and moving the shoulder forward while extending the elbow. With the coordinated body movement, the object accelerates into space with greater speed and velocity. ❏ Primary school children need to proceed through preliminary stages of tossing (e.g., beanbags, etc.) before entering the stages of throwing a ball with accuracy. In time and with practice, most children will develop a throwing skill pattern during grades three to five. ❏ Teachers should allow children to practice throwing a variety of objects that have varying weight and size. This helps the child to understand how different objects can travel at different velocities.

NONLOCOMOTOR SKILLS TWISTING

❏ Twisting is the rotation of a body part around its own long axis, such as turning the head on its neck or wrapping the arms around the body. ❏ Twisting is different from turning in that twisting involves movement around a body part, and the focal point of turning is on the space in which the body is moving. ❏ Twisting instruction should include asking children to twist as fully as is comfortably possible, and then to twist in the opposite direction while holding the supporting body parts steady.