Darwinism Exam 3

Cilia

Definition: Hairlike organelles on the surfaces of cells that serve to move fluid over cell's surface or help cells move through a fluid. Significance: Behe argues that cilia are irreducibly complex and therefore could not have evolved through natural selection, must have been intelligently designed.

Information Theory

Definition: Identifies the amount of information associated with, or generated by, the occurrence of an event (or realization of a state of affairs) with the reduction in uncertainty, the elimination of possibilities, represented by that event or state affairs. Significance:

Metaphysics

Catch-all term by which Popper designated all theories that are not empirically testable Is also a confusing category. Popper insisted that metaphysical doctrines are frequently meaningful and important. Although they cannot be tested scientifically, they can nonetheless be criticized, and reasons can be given for preferring one metaphysical opinion to another.

Michael Behe

Definition: American biochemist at Lehigh University, prominent advocate for intelligent design theory of the development of life. Significance: Explained the concept of irreducible complexity and argued that it makes evolution by natural selection impossible.

Engel v. Vitale (1962)

Definition: 1962 case where New York schools were sued for opening each day with non-denominational prayer, in which Supreme Court ruled that state-sponsored prayer in public schools was a violation of the establishment clause Significance: As a result, official prayers in public schools were banned, and this developed constitutional law regarding teaching evolutionary theory in public schools. Development of constitutional law on wall of separation issue New York state schools opened each day with a "non-denominational" prayer—"Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers and our country. Amen." A variety of groups sued--not only civil liberties groups, but Jewish groups. Supreme Court held that to make students hear a prayer over the public address system of their schools, or be in a class in which the teacher is leading a prayer, violates the "Establishment Clause" of the First Amendment. Therefore: no official prayers in public schools

Epperson v Arkansas (1968)

Definition: 1968 court case where the supreme court ruled the ban of the teaching of evolution and its replacement with non-scientific creation violated the first amendment's establishment clause. Significance: The Justices' ruling and opinion set a precedent over this issue and sowed the seeds of future troubles, showing that the courts recognize evolution as scientific. In 1968, the Arkansas legislature made it a crime to teach in a public school that humans have descended from a lower order of animals A unanimous Supreme Court held that the Arkansas law violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment by embodying a specific religious belief and prohibiting all others: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. . ." Susan Epperson, biology teacher at Little Rock Central High School, with the backing of the American Civil Liberties Union, the National Education Association, the Little Rock Ministerial Association, and at least one parent, filed suit in state court, asking that the law be enjoined from enforcement The state's power to determine the public schools' curriculum did not include the authority to ban the teaching of established scientific theory simply because it conflicted with a particular religious doctrine Arkansas state supreme court overturned the holding because public schools were a state institution, the law violated the no establishment of religion clause of the first amendment as applied to the states by fourteenth amendment, and the law was vague and therefore unconstitutional because it was a troubling precedent for the court to engage in the practice of telling states what they must put into or omit from their public school criteria. The Justices' opinion sowed the seeds of future troubles

Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971)

Definition: 1971 case where the Supreme Court struck down policies in two states that gave tax money to private religious schools; mostly Catholic. Significance: Propounded the Lemon Test which helped decide when the interaction of government and religion was Constitutional. Also significant because the courts have clearly reflected a secular, modern viewpoint. During the 1960s, the Supreme Court began to use the First and Fourteenth Amendments to foster a general secularization of government activity, especially in regard to the public schools The Court struck down policies in two states that gave tax money to private religious schools, most of which were Catholic; propounded the "Lemon Test" deciding when the interaction of government and religion was Constitutional/help decide whether a government action impinging on religion was Constitutional: a. The government's action must have a secular legislative purpose; b. The government's action must not have the primary effect of either advancing or inhibiting religion; c. The government's action must not result in an "excessive government entanglement" with religion. d. Stone v. Graham (1980): unconstitutional to post a copy of the Ten Commandments in a school e. A variety of other, similar rulings This sort of ruling convinced many fundamentalists that the courts had been captured by a Secular Humanist conspiracy

Wisconsin v Yoder 1972

Definition: 1972 supreme court decision upholding the rights of Amish and Mennonite parents to take their children out of public school system for religious reasons. Significance: Prindle argues that is confuses the jurisprudence of the first amendment in regard to public schools, and contradicts the secular tone of other court decisions. The two clauses can be confused and rendered non-operative when Justices decide to apply the third unwritten principle of parental rights Example of this is the Wisconsin v. Yoder case: Court majority ruled that Amish and Mennonities could ignore, for religious reasons, a state law requiring children to attend high school until they were sixteen. Law was intended to preserve children from harm because in the modern world a lack of education is likely to result in poor economic prospects. Was non discriminatory because it applied to all residents of the state equally. The two religious groups argued that modern secular high school was contrary to their religion/way of life, and that forcing children to attend such institution might endanger their own salvation and that of their children Supreme court agreed, ruling the state had failed to show that it had a compelling interest in shepherding its young citizens through education beyond eighth grade, therefore interests of the parents in preserving religiously-motivated lifestyle must be respected Significance: Useful in illustrating sorts of problems that various principles invoked in the free-exercise debate do not solve. Attracted criticism and its hybrid rights approach has been rejected as unworkable by lower courts. If some parents have the right to protect their children from effects of modernist knowledge, then all should have the same right

Stone v. Graham 1980

Definition: 1980 case where the court ruled that it is unconstitutional to post a copy of the 10 commandments in a school Sign: An aftermath of the supreme court using the first and fourteenth amendments to foster a general secularization of government activity in regard to public schools

Edwards v. Aguillard (1987)

Definition: 1987 case where supreme court ruled Louisiana law requiring public schools to teach both creationism and evolution as unconstitutional. Significance: Sets a precedent for future cases over this issue as the courts embrace evolution as a scientific theory, and does not elevate creationism to the same scientific level. In 1981, the legislature of Louisiana passed a law (Balanced Treatment for Creation-Science and Evolution-Science Act) mandating that if either Darwinism or creationism was taught in the public schools, then both had to be taught Specifically stated that its purpose was to protect the academic freedom of biology teachers who might want to present an alternative scientific viewpoint to the orthodox one, and had forbidden school boards to discriminate against such teachers. Also stated that its intention was to protect freedom of students who might want to avoid indoctrination In Edwards v. Aguillard 1987, the Supreme Court held 7-2 that the law was unconstitutional. The Court majority held that the purpose of the law was to discredit a scientific theory (evolutionary biology) by making it appear that creationism had equal scientific standing This case was noteworthy for its lack of innovation Justices regarded the Louisiana legislature's announcement of a secular purpose as a sham, an attempt to hide its real purpose of giving an advantage to a theory that rejects factual basis of evolution in its entirety and embodies religious belief that supernatural creator was responsible for the creation of humankind Therefore the act furthers religion in violation of the establishment clause

Tammy Kitzmiller v Dover Area School District

Definition: 2005 case where federal judge ruled it unconstitutional for Pennsylvania's policy to require public schools to read statements warning that evolutionary theory was controversial and encouraging alternatives such as ID because it tried to sneak religion into the classroom. Significance: The court has continuously upheld evolution as a legitimate scientific theory. In 2004, the township of Dover, Pennsylvania adopted a policy for the public schools that, in ninth-grade biology classes (the grade in which students were taught about the theory of natural selection), before the class started teachers were to read a statement warning the students that the theory was controversial, and that there were available alternatives, including the theory of "Intelligent Design"; some parents immediately took the school district to court In Tammy Kitzmiller, et al v. Dover Area School District, et al (2005), a federal judge held that the policy was unconstitutional "Intelligent Design" is a religious, not scientific doctrine; creationism under another name The proponents of ID try to say that their goal is to teach "the controversy". Dover school board members testified that their motivation in requiring teachers to read the disclaimer was to offer another scientific choice to the students, not to urge a religious perspective upon them. Among the witnesses was Michael Behe. The criticisms of the theory of natural selection by ID have been refuted by the scientific community Witnesses and lawyers for the plaintiffs argued that ID was disguised as Christian creationism, along the witnesses was Kenneth Miller, a Brown University biologist who was active in opposing ID in several venues Judge Jones evaluation of ID: "This tactic is at best disingenuous, and at worst a canard. The goal of the IDM is not to encourage critical thought, but to foment a revolution which would supplant evolutionary theory with ID." The fact that the Dover school board's disclaimer intended to be read to students before class not only disavowed the normal scientific curriculum but recommended a nonscientific alternative implied board approval of religious principles. To offer iD as a legitimate alternative to Darwinism was to violate the Lemon test by advancing religion. Therefore the school board's action violated the first amendment/establishment clause as it constituted an attempt to establish religion. The court has continuously upheld evolution as a legitimate scientific theory. Most of the media commentary that followed these two analyses of the Dover elections focused on their shocking mean-spiritedness and their medieval belief that God might punish election outcomes with natural disasters. If ID was science, why would God punish its lack of appearance in public school curriculum?

Abington School District v. Schempp (1963)

Definition: A 1963 case where the court ruled that reading the Bible over the school intercom is unconstitutional Significance: An example/aftermath of the courts using first and fourteenth amendments to go modernist, this sort of ruling convinced many fundamentalists that the courts had been captured by a Secular Humanist conspiracy The Fourteenth Amendment, passed in 1868, was intended to guarantee the rights of citizenship to the slaves emancipated by the Civil War; what it did, more or less, was apply the Bill of Rights to the states During the 1960s, the Supreme Court began to use the First and Fourteenth Amendments to foster a general secularization of government activity, especially in regard to the public schools

Designometer

Definition: A hypothetical instrument that measures the design in a particular organism. Significance: Science insists that theories be subject to measurement and testing. Prindle argues that there are many examples of device machines that can detect things we cannot detect with our own senses, if ID can come up with a similar device that detects design force, they would become scientific. An "Intelligent Designer" is not, in principle, beyond an empirical approach, just because he or it is invisible 1. Scientists have invented many devices that can measure invisible forces a. Geiger counter—measures radioactive energy b. EMF meters measure electromagnetic fields c. Spectrometer—measures the various wavelengths of light So, all ID people have to do to make ID scientific is invent a device that measures the force of their Designer that is empirically valid; their ideas would then become scientifically valid Argue that their theory, though is invisible, can be true because there are other scientific things that are invisible Significance: Prindle argues ID is lacking such a measurement of design. Without empirical scale for evidence, ID is not the scientific theory it purports to be. Since science has come up with a variety of measuring devices, partisans of intelligent design should try to come up with a measuring tool to measure the invisible design force they say is there. If they could do that then ID would truly become scientific.

Ambulocetus

Definition: A mammal that lived about 50 million years ago, critical transitional creature between land and marine animals. Significance: Coyne uses this and other organisms to refute creationists who use argument that such transition creatures could have not existed. As a transitional species, it is empirical evidence that supports the theory of evolution, and counters Michael Denton's/creationists' argument against Darwinism that there are no examples of fossils to illustrate transition between land and aquatic animals. Mentioned in Coyne's Why Evolution is True Gould quotes authors of scientific report in stating that Ambulocetus represents a critical intermediate between land mammals and marine cetaceans. From available evidence, this statement would appear accurate. Creationists' hypothesis is thus disconfirmed. Paleontologists were looking for a partial fossil of the oldest whale in river sediments bordering ancient lake in Pakistan. Four more partial skeletons unearthed, providing further example of creature more advanced on the road to whaledom (and countering Michael Denton's/creationists' argument against Darwinism that there are no examples of fossils to illustrate transition between land and aquatic animals) One of the partial skeletons, Ambulocetus natans, Gould wrote was so close to our expectations for a transitional form

PDE10A

Definition: A mutant gene that leads to enlarged spleens. Melissa Ilardo predicted the Bajau may have obtained their diving skills through evolved adaptation, then observed and concluded with empirical evidence that divers with PDE10A live longer and have more children who spread the mutation through the population. Significance: Provides empirical evidence for natural selection/evolutionary theory. Predicting human physiology using the theory of evolution - Carl Zimmer A group of people living in Indonesia, Malaya, and the Philippines, known as the Bajau, live virtually all their lives either on or under water, Traditionally made a living as divers, spearfishing or harvesting shellfish; can hold their breath for many minutes; have been observed walking on the sea floor in 200 feet of water. In 2015, Melissa Ilardo, a grad student in genetics at the U of Copenhagen, began to wonder about whether such abilities might be an evolved adaptation. In other words, she used the theory of sociobiology: better divers were more successful in having children, and therefore, genes that enabled better diving spread through the population. When humans (or any mammal) dive, their spleen contracts, squirting extra oxygen-rich red blood cells into the circulation system. Ilardo predicted that the Bajau would have unusually large spleens, to supply an unusually large number of red blood cells. She tested them, and they did. BUT, suppose the enlarged spleens were the result of the deep diving, rather than the other way around? (As exercise makes muscles bigger) So she predicted that the non-diving members of the Bajau (teachers, shopkeepers) would also have large spleens; she tested them, and they did She then predicted that the Bajau would have a genetic mutation not present in other peoples; she did genetic tests, and discovered that they had a mutant gene called PDE10A, which (further tests established), leads to enlarged spleens. So, her theory was 1. Deep-diving is risky 2. Divers who are able to stay down longer, live longer 3. Divers who have the mutant PDE10A gene have bigger spleens, which produce more red blood cells, which enable them to survive deep dives 4. So the divers with that mutation live longer and have more children, and therefore the mutation spreads through the population

Recurrent laryngeal nerve

Definition: A nerve that helps us speak and swallow, and is longer than it needs to be which makes it more prone to injury. Significance: Indirect path of this nerve is used as an example of a bad design/imperfection to reject creationism since it can only be understood as the product of our evolution from ancestors having different bodies. Mentioned in Coyne's Why Evolution is True: Perfect design is an illusion Perfect design implies skilled and intelligent designer, things should not have such imperfections if they were built from scratch by a designer. Recurrent laryngeal nerve of mammals was used as an example of why perfect design is an illusion/example of bad design - This nerve helps us speak and swallow - Much longer than it needs to be - Might even be maladaptive - Extra length makes it more prone to injury, can be damaged by blow to the chest and making it hard to talk/swallow - Pathway makes sense when we understand how it evolved; descends from branchial arches of our fishlike ancestors - In early fishlike embryos the nerve runs from top to bottom alongside the blood vessel of the sixth branchial arch, helping them pump water by connecting the brain to the gills - To keep up with our backward evolution of the aorta, the nerve had to become long and recurrent - As embryos we begin with ancestral fishlike pattern of nerves and blood vessels Significance: Indirect path of this nerve does not reflect intelligent design but can be understood only as the product of our evolution from ancestors having very different bodies. Particular bad designs we see makes sense only if they evolved from features of earlier ancestors

Secular Humanism

Definition: A pejorative label used by creationists to criticize modernism, and believed by fundamentalists to be a Satanic conspiracy against Christian culture as it wrapped up all the objectionable aspects of modernism. Significance: Evolutionary biology/Darwinism stems from part of a large modernist conspiracy against Christianity Fundamentalists saw this as a threat to national and personal virtue in preparation for the triumph of Antichrist, believed it must be fought and opposed. The belief that moral standards do not require religious justification. Through the twentieth century, American fundamentalists developed a critique of modernism, which they termed "Secular Humanism" Secular Humanism wrapped up all the objectionable aspects of modernism into a giant conspiracy against Christian culture Throughout the decade social conservative leaders largely in the South fashioned a political movement that deemed all modernist intellectual trends since Darwin as a great Satanic plot, generally labeled as Secular Humanism

Cambrian explosion

Definition: A period of time that occurred 600 million years ago where nearly all animal phyla appear in the rocks. Significance: Johnson argues that lack of fossil evidence for the existence of intermediate forms—which Darwin predicted pre-Cambria would have—in this period suggests evolution cannot be true. Therefore, it is Darwinism's greatest problem that fossil records pose. Mentioned in Johnson's Darwin on Trial In Darwin's time there was no evidence for the existence of pre-Cambrian life, he conceded in Origin of Species that if his theory was true, the pre-Cambrian world must have swarmed with living creatures. Darwinist theory requires there have been very lengthy sets of intermediate forms between unicellular organisms and animals like insects, worms, and clams. Evidence is missing for this. Single greatest problem which the fossil record poses for Darwinism is the Cambrian explosion of around 600 million years ago. Nearly all animal phyla appear in the rocks of this period without trace of evolutionary ancestors that Darwinists require. These original Cambrian groups have no visible evolutionary history and the artifact theory which would supply such a history has to be discarded

Retrodiction

Definition: A scientific prediction of something that will be discovered to have happened in the past. Significance: Prindle responds to Johnson's argument that evolution cannot be empirically tested by providing countless examples of empirical tests, retrodiction, and evidence about the retrodiction of evolution, therefore making evolution a reliable and testable scientific theory. If a theory generates a hypothesis about something that happened in the past, and an investigator can go find evidence about that something, then the test is just as good as if the prediction had been made about the future Very important in evaluating theories about the history of life

Modernism

Definition: A term used by scholars to refer to the era in the history of Europe and the Americas since the 19th century, generally characterized by a secular society, especially the separation of church and state, and the rise of science Significance: Created modern dichotomy between Darwinism and Creationism. Through the twentieth century, American fundamentalists developed a critique of modernism, which they termed "Secular Humanism" The movement toward a more secular society, or one independent of religious influence, during the 15th century. This is significant because it allowed for the modern dichotomy between Darwinism and Creationism.

Provisionally true

Definition: A theory that has many derived hypotheses confirmed by evidence is said to be provisionally true. Significance: Using provisionally admits that evidence might come along in the future that disproves the theory. In science, no theory is ever finally proven to be true; but a theory that has many derived hypotheses confirmed by evidence is said to be "provisionally true". Scientists do this because scientists believed Newton's theory until Einstein came along.

William Dembski

Definition: American philosopher and one of the leaders of intelligent design movement. Wrote about Complex Specified Information and how it proves that there is a creator. Significance: Argued that because natural systems cannot create CSI and because CSI is found in all life, is created by design. Claimed that natural processes cannot assemble systems of information, only an intelligent power can create more information than there was before. Instead of making predictions and running tests, ID people write essays complaining about the standards of science, and demanding that they be allowed to bring in supernatural, unmeasurable concepts. William Dembski and his Intelligent Design reading was an example.

First Amendment

Definition: An article from the 1791 Bill of Rights that states no laws can be made favoring a religion and that public money cannot be used to support a denomination. Significance: One of the first politically documented statements embodying secularism The first amendment applied only to the federal government, since the supreme court began to incorporate the bill of rights under the 14th amendment in 1925, most of the doctrines that have applied to the federal government pertain equally to the states

Seymour Island

Definition: An island off the Antarctic Peninsula where scientists discovered dozens of species of marsupials Significance: Used as empirical evidence supporting the convergent evolutionary hypothesis that species who live in similar habitats will experience similar selection pressures from their environment, so they may evolve similar adaptions, coming to look and behave very much alike even though unrelated If animals were specially created, why would the creator produce on different continents fundamentally different animals that nevertheless look and act so much alike? It is not that marsupials are inherently superior to placentals in Australia, because introduced placental mammals have done very well there. Marsupial and placental mammals: Two groups show important anatomical differences but are similar How did the marsupials get to Australia? - Earliest fossils around 80 million years old found in North America instead - As marsupials evolved they spread southward, reaching tip of South America - Made it to Australia 10 million years later where they began diversifying into the two hundred odd species that live there today How did they cross the South Atlantic? - It didn't exist yet - At the time of marsupial invasion, SA and Australia were joined, landmass had already begum to break apart to form Atlantic Ocean - Since they had to go overland from SA to Australia, they must have passed Antarctica, so we can predict there should be fossil marsupials on Antarctica dating between 30-40mil years ago Scientists discovered more than a dozen species of marsupials unearthed on Seymour Island, off Antarctic Peninsula Significance: Strong example used to back up evolutionary claim that as organisms disperse and successfully colonize a new area, they often evolve, explain the pattern by invoking convergent evolution

Teaching Science

Definition: Booklet written by the ASA and mailed to schoolteachers to encourage open-mindedness regarding questions on whether life arose by chance, how the first animals could have evolved in the Cambrian explosion, and how human intelligence and upright posture evolved. Significance: Johnson claims negative and dogmatic reaction from Darwinists makes their cause less appealing. Mentioned by Johnson's in Darwin on Trial Booklet by the ASA and National Academy made to encourage open-mindedness, especially on open questions as whether life really arose by chance, how the first animals could have evolved in the Cambrian explosion, and how human intelligence and upright posture evolved. ASA members who wrote Teaching Science expected most scientists would welcome their contribution as a corrective to the overconfidence that evolutionary science tends to project when trying to persuade public not to entertain any doubts. Retribution: Journal called The Science Teacher was published by nine prominent scientists (incl. Gould, Futuyma, Eldredge, and Sarich) which heavily condemned Teaching Science. Called ASA deceitful creationist front which disguises its biblical literalist agenda under a pretense of scientific objectivity.

Trinidad guppies

Definition: David Resnick observed that guppies breeding at the lower end of stream with high predation were younger and smaller. Tested hypothesis by moving guppies in upper stream to lower and vice versa, showing their mating behaviors changed as a result of evolution to predators. Significance: Example of biologist testing out predictions of evolutionary theory where results supported the predictions. David Reznick: DR is professor of biology at UC Riverside; studies animal behavior (so he is a sociobiologist, although not one who studies humans) According to this theory, natural selection can do seemingly counterintuitive things. It can favor the evolution of a shorter life span or the production of fewer young, providing that there are appropriate trade-offs at other stages of the life history. To test the theory, he studied guppies (small fish) living in freshwater streams on the island of Trinidad in the Caribbean. Prediction: Guppies that live in the lower reaches of streams with many predators should suffer higher mortality rates than guppies that live in the headwater streams, where most predators are absent. If this is true, then life history theory predicts that, in sections of the streams with predators, natural selection will favor those individuals that attain maturity at an earlier age and devote a bigger slice of their pie to making babies. Comparisons of populations from these two types of localities showed that guppies in nature do indeed differ from one another as theory predicts. The guppies from localities with high predation were smaller and presumably younger when they began to reproduce. Reznik moved guppies around, and changed their environments, to see if they would evolve in the direction that theory predicted; They did— "When guppies were transplanted from a high predation site to a previously guppy-free low predation site, they evolved a later age of maturity and a lower rate of investment of resources into making babies, relative to the guppies from the control site. Likewise, when predators were introduced, guppies evolved earlier ages at maturity.

CSI: Complex Specified informations

Definition: Dembski argues CSI is an indicator of design, that is if you find anything that has both complex and specified information, you have something that has been designed by definition. Significance: Because natural systems cannot create CSI and because CSI is found in all life, Dembski argues that organisms must have been intelligently designed.

Epigenetics

Definition: Genetic changes that come from outside the genome, in the environment, make changes in the genome, and are inherited. Significance: Many modern biologists now accept the truth of epigenetics, showing us that the theory of evolution evolves as a result of theoretical criticism and empirical research by scientists, not the result of biology adopting conclusions from creationism. Especially, modern biologists have more and more been rejecting the "Central Dogma," that information only flows outward from the genes; nothing that happens in the environment effects the genes. Many modern biologists now accept the truth of epigenetics

Molecular Machines

Definition: Groups of multiple proteins that carry out a particular function. Significance: Michael Behe uses examples of molecular machines to explain irreducible complexity and argue against natural selection Proteins are components of larger molecular machines—many proteins are part of structures that only function when virtually all of the components have been assembled

Irreducible complexity

Definition: Described by Behe as a single system composed of several interacting parts that contribute to a basic function, which will cease functioning if any part is removed. Significance: Intelligent Design advocates use this as an argument against evolution, claiming irreducible complexity implies that any precursors could not have existed because they are nonfunctional since they are incomplete. - A single system which is composed of several interacting parts that contribute to the basic function, and where the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to effectively cease functioning. Significance: ID advocates claim that an irreducibly complex system cannot be produced directly by slight, successive modification of a precursor system, since any precursor to an irreducibly complex system is by definition nonfunctional. This is significant because ID advocates claim that this means functional precursors/ancestors could not have existed, making evolution impossible. So it is an argument against evolutionary theory. Since natural selection requires a function to select, an irreducibly complex biological system, if there is such a thing, would have to arise as an integrated unit for natural selection to have anything to act on. Such a sudden event would be incompatible with the gradualism Darwin envisioned. An irreducibly complex system could not have arisen gradually, a step at a time, because the system would have been nonfunctional until it was complete. Only a supernatural creator could produce a system all at once. Ex in Behe reading: A common mousetrap, which will not function if one of its parts is removed

Tiktaalik roseae

Definition: Discovered in 2004 by Neil Shubin as the first transitional species between fish and amphibians. Tells us a lot about how vertebrates came to live on the land. Significance: A vindication of the theory of evolution because it is one of the greatest fulfilled predictions of evolutionary biology; predicting that a fossil like it would be in that particular location. Was found as a result of a prediction that a fossil like it would be in a particular location. Shows that evolution is predictable and observable, and was a vindication of the theory of evolution, consequently, evolutionary theory is scientific.

Texas State Republican Platform

Definition: Document by state party that calls directly or indirectly for the teaching of intelligent design along with evolution in classrooms Significance: Paved the way for evolution to be seen as consisting of modern demons and thus part of the American party value Over the last four decades or so, the Republican party, especially in the South, at the level of the party activists, has been taken over by social conservatives, esp. fundamentalist Christians—they are anti-evolution 2014: We support objective teaching and equal treatment of all sides of scientific theories. We believe theories such as life origins and environmental change should be taught as challengeable scientific theories subject to change as new data is produced. Teachers and students should be able to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of these theories openly and without fear of retribution or discrimination of any kind. 2018: Controversial Theories - "We support objective teaching of scientific theories. . .These should be taught as challengeable scientific theories subject to change as new data is produced."

Karl Popper

Definition: Famous philosopher who created falsifiability theory to distinguish science from other intellectual pursuits and argued that in order for a theory to be scientific, it must go through tests that it could fail. Significance: Creationists cited Popper to support their belief that Darwinism is not a scientific theory. Johnson uses Popper to argue that you cannot falsify natural selection. Wrote that Darwinism is not a scientific theory because natural selection is an all purpose explanation which can account for anything and therefore explains nothing. Backed away from this position after Darwinist protests Views natural selection as a tautology: Natural selection states that fittest individuals in a population (defined as those which leave most offspring) will leave most offspring Creationists and Darwinist critics cited Popper to support their contention that Darwinism is not a scientific theory. Critics raising tautology claim were told they where unable to understand Darwinism. Popper thought that theory/hypothesis was scientific only to the extent that it was in principle capable of being shown to be false through empirical testing. Problem with this criterion: Impossible to test every important scientific proposition in isolation Provides indispensable starting point for understanding difference btwn science and pseudoscience. Saw that a theory that appears to explain everything actually explains nothing. Believed a theory with geneuine explanatory power makes risky predictions which exclude most possible outcomes. Set out to answer what science is and how it differs from philosophy or religion. Proposed the falsifiability criterion as a test for distinguishing science from other intellectual pursuits.

Lucy

Definition: Female transitional form between humans and ancient apes whose pelvis resembles modern humans more than modern chimps and walked on two legs, discovered by Donald Johanson. Significance: Fossil record of our evolution, shows our upright posture evolved long before our big brain did, proves our common ancestor with great apes lived more recently than our other common ancestors Darwin asserted not only that human shad evolved from apelike creatures but did so in Africa Dart's 1924 discovery of Taungs child set off hunt for human ancestors in Africa. Donald Johanson, American paleoanthropologist, prospected fossils in the Afar of Ethiopia and spotted bones of a single individual known as Lucy.

Genesis Flood

Definition: First effort to make creationism scientifically. A book published in 1961 that claimed all fossils on Earth were laid down by and a product of Noah's flood. Significance: It was the origin of the intelligent design movement because intelligent design tried to make creationism scientific. American fundamentalists fretted about the advance of Secular Humanism into the 1960s, and gradually came up with a counter-strategy to Darwinism: make creationism scientific The Genesis Flood, a book, was an effort to make creationism scientific. 1961 by John Whitcomb and Henry Morris in which the authors tried to say that all the fossils in the world and other evidence of extinct organisms were the result of Noah's flood/all fossils were laid down during the flood. Origin of intelligent design movement. "...all land animals in the world today have descended from those which were in the Ark." Significance: In the half century after this book, there has been many books, articles and documentaries, all trying to disprove Darwinism by means of a variety of arguments, and show that scientific evidence proves that the creation account in Genesis is accurate

Actualization-Exclusion-Specification

Definition: General criteria for detecting intelligence. Significance: Dembski's uses this to argue that because organisms satisfy the AES criterium, intelligent design and not natural selection explains their existence. An attempt to make creationism scientific.

Lactose intolerance

Definition: Loss in ability to digest lactose after weaning, making us more prone to diarrhea, bloating, and cramps after eating dairy product. Probably result of natural selection Significance: Used as empirical evidence of gene-culture coevolution and natural selection because those who can tolerate lactose were more reproductively successful when cows' milk became rich new source of food We have an enzyme called lactase that breaks down lactose into more easily absorbed sugars. We are born with the ability to digest milk but gradually stop producing lactase. Selection has produced intriguing differences between populations within ethnic groups Evolution of lactose tolerance is an example of gene-culture coevolution Cultural change: Raising of cows, perhaps for meat, produced new evolutionary opportunity—ability to use those cows for milk. Sudden availability of a rich new source of food resulted in ancestors possessing the tolerance gene to have reproductive advance over those carrying intolerant gene. Lactase persistance found mainly in populations that were/are pastoralists (populations who raise cows) like Europe, ME, and Masai & Tutsi African populations

Rhagoletis pomonella

Definition: Maggot fly that moved from living and breeding on hawthorns to apple trees. Two races of one species now eat and mate on different plants during different seasons, consisting of two slightly different gene pools. Process of speciation Significance: Prindle's example to counter Philip Johnson's contention that we have never seen an example of speciation in the wild. Empirical evidence against creationist claim that modern evolutionary biologists have not observed a single new species born in nature. Other name: Apple maggot fly Used to live and breed exclusively on Hudson River Valley's hawthorns, but then apple trees were introduced into the valley and farmers soon discovered some of the flies laid their eggs on apple trees. Maggots became serious pest. Two races of one species now not only eat and mate on different plants, but during different seasons. Conclusion: While two races once consisted of a single interbreeding gene pool, they now consist of two slightly different gene pool whose individuals are no longer interbreeding Significance: With reasonable inferences from observable processes, we can confirm the notion that species are transforming into other species in their natural state before our eyes. Counters the creationist claim that modern evolutionary biologists have not been able to produce a single new species in the laboratory or observe a single new species being born in nature.

Michael Denton

Definition: Molecular biologist who wrote a book disproving Darwinism arguing that biochemical evidence does not support theory that all animals are related to one another or share a common ancestor. Also argued there were no examples of transitional fossils between land and aquatic animals. Significance: Was disproven by the discovery of intermediate fossil between land and marine animals: Ambulocetus.

Madagascar hawk moths

Definition: Moths with an 11inch tongue that can fertilize an orchid growing in Madagascar, Angraecum sesquipedale, with an equally long part. Darwin predicted such a moth that can fertilize that orchid would be discovered. Weren't found until after his death. Significance: This shows that evolution is scientific because it came to a reliable conclusion by empirically observing and testing its predictions. In 1862 Darwin wrote a book entitled The Fertilization of Orchids. His thesis in this book was that because orchids are pollinated by insects, the two types of organism have co-evolved. The purpose of having a certain shape, color, and odor, from the point of view of the orchid, is to trick certain insects into coming to eat nectar, and thereby pollinating the plant. The purpose of having a certain body type and behavior, from the point of view of the insect, is to be able to gather food from the plant. - Darwin discussed many different types of orchids, and the many different types of moths, and the way that each "fit" the other for mutual benefit He discussed one particular orchid growing on the island of Madagascar, Angraecum sesquipedale, the flower of which is tube-shaped and eleven inches long. At the time, how this flower was pollinated was unknown. Darwin predicted in his orchid book that a moth would be discovered with a tongue between ten and eleven inches in length, and it would be discovered that that moth pollinated that orchid. In 1903, twenty-one years after Darwin's death, the moth was discovered..

Secular

Definition: Non-religious or independent of religious influence; this does not mean anti-religious Significance: Church and state began to be separate in politics, Science began to erode the religious worldview, Scientists decide that they do not need to include God in their researches This is significant because it allowed for the modern dichotomy between Darwinism and Creationism.

Establishment Clause

Definition: One of the two clauses contained in the first amendment stating that Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, goes back to a letter written by Thomas Jefferson. Significance: American jurisprudence derived from both the establishment and free exercise clause, these clauses were referenced and determined rulings in cases regarding the teaching of evolutionary theory. First Amendment to the Constitution contains two clauses addressing issues of state-sponsored prayer in public schools - Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion (establishment clause) - Or prohibiting the free exercise thereof (free exercise clause) Ex: In case of Engel v Vitale, US Supreme Court decreed that state sponsored prayer in public school was a violation of the establishment clause, therefore forbidden Ex: In case of Edward v Aguillard, 7/2 majority ruled Louisiana's legislature's announcement of a secular purpose was a shame and attempt to hide real purpose of giving advantage to theory that rejects factual basis of evolution in its entirety and embodies religious belief that supernatural creator was responsible for creation of humankind, therefore the act furthers religion in violation of establishment clause This clause goes back to a letter written by Thomas Jefferson: Legislature should make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, thus building a wall of separation between church and state

Naturalism

Definition: The avoiding of magical, unmeasurable forces and entities in the investigation of nature; one of the methodological foundations of modern science Significance: Prindle argued that theories that rely on magic are contrary to science, and intelligent design does not use naturalism and instead embraces magical, unmeasurable entities, therefore it cannot scientific as ID advocates purport. A fundamental principle of science. Intelligent Design advocates argue that whereas orthodox science is based on naturalism, real science should permit appeal to supernatural forces and entities. Naturalism is a metaphysical assumption, no better than any other, and especially no better than supernatural assumptions

The fitter, not the fittest

Definition: Phrase by Coyne that meant that natural selection and evolution produce the best they can do—or improvements—with what it has to work with and that evolution builds new species starting with the design of its ancestors Significance: Coyne argues imperfections can only be explained by natural selection, not creationism. Mentioned in Coyne's Why Evolution is True Means that natural selection and evolution produces the best it can do with what it has to work with Ex: African rhinos have two horns which is great for defending itself from predators. However, Indian rhinos only have one horn but that is better than a rhino with no horn. Doesn't seem intelligent to design millions of species that are destined to go extinct and then replace them with other, similar species most of which will vanish Mutations are changes in traits that already exist; almost never create brand new features This means evolution must build new species starting with the design of its ancestors

Wall of Separation

Definition: Phrase expressing the views of some of the founders, especially Jefferson, that it is improper for the government to endorse or support religion in any way applied in the establishment clause of the first amendment, creates a legal document that public schools may not advocate religious views. Significance: Legal bases for many court decisions forbidding creationism in public schools. Modern Politics of Evolution Lecture: Separation of religion and government by law and interpretation a. The position, associated most strongly with the Founders Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, is that it is improper for government to endorse or support religion in any way; government should not be hostile to religion, but it should not help or encourage religion in any way; this is probably the dominant view, although it is strongly challenged (the phrase was used by Jefferson several times); in this view, the "no establishment of religion" clause of the First Amendment means that public schools may not aid or advocate any particular religious view The way that the supreme court has written a principle about how to decide the relationship between government and religion. Jefferson wrote a letter, where he used the phrase "wall of separation", meaning you can't teach religion in public schools. The bottom line on the development of Constitutional thought in this area is that the dominant strain of thinking holds that American public schools should be secular—not hostile to religion, but ignoring of religious points of view

But God guided the process

Definition: Prindle's public opinion survey regarding evolution concluded that the percentage of people willing to admit some kind of evolution occurred rises if "but God guided the process" or something similar is included in the question. Significance: Different wording can result in a significant effect on public opinion. Prindle's survey of Texas opinion in 2010 over views on the origin and development of human beings: Which of the following statements comes closest to your views on the origin and development of human beings? 1. Human beings have developed over millions of years from less advanced forms of life, but God guided the process. (38%) 2. Human beings have developed over millions of years from less advanced forms of life, and God had no part in the process. (12%) 3. God created human beings pretty much in their present form about 10,000 years ago. (38%) 4. Don't know. (12%) A very significant percent of American citizens from 1/3-2/5 rejects theory of evolution outright, but the proportion varies a great deal depending upon how the question is worded. There are two ways that a different wording can result in significant changes in the responses a) The percentage of people willing to grant that some kind of evolution occurred rises ten to fifteen percent if the phrase "but God guided the process" or something similar is included in the question. b) More people are willing to endorse the possibility of evolution if the question is about life in general than if it includes humans in particular

sFlt1

Definition: Protein fetuses inject into their mother's body to increase her blood pressure and extract nutrients during pregnancy, can cause pre-eclampsia. Dr. Haig predicted natural selection favors mothers who overcome this and have several offspring carrying on her genes. Significance: Provides empirical evidence for evolutionary theory, unreasonable for a creator to create damaging protein that occurs during reproduction of offspring. Mothers' vs. fetuses During the 1970s, evolutionary biologist Robert Trivers (Rutgers) reasoned that parents and children must have a permanent conflict: Natural selection should favor parents who can successfully raise the most offspring, and for that strategy to work, they cannot put too many resources into any one child. But it is in the interests of each individual child to extract the maximum quantity of resources from its parents. Therefore, children always want more resources than parents want to give, setting up a conflict During the 1980s, another evolutionary biologist David Haig (Harvard) reasoned that this conflict would even show up in the womb A fetus "does not sit passively in its mother's womb and wait to be fed. Its placenta sprouts blood vessels that invade its mothers tissues to extract nutrients." Meanwhile, Dr. Haig argued, natural selection should favor mothers who could restrain these incursions, and manage to have several surviving off-spring carrying on their genes. Haig envisioned pregnancy as a tug of war. Each side pulls hard, and yet a flag tied to the middle of the rope barely moves. In a 1993 paper, Dr. Haig first predicted that many complications of pregnancy would turn out to be produced by this conflict. One of the most common complications of pregnancy is "pre-clampsia, in which women experience dangerously high blood pressure late in pregnancy." (Lady Sybil, the third Grantham daughter on Downton Abbey, died of pre-eclampsia.) Dr. Haig proposed that pre-eclampsia was just an extreme form of a strategy used by all fetuses. The fetuses somehow raised the blood pressure of their mothers so as to drive more blood into the relatively low-pressure placenta. Dr. Haig predicted that "pre-eclampsia would be associated with some substance that fetuses injected into their mothers' bloodstreams. Pre-eclampsia happened when fetuses injected too much of the stuff, perhaps if they were having trouble getting enough nourishment." Testing Dr. Haig's prediction, medical researchers discovered that there was a protein, which they designated "sFlt1," which fetuses inject into the mother's body to raise the mother's blood pressure; pre-eclampsia is caused by too much sFlt1 Researchers are now working on a way to treat pre-eclampsia by lowering the amount of sFltl that the fetus injects into the mother Significance: Example of testing Darwin's theory over natural selection (an organism that is fit is one that can successfully produce/leave the most offspring), and proving it correct.

Design

Definition: Purposeful arrangement of parts Significance: Intelligent Design advocates believe that life was designed by an intelligent creator.

"What creates the fit?"

Definition: Quote from Gould admitting that theory of natural selection regarding origin of mutations isn't completely satisfying. Significance: Though a Darwinist, Gould's willingness to question assumptions of the Darwinist mainstream around margins of the theory provided non-Darwinists with the ammunition they desired to argue against Darwinism/ exploit weakness for their agenda There has been a minority undercurrent of dissatisfaction with an explanatory framework that relies on coordinated chance mutations. Goldschmidt and Gould were part of this undercurrent. Gould wrote this question in his final book. This is the central question of evolutionary theory that remains. Answer: Small changes early in embryology accumulate through growth to yield profound differences among adults

Kentucky's House Bill 169

Definiton: Law submitted to Kentucky legislature in 2011 claiming it would allow teachers to use outside material to help students objectively understand, analyze, critique, and review scientific theories. Significance: This is an example of the continuous efforts by legislators, despite their court defeats, to legalize the teaching of creationism in public schools by becoming more vague and general.

Discovery Institute

Definition: The most important organization arguing the case for Intelligent Design and for teaching some form of creationism in the schools Significance: There is no scientifically testable research projects inspired by Intelligent Design, no tested hypothesis; all the claims consisted of re-stating Argument from Design Nonprofit organization, founded 1990 by Philip Johnson and others, dedicated to persuading people to accept the truth of Intelligent Design, and persuading people and legislators to teach ID in the public schools The Discovery Institute's spokespeople insist that they are a scientific, not religious, organization--to try to get around the First Amendment and the courts--but one of the parts of the Kitzmiller decisions in 2005 was the finding that ID was a religious not a scientific doctrine Since 2005, the DI's strategy has been to admit the ID is not a scientific doctrine, but to say that it doesn't matter, because neither is Darwinism Significance: There are no scientifically testable research project inspired by Intelligent Design, no tested hypothesis; all the claims consisted of re-stating Argument from Design

National Center for Science Education

Definition: The most important organization arguing the "separation of church and state" position in the "what to teach in schools?" controversy Significance: Assisted the plaintiffs in the Kitzmiller case with information and testimony Founded in 1983 to keep track of, and oppose, efforts to inject creationism into the public schools; affiliated with the American Association for the Advancement of Science Monitors state legislatures and other government orgs (such as the Texas State Board of Education); sends around quarterly printed newsletter and monthly emails, rallying and coordinating opposition to pro-creationist (and pro ID) efforts to undermine Darwinist education, inject creationism Assisted the plaintiffs in the Kitzmiller case with information and testimony

SBOE (State Board of Education)

Definition: The state agency charged with overseeing the one thousand-plus school districts in Texas Significance: An arena in which economic conservatives fight social conservatives and democratics. When it comes to teaching evolution in public schools, economic conservatives often join with democrats in preventing the desires of social conservatives Texas State Board of Education (SBOE) is the state agency charged with overseeing the one thousand-plus school districts in Texas - Until 2011, it decided what textbooks all the school districts could use—history, biology, etc - Make lists of requirements that each textbook must satisfy, then approve the books that satisfy those requirements - Since 2011, can only recommend a list of textbooks; school districts are not required to choose from that list Fifteen members elected from geographic districts in the state Since about 1994, it has been split between about 10 republicans and five democrats Republicans are split between social conservatives, who want to prevent the teaching of evolution, and economic conservatives, who want to endorse scientific biology So, every seven years, when the requirements for biology textbooks come up for review, there is a fight on the SBOE about how the texts will treat evolution: will the economic conservatives vote with the social conservatives, or with the Democrats>

Intelligent Design

Definition: The theory that claims that all life cannot have arisen by chance and was designed and created by some intelligent entity/creator. Significance: An attempt to make creationism scientific and attacks evolution on a scientific basis. A much more politically and scientifically sophisticated type of creationism Attempt to make creationism scientific, attacks evolution on a scientific basis claiming ID is scientific and evolution is not/not empirically testable.

Science can be a form of worship

Definition: Written by famous American biologist and evangelical Christian, Francis Collins, to articulate the point of view that there is no conflict between biological science and sincere religious belief. Significance: Looking from Collins' point of view, the conflict between the theory of evolution and religion is unnecessary. The theory of natural selection, both in its original Darwinian statement and in its modern form, passes the test of science; it is a scientific theory with empirical support. The theory of Intelligent Design does not pass the test of science; it is not a scientific theory and has no empirical support Nevertheless, the need to go through this process of testing Darwinism versus ID is based on the assumption that the theory of evolution and religious belief are incompatible: in the old western films, somebody was likely to say to the hero, "This town ain't big enough for the two of us!" Is the world big enough for both evolutionary science and religion? Although public opinion surveys disclose that scientists, as a group, are not religious, there are many exceptions and a fair number of scientists who have written books articulating the point of view that there is no conflict between biological science and sincere religious belief EXAMPLE: Francis Collins Collins is an American and extremely distinguished biologist; he was the director of the Human Genome Project during the 1990s, and was (2009-21) the director of the National Institutes of Health; he is also an evangelical Christian "I would like to suggest that science should not be denied by the believer; it should be embraced. The elegance behind life's complexity is indeed reason for awe, and for belief in God—but not in the simple, straightforward way that many found so compelling before Darwin came along." (86) ". . . science can be a form of worship. . . " (230) If you look at things from Collins' point of view, the whole conflict between the theory of evolution and religion is unnecessary For Christian scientists, it is a philosophical interpretation by doing/studying science (God's work) they are appreciating God's work, not insulting God like fundamental Christians say

"We should take a lesson from physics"

Definition: Written in Behe's Molecular Machines to note that physics embraced big bang hypothesis and naturally followed data even though some thought it gave aid to religion. Argues, like physics, we should embrace design because it flows naturally from the data. Significance: Embracing supernatural forces is a principle of intelligent design which goes against naturalism and Darwinism. Notes that the big bang hypothesis was embraced by physics, and points that physics followed data where it seemed to lead even though some thought the model gave aid and comfort to religion. Biochemistry multiplies examples of fantastically complex molecular systems, which discourage an attempt to explain how they may have arisen. Design flows naturally from the data; we should not shrink from it we should embrace it and build on it—therefore we should take a lesson from physics.

Peacock and Peahen

Definiton: Birds, the male of which has a tail that is metabolically extensive and causes mobility impairments. Significance: Used by Johnson as evidence for intelligent design because they're the creatures a whimsical creator would favor. Used by biologists as an example of sexual selection. "Why would natural selection produce a species whose females lust for males with life threatening decorations?" Mentioned in Johnson's Darwin on Trial Famous example of sexual selection is the peacocks gaudy fan The fan is stimulating to peahens. Peacocks having fans increases its chances of leaving offspring even though it decreases his life expectancy. Used as an example of how Darwinists are not troubled by the unfitness of the peahen's sexual taste. "Why would natural selection produce a species whose females lust for males with life threatening decorations?" Douglas Futuyma claims this issue as a problem for creationists: Why would a creator create a bird that couldn't reproduce without six feet of bulky feathers that make it easy prey for leopards?

Popper's significance on Evolutionary Theory

In the evolutionary pattern of thought there is no longer either need or room for the supernatural. The earth was not created, it evolved. So did all the animals and plants that inhabit it, including our human selves, mind and soul as well as brain and body. So did religion... Finally, the evolutionary vision is enabling us to discern, however incompletely, the lineaments of the new religion that we can be sure will arise to serve the needs of the coming era. These propositions go far beyond anything empirical science can demonstrate, of course, and to sustain this worldview Darwinists had to resort to all the tactics that Popper warned truth-seekers to avoid. Their most important device is the deceptive use of the vague term "evolution." "Evolution" in Darwinist usage implies a completely naturalistic metaphysical system, in which matter evolved to its present state of organized complexity without any participation by a Creator. But "evolution" also refers to much more modest concepts, such as microevolution and biological relationship. The tendency of dark moths to preponderate in a population when the background trees are dark therefore demonstrates evolution- and also demonstrates, by semantic transformation, the naturalistic descent of human beings from bacteria. Because "evolution" means so many different things, almost any example will do. Manipulation of the terminology also allows natural selection to appear and disappear on command. If Darwinists wanted to adopt Popper's standards for scientific inquiry, they would have to define the common ancestry thesis as an empirical hypothesis rather than as a logical consequence of the fact of relationship. Common ancestry is a hypothesis, not a fact, no matter how strongly it appeals to a materialist's common sense. As a hypothesis it deserves our most respectful attention, which, in Popper's terms, means that we should test it rigorously. Accepting Popper's challenge is simply to take the first step towards understanding: the recognition of ignorance. Falsification is not a defeat for science, but a liberation. It removes the dead weight of prejudice, and thereby frees us to look for the truth.

Convergent evolution

Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments Species that live in similar habitats will experience similar selection pressures from their environment, so they may evolve similar adaptions/converge, coming to look and behave very much alike even though unrelated

Falsifiability criterion

The ability of a theory to be proven wrong as a means of advancing science Proposed by Karl Popper Popper proposed the falsifiability criterion as a test for distinguishing science from other intellectual pursuits, among which he included pseudoscience and metaphysics. Popper's logic implies that a theory's scientific status depends less upon its subject matter than upon the attitude of its adherents towards criticism. A physicist or a biologist may be dogmatic or evasive, and therefore unscientific in method, while a historian or literary critic may state the implications of a thesis so plainly that refuting examples are invited. Scientific methodology exists wherever theories are subjected to rigorous empirical testing, and it is absent wherever the practice is to protect a theory rather than to test it. Because of all its complications, the falsifiability criterion does not necessarily differentiate natural science from other valuable forms of intellectual activity.