Cults & NRM's Test #1

Where do the preconceived ideas of cults come from?

- Other established religious groups - Word of Mouth, rumors, ect. - The Mass Media

What are apocalyptic beliefs?

- Apocalyptic beliefs are prophecies about the ultimate end of history - A number of behavioral consequences logically follow from the belief that one is living in the end times: Conventional rules, norms and even laws b/c relative, preparation to deal w/ violent times and the persecution of the group by others, opponents are demonized, the world is viewed in dichotomous terms (good v. evil), instill a level of enthusiasm for the cause.

What are the three religious violence features of NRMs?

- Apocalyptic beliefs or at least world rejecting beliefs - Charismatic Leadership - Processes of social encapsulations that may lead to problems of symbolic boundary maintenance.

Why do ppl belong to groups?

- Born into a group - Compelled by authority to belong - Elect to join - Have a transformational experience

What are the sociological perspectives on cults?

- Cults are normal social organizations that are present in all cultures. - Cults are different than those from the past b/c the culture is different. - There is no evidence to support the proposition that they are different in ways that make them dangerous as claimed by adversaries. - Ppl join new religions for different reasons - Cult leaders do use techniques of social influence to manipulate members but these techniques are used very broadly in virtually all social groups. - All religions were new at some point. - Truth is often in the eye of the beholder.

What is role theory?

- Defection as a role exiting - Embracing an ex-status (Disengaging from a formally meaningful role and reestablishing identity in a new role.) - Role residual - "Hangover Identity" - "Guilt" for having abandoned a commitment - Societal Reactions - Shifting Friendship Networks

What are some traits of brainwashing?

- Irresistible - Undetectable - Irreversible

What is Charismatic Leadership?

- It is rooted in the perception that others have of the leader (leader is viewed as having exceptional powers or qualities) - It is non-institutionalized or anti-institutional - Chararismatic leadership is difficult to maintain (must maintain a balance b/w exposure and secrecy and they often practice segregation to maintain secrecy)

What are some critiques of the relative deprivation model?

- It often assumes that members have joined a NRM b/c they feel deprivation w/o testing to see if this is the case. - Does not cover the full range of factors that may contribute to joining a group. (Ex: pursuit of ultimate truth, join b/c of friends, ect.)

Who Joins cults?

- Many claim they have little if any previous religious background. - Many come from families who had little or no ties to religious faith. - Those who have friends in the cult or know someone who is sympathetic to the cult

What is social encapsulation?

- Means to be cut off from the outside social world - All social systems must: Receive and respond to feedback and maintain system boundaries (both symbolic (we are dif. than everyone else) and real (not letting ppl go)). - If they don't do the above then the interference w/ it can lead to dysfunction and violence. - Isolation often prevents NRMs from receiving feedback and heightens the threat they feel from incursions on their boundaries.

What are some criticisms of brainwashing?

- Most anti-cult literature lumps all NRM's together. - There seems to be an ideological bias when applying the thesis to NRMs - Logic and empirical data are absent when claiming that only the brainwashing could possibly believe the doctrines of some NRMs - The original theories of brainwashing contradict each other - Singer and others rely on anecdotal, not empirical proof. - Few, if any, studies suggest that any NRM has held members against their will or hurt them. - The anti-cult literature is distorted by sampling bias. - The anti-cult literature on conversions is largely dependent upon ex-cult members - NRM's suffer from low recruitment and high defection rates - Psychological traits like "suggestibility" are largely absent from members

What do we know based on research about NRMs?

- Recruitment and conversion to NRMs happens primarily through pre-existing social networks w/ family and friends. - Strong ties to others in the NRM are important for recruitment and retention. - Sustained intensive interaction is also important for retention. - Members who are heavily involved have fewer and weaker ties to non-members. - Members have fewer and weaker ideological alignments outside of the NRM (the unchurched are more likely to join). - Seekership precedes many conversions.

What are three major issues that impact validity of accounts ppl offer about their experiences? (Methodical Issues)

- Retrospective Reporting - One's past is constantly being reconstructed (retrospective accounts may be inaccurate) - Social and Organizational Factors influencing reconstruction (Leaving for one reason and thinking of another after a social/organizational influence (drawing perspective and interpretation from organizations/individuals w/ whom they are interacting.) Ex: A nun leaves b/c "the church wasn't responsive to demands for change." After going to a support group, it turns to "I needed space to grow.") - Temporal variability of accounts - Time may alter the way an ex-member feels about the group, time may also alter one's perception about how one felt at the time they left. Those who can't get on w/ their lives are more likely to harbor resentment and blame the group for their current situation.

The scientific study on NRMs suggests that members are not passive, but active...

- Sudden Conversions are rare - Many engage in some form of seekership before joining - Conversions are largely social - Converts are more thoughtful about their situation while in the NRM than previously believed - Converts Learn how to pass for a member before they join (they learn and play the convert role to explore the group in more detail)

What do we know about ppl who leave NRMs?

- The brainwashing model suggests leaving is difficult, successful exits require deprogramming. Psychological scars are generally inevitable. - The brainwashing model lacks empirical evidence, in fact, what we know is most ppl who join an NRM leave; most leave w/ in 2 years and by their own choice. Wright found that about 67% felt "wiser for the experience." - In fact, James Lewis studied 154 people who left NRMs and found they all left in different paths (involuntary exit counseling/voluntary exit counseling/on their own)

What conclusions were made about brainwashing?

- The use of Hypnosis or mind control are not supported - Aggressive propaganda combined with isolation, manipulated peer pressure, torture, or the threat of torture produce limited, but temporary, behavioral conformity.

Why study NRMs?

- They are seriously misunderstood - Religion is an important part of culture - All religions were new at one time - The question of religious liberty - The question of freedom in a pluralistic world

What are some social attributes of members?

- Typically in their 20s and 30s - Generally well educated - Generally from middle and upper social classes.

What is the brainwashing model?

- Used only by anti-cult movement - Religious Opposition/Secular Opposition/Apostates/Entrepreneurial Opposition - Presuppositions - Brainwashing is difficult to resist, it has powerful effects, leaders "program" those who they lured into the cult, reversing programming can only occur via deprogramming. - It involves deceptive measures (Drugs/Food and sleep deprivation/Hypnosis) - Once brainwashed the individual is enslaved and cannot act independently - Thus it is argued that conversion is not really a true commitment by a psudo-conversion.

How does the public typically view cults?

- We usually view cults in a negative way: "A cult is any group that I don't like." A cultist is a person: I would feel uncomfortable living next to, who should not have interaction w/ children. - It's also not based on first hand knowledge and is used to pre-judge. - There are a # of cults in society today - Cults are different today than those from the past - Leaders have hypnotic-like control over followers - Leaders are wealthy and live well at the expense of followers - Cults are dangerous to members and society

What does Religion Remain Relevant in the U. S. ?

1. Cultural Compatibility - Early churches emphasized self-government and voluntary affiliation. It fits well with cultural values about freedom of choice and individual initiation. 2. Social Identity - Churches help those who move around find a sense of community. 3. Disestablishment &n Competition - (Finke, Stark, and Bainbridge) - Separation of church and state ensures that no one religion or denomination is funded by the government. Thus, religious monopolies are prevented due to competition. This wasn't the case in many European countries. It creates an enviroment that encourages competition b/w churches b/c they have to adapt to meet the needs and wants of the "marketplace" - aka religious economy.

How do ppl start to exit NRMs? (Conceptual Defection)

1. Disaffection = Affective (Emotional Withdrawal/Deterioration of emotional bonds) This is almost always the first step to them leaving. 2. Disillusionment = Cognitive (Disbelief/Doubt/Withdrawal of moral authority of leaders) This could happen first, but not usually. 3. Disaffirmation = Social Organization (Severance of ties of membership)

What are the six strategies leaders use to maintain their charismatic authority?

1. Doctrines and policies might be changed suddenly 2. The leader might seek constant reaffirmation of loyalty 3. Opposition is demonized 4. Leaders often attack the teachings of competitors for authority 5. May test the loyalty of their followers, heighten the emotional dependence of followers, and separating couples or other close pairings to maintain control over members 6. Change the location of their group by moving it

What are the three types of millennial gps?

1. Fragile millennial group - initiate violence due to internal weaknesses and cultural opposition (the opposition maybe media or family). 2. Assaulted millennial group - are attacked by law enforcement agents b/c they are perceived as dangerous 3. Revolutionary millennial group - possess theologies of violence. (These are the most dangerous initially - will take arms up over ANYONE)

What are the six methods?

1. Historical Analysis 2. Cross-cultural analysis 3. Experimentation 4. Participant Observation 5. Survey Research 6. Content Analysis

What are the three things you should do when you find a cult?

1. Identify the ultimate concern. 2. Identify which group they are (apocolyptic/charasmatic leader/social encapsulation) 3. Identify which millennial group they are (fragile/assaulted/revolutionary)

What is the multidimensional model?

1. Instrumental Commitment - Sacrifice/Investment 2. Affective Commitment - Renunciation/Communion 3. Moral Commitment - Mortification/Transcendence

When are NRMs most likely to commit religious violence?

1. Members perceive that they are being persecuted by outside sources. 2. They perceive they are failing to achieve their ultimate concern.

What are the three social scientific models?

1. Multidimensional Model 2. Relative-Deprivation Model (Glock) 3. Process Model (Loftland & Stark)

What are the two views of secularization? Which is most accurate?

1. Old Paradigm - Peter Berger/Thomas Luckman Assumes religion has become an individual choice (privatization) and since we have been exposed to new cultures and new religions from which to choose, it will lead to the relativism of all religions. Thus, Secularization leads to the eventual decline of religion. 2. New Paradigm - R. Stephen Warner (later backed by Roger Finke, Rodney Stark, and William Bainbridge) Assumes secularization leads to religious revival (the process by which sects form to re-embrace the emotionalism at the roots of religion) or innovation (the emergence of NRM's as new religions with new beliefs and traditions). Most Accurate: Old Paradigm in Europe, BUT new Paradigm in U.S. where churches receive more money than any other charity, 90% of ppl say they believe in god, and membership has increased over the years.

What are the two principals?

1. Reliance on empirical data (touch,sight,smell,taste,sound) 2. Objectivity (unbiasedness)

What is brainwashing?

A process by which persona are involuntarily caused to adopt a belief system. The charge of brainwashing is primarily a way of discrediting NRMs by making them appear illegitimate and dangerous.

What is the substantive definition of religion? What is the problem with them?

A substantive definition is a definition in which is short and to the point. It's supposed to encapsulate the true meaning of the question. Both Edward Tyler and Emilie Durkheim came up with two different definitions. Tylers: "Belief in spiritual beings." Durkheim: "A unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things..which unite into a single moral community called a church...ect." Problem: They are too narrow and not all religions have a sacred things or a belief in spiritual beings.

How was brainwashing addressed? Who researched it? What did they find?

After the Korean war, the U.S. government commissioned four independent studies on brainwashing. One was a secret study by the CIA, the second never published. Two others were authored by Robert Lifton (believed that brainwashing was a far from precise meaning and of questionable usefulness) and Edgar Schein (Prefers to use the term "coercive persuasion" b/c they were coerced into allowing themselves to be persuaded.) All other sociologists/ Associations that have tried to study brainwashing find no evidence of it (Perry London/Professional Associations). Margaret Singer, a psychologist who studied it, tried to support it but never produced empirical data.

What is religion an expression of?

An Ultimate concern. The ultimate concern is the most important thing in the universe for an individual or groups.

What are the origins of brainwashing?

Brainwashing came about in the Korean War defections. The defections came from the Chinese using the methods of "thought reform" which they created to coerce conformity among their citizens. British Journalist Edward Hunter (a CIA operative) coined it "brainwashing".

What is the process of Church/Sect formation? What is the most important variable of it?

Churches - Cosmopolitan social networks that are not as dense. Members are higher in social status. Sects - Dense social networks, and members are predominately in the lower social status. The most important variable is social class: As the sect grows it attracts more members from higher social classes. These members are more likely to want trained leadership, intellectual teachings, ect. Eventually, class schism results b/w the upper and lower social classes. This leads to the lower class breaking off into a small sect and then the cycle repeats itself.

What is the difference between a church and sect? What are some examples of both?

Churches - Intellectualize religious teachings and restrain emotionalism in their services. Characterized by low degree of tension w/ society. They also have a tolerant attitude toward other religions, a traditional authority, a bureaucratic organization and an established membership. Examples would be United Church of Christ, Unitarian, Presbyterian and Methodist. Sects - Stress emotionalism and individual mystical experiences and tend toward fundamentalism. Sects are based on intense local networks. Characterized by high degree of tension with society. They also have an intolerant/rejecting attitude toward other religions, a charismatic authority, an informal type of organization, and an alienated membership. Examples would be Mormon, Jehovah's witness, and Quaker.

What is the symbolic definition of religion? What is the problem?

Clifford Geertz: "religion is 1. a system of symbols which acts to 2. establish powerful pervasive and long lasting moods and motivations in ppl by 3. formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and 4. clothing these conceptions which such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic." Problem: Not everything is necessarily communicated by symbols or in the way he presents it.

What is the first amendment?

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.

What is the church/sect theory?

H. Richard Niebuhr - Tried to explain why there was so many denominations. He distinguishes b/w two types of religious organizations: churches and sects.

Who were the Ebaughs?

Helen Rose and Stuart Wright Ebaugh studied the process of exiting religious groups including: - Catholic Women - Children of God - Moonies (Unification Church) - Hare Krishnas

What can identifying a gps ultimate concern do?

Identifying a groups' ultimate concern helps us understand how they might be motivated to commit violent acts.

What is the secularization thesis?

It suggests that as a society becomes more industrial and technological, religion is replaced by science.

What is the functional definition of religion? What is the problem?

Milton Yinger: "Religion can be defined as a system of beliefs and practices by means of which a gp of ppl struggles w/ the ultimate problems of human life." Problem: Too inclusive and general, this could refer to sports and sports are not a religion.

What is the working definition of religion?

Rodney Stark: "any socially organized pattern of beliefs and practices concerning ultimate meaning that assumes the existence of the supernatural."

What is the alternate view of secularization?

Some suggested that secularization leads to religions revival and or innovation and religion will NOT be replaced with science.

How did Stark/Bainbridge explain the church/sect theory?

Stark and Bainbridge took Niebuhrs theory and expanded it to religious economies. They argue that secularization creates the revivals/innovations.

What are critiques of the process model?

Testing of the theory has produced mixed results.

What movie brought brainwashing to the forefront?

The Manchurian Candidate (1962)

What are NRM's?

The beginning phase of an entirely new religion. Differs from sect in that sects attempt to purify or return to elements of an established religion.

What was the Deprivation model? What is the relative deprivation model?

The deprivation model suggests that ppl suffer some type of deprivation that motivated them to join a NRM (economic/social/psychological ect.). Members were assumed to be recruited from marginal segments of society and were often assumed to have some sort of pathology. However, in the 60's, members of the NRMs were well adjusted, came from middle and upper class families, and were highly educated. THUS, Glock came up with the relative deprivation model. The relative deprivation model suggests members only have to "believe" they are being deprived and that relative deprivation in some form is a necessary condition for the rise of an NRM.

Why join religious groups?

The most important reason ppl belong to a religious tradition is not that they convert but that they were born into the tradition. (throughout much of history, ones religion was the religion of the ruler - Roman empire b/c christian when the emperor embraced Christianity).

In the 60's and 70's, scientists stated religion would be taken over by science, were they right or wrong? What's the proof?

The scientists did notice that the largest established denominations were losing members (Christina Disciples likes 70% of their membership from 1940-1985). HOWEVER, they neglected to look at other non-mainline denominations (like the church of god which gained 260% more ppl during that time).

Why have NRM's emerged?

There are several theories: 1. NRM's as a response to Cultural Change - Change in values (1960s), Changes in social structure (the family), Changes in the role and character of religious institutions (Churches have declined in authority and influence) 2. NRMs as an expression of cultural continuity - (NRM's and american religious history - Feel that NRMs are simply part of a fourth great awakening; NRMs and the History of Religions - Point out that all religious borrow from others, adapt, and change)

What is the casual process model?

There is a crisis (a breakdown of isolation from outside hypocrisy of leadership, ect.). You then go through: - Review and Reflection - Disaffection - Withdrawal - Cognitive Transformation - Cognitive Reorganization

What are some stereotypes of NRM's - Which are actually true?

They are: - Young (TRUE) - Idealistic (TRUE) - Lonely (TRUE) - Impressionable - Gullible - Uneducated - Shy - Poor

What is the process model?

They have predisposing conditions like tension, religious problem solving perspective, and religious seekership. Situational Contingencies - Turing pt. in life, development of emotional bonds to NRM members, weakening of extracult bonds, intensive interaction.

Where are NRM's typically?

They typically arise in areas where sects and churches have failed to satisfy the religious market. (The unchurched belt in the western U. S.)

What is the process of "deprogramming" when talking about brainwashing?

Two Types: 1. Involuntary - Coercive: Member is abducted and taken to an isolated location (usually under false pretenses). The member is interrogated non-stop. The deprogrammer defames the group, the leadership, its beliefs, ect. 2. Voluntary - non-coercive: member agrees to participate and may "talk" about his/her faith rather than listen to deprogrammer the whole time. Deprogramming still occurs but courts have ruled on behalf of NRMs lately. Members who were forcibly abducted and then returned sometimes sued their abductors for kidnapping.

What is psychosocial disruption?

Two types: 1. Expulsion (B/c of insubordination, rule violations, indiv. is a burden to the group (incapacity to care for self, a real nerd) ect. They are removed from the group. 2. Extraction (Involuntarily/Voluntarily removed) - Example: family member gets involved and convinces them to come home and see someone/makes them come home and see someone.