DEP 4164

Correlation study & interpret (+,-) correlations

Definition >Intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between variables exists. *Correlations are expressed in terms of direction and magnitude. (+,-) **DIRECTION** 1- two variables are related POSITIVELY if they increase or decrease together (Ex, Watching more violent TV shows associated with more aggression) 2-Two variables have a NEGATIVE, or inverse, correlation if one increases and the other decreases (Ex, less schooling associated with higher risk of dementia in older age) **correlations are reported as numbers ranging from +1.0 to -1.0.

Experiment

Definition >Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other. **ADVANTAGES** 1- Establishes cause-and-effect relationships 2- is highly controlled and can be repeated by another investigator 3- Degree of control greatest in the laboratory experiment ** DISADVANTAGES** 1- Findings, especially when derived from laboratory experiments, may not generalize to situations outside the laboratory

Endoderm

Becomes digestive system, liver, pancreas, salivary glands, respiratory system.

Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory

Development is the product of children's efforts to understand and act on their world. ·Development occurs in stages. Used a clinical method to study children's cognitive development - combined observation with flexible questioning. ·Cognitive development begins with inborn ability to adapt to environment and is initially based on motor activities (e.g., reflexes). Occurs in three interrelated processes 1.organization 2.adaptation 3.equilibration

Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Theory

Development occurs through interaction between a developing person and five levels of environmental influence, ranging from immediate to broad · Individual is both an outcome and a shaper of development (development is bidirectional/reciprocal).

Proximodistal principle

Development proceeds from parts near the center of the body to outer ones. Parts of the body near the center develop before the extremities.

Cephalocaudal principle

Development proceeds from the head-to-tail direction. Upper parts of the body develop before lower parts of the trunk.

Mesoderm

Develops into the inner layer of skin, muscles, skeleton, excretory, and circulatory system.

Maternal alcohol use

Fetal Alchohol Syndrome (FAS): Combination of mental, motor, and developmental abnormalities affecting the offspring of some women who drink heavily during pregnancy. Problems in infancy: reduced responsiveness to stimuli, slow reaction time, and reduced visual acuity Problems in childhood: short attention span, distractibility, restlessness, hyperactivity, learning disabilities, memory deficits, mood disorders, aggressiveness. and problem behavior Some problems go away after birth but other problems persist (intellectual difficulties, behavioral and learning problems, hyperactivity)

Fetal stage

Fetus grows rapidly-- organs and body systems become more complex and fingernails, toenails, eyelids continue to develop. 12 weeks of gestation- taste and smell senses are stimulated 14 weeks- olfactory (ears) system develops 26 weeks- responses to sound and vibration begin 8 weeks to birth

Advances in the West that paved way for scientific study of child development

Higher infant survival rates due to: - Discovery of germs -Development of vaccines Child welfare laws were designed to protect children from long workdays. New science of psychology suggested that people could better understand themselves by learning what had influenced them as children.

Canalization

Illustrates how hereditary restricts the range of development for some traits. (Limitation on variance of expression of certain inherited characteristics.) -Cognition and personality are not highly canalized. -Highly canalized traits Eye color, crawling, walking, running is highly canalized. -Natural selection designs important traits to develop in predictable ways within a variety of environments. ( walking, talking)

Classical conditioning

Learning based on association of a stimulus that doesn't ordinarily elicit a particular response with another stimulus that does elicit the response. Originated by Ivan Pavlov's study of the role of saliva in dogs - Little Albert test

Operant conditioning

Learning based on association of behavior with its consequences (B. F. Skinner) · Organisms will tend to repeat a response that has been reinforced and suppress a response that has been punished. · Whether a consequence is reinforcing or punishing depends on person · Reinforcement is most effective when immediately followed after behavior; If response is no longer reinforced it will be extinguished

Meaning of "studying the lifespan" in the field of developmental psychology

Longitudinal studies provided research based information about normative developments at different ages Looking at development from womb to tomb

Examples of milestones that are based largely on maturation

Many typical changes of infancy & early childhood are tied to the change of the body and brain Most clearly seen in early years & occurs along with influences of heredity & environment. i. As children grow into adolescents and then adults, individual characteristics (heredity) and life experience (environment) play an important role in their development. ii. Even in process all children undergo, rates & time of development vary. e.g. walking , talking, first menstrual period, development of logical thought.

Maternal drug use

Maternal smoking has been identified as the single most important factor in low birth weight in developed countries. Also increases risk of miscarriage, growth delays, stillbirth, small head circumference, colic, hyperkinetic disorder, and long term respiratory, neurological, cognitive, and behavioral problems Prenatal exposure to secondhand smoke: affects cognitive development

influence of paternal age on prenatal development

Men's exposure to the following may result in abnormal or poor quality sperm: lead, marijuana or tobacco smoke, large amounts of alcohol or radiation, DES, Pesticides or high ozone levels. Men who smoke have an increased likelihood of transmitting genetic abnormalities. Older fathers may be a significant source of birth defects due to damaged or deteriorated sperm. Advanced paternal age associated with: Dwarfism, Schizophrenia, Bipolar disorder, autism.

Phenotype

Observable characteristics of a person -Product of genotype and environmental influences GG

Behaviorism

Observed behavior is a predictable response to experience Development is reactive and continuous. behaviorists believe that Environment is more influential than biology (although biology sets limits on what people do) Humans learn by reacting to aspects of their environment that they find pleasing, painful, or threatening. Learning occurs throughout the lifespan.

Ectoderm

Outer layer of skin, nails, hair, teeth, sensory organs, and nervous system

cross-sectional research

PROCEDURE: data are collected on people of different ages at the same time. **ADVANTAGES** 1- Can show similarities & differences among age groups 2- speedy, economical 3- presents no problem of attrition or repeated testing. ** DISADVANTAGES** 1- Cannot establish age effects 2- masks individual differences 3- can be confounded by cohort effects.

Social Learning Theory.

People learn social behavior by observing and imitating models (watching other people) aka ______ _______

Longitudinal Research

Procedure: data are collected on same person or persons over a period of time **ADVANTAGES** 1- can show age related change or continuity 2- avoids confounding age with cohort effects. **DISADVANTAGES** 1- is time consuming, expensive 2- presents problems of attrition, bias in sample and effects of repeated testing 3- results may be valid only for cohort tested or sample studied.

Reaction range

Range of potential variability, depending on environmental conditions, in the expression of a hereditary trait (e.g., height). -Heredity can influence whether a reaction range is wide or narrow (genotype limits range of possible phenotypes) E.g., Child born with a defect producing mild cognitive limitations has a wider reaction range than child born with more severe limitations.

Adaptation

Refers to how children handle new information in light of what is already known. Occurs through 2 complementary processes: 1. assimilation 2. accomodation

Information processing approach

Seeks to explain cognitive development by analyzing processes involved in making sense of incoming info and performing tasks effectively (e.g., attention, memory, planning strategies, decision making, and goal setting).

Critical period

Specific time when a given event or its absence has a profound and specific impact on development.

Heredity

Statistical estimate of contribution of heredity to individual differences in a specific trait within a given population at a particular time.

Case study

Study of a single subject, such as an individual or family. Includes observational, behavioral, or physiological measures and biographical, autobiographical, or documentary materials. Advantages - Offers useful in-depth information - Flexible - researcher can explore avenues of inquiry that arise during study - Provides detailed picture of one person's behavior and development - Can generate hypotheses Disadvantages -May not generalize to others Cannot establish cause and effect (no way to test conclusions)

Assimilation

Taking in new information and incorporating it into an existing schema

Organization

Tendency to create categories by observing characteristics that members of a category have in common. People create increasingly complex cognitive structures or schemas (ways of organizing info about the world that govern the way the child thinks and behaves in a particular situation). Schemas become more complex as more info is acquired Schemas are originally concrete in nature and become more abstract over time. Cognitive growth occurs via three interrelated processes:

Equilibration

Tendency to seek a stable balance among cognitive elements (schemas and new information/experiences) Children want what they understand of the world to match what they observe around them When children's understanding of world doesn't match what they are experiences, children find themselves in a state of disequilibrium (uncomfortable motivational state) that pushes them into accommodation. Achieved via a balance between assimilation and accommodation (drives cognitive growth).

Germinal stage

The first phase of prenatal development, encompassing the first two weeks after conception. zygote divides and becomes more complex; implanted in wall of uterus Before implantation (as cell differentiation begins) - cells around the edge of blastocyst cluster on one side to form the embryonic disk (from which embryo begins to develop).

Mesosystem

The interlocking of various microsystems

Maturation

Unfolding of a universal, natural sequence of physical changes & behavior changes.

Dominant Inheritance

When heterozygous alleles are present and only one trait is expressed. -Example: Aa (Heterozygous Alleles) Where A is dominant over a. Thus only the genetic information that is contained by dominant allele A will be expressed.

2 basic issues that theorists address when explaining child development

Whether children are active* or reactive* in their own development Whether development is continuous* or discontinuous*

Maternal weight

Women of normal weight that gain 16-40lbs, less likely to have birth complications or have babies who at birth way too little/too much Gaining too little weight leads to risk of growth delays, premature birth, distress during labor and delivery, still birth; Maternal caloric restriction during pregnancy may put children at risk for later obesity Gaining too much weight leads to risk of having a large baby that needs to be delivered by induced labor or C-section.

Homozygous

(AA,aa)Two alleles with the same genetic material

Normative history-graded: def. & ex.

- Significant events that shape the behavior and attitudes of a historical generation. - Ex. War, 9/11

Longitudinal research design--what is it advantages/ disadvantages

-Procedure: Data are collected on the same person or persons over a period of time. -Advantages: Can show age-related change or continuity; avoids confounding age with cohort effects. -Disadvantages: Is time-consuming, expensive; presents problems of attrition, bias in sample, and effects of repeated testing; results may be valid only for cohort tested or sample studied.

Genotype environment interaction

Effects of similar environmental conditions on genetically different individuals -E.g., children are exposed to pollen and dust but those with a genetic predisposition are more likely to develop allergic reactions. AND Genetically similar children often develop differently depending on their environments. -E.g., a child born with a challenging temperament may develop adjustment problems in one family and thrive in another family (depending on parenting)

Genotype environment correlation

Effects of similar environmental conditions on genetically different individuals. Genetically similar children often develop differently depending on their environment.

Teratogen

Environmental agent that can interfere with normal prenatal development and cause developmental abnormalities.(e.g., virus,drugs, radiation).

Difference between Erikson and Freud's theories

Erikson studied people from birth to death while Freud only studied people into adolescence Erikson proposed 8 stages of development while Freud proposed 5 stages Erikson's psychosocial theory focused on social and environmental factors while Freud's psychosexual theory focused on the importance of basic and biological needs Erikson modified/extended Freud's theory by emphasizing influence of society on personality development. Erikson was the pioneer in lifespan perspective

Microsystem

Every day environment, including face to face relationships with parents, friends, classmates, teachers, or neighbors.

Lev vgotsky socialcultural theory

Focused on social and cultural processes that guide children's cognitive development. Stresses children's active engagement with environment; but also cognitive growth is a collaborative process. Children learn through social interaction. Shared activities help children internalize their society's modes of thinking and behaving and make those folkways their own. Language is an essential tool for learning and thinking about the world. More advanced peers must help direct and organize a child's learning before child can master and internalize it.

Zone of Proximal Development

Gap between what child already able to do and what they could achieve with assistance from another person. Responsibility for learning shifts from adult to child

Allele

Genes

Genotype

Genetic makeup of a person, containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics. **No two people have same genotype (except monozygotic twins)

Morphogens

Group of genes produce these molecules - that are switched on after fertilization.Begin sculpting arms, hands, fingers, vertebrae, ribs, abrain, and other body parts.

Control group

Group of people, similar to those in the experimental group, who do not receive treatment under study.

experiental group

Group receiving the treatment under study.

Maternal nutrition

Newborns whose mother ate fish high in DHA omega 3 fatty acid showed more mature sleep patterns - a sign of advanced brain development Lack of folic acid (B vitamin) is a cause of Anencephaly and Spina Bifida (occurs during early weeks of gestation) Vitamin D deficiency during pregnancy in women with gene variant DRB1*1501 may increase risk of a child developing multiple sclerosis

Scaffolding

Temporary support that parents, teachers, or others give a child in doing a task until child can do it alone (e.g., teaching a child to float). Implications for education and cognitive testing

Recessive inheritance

Two recessive alleles are together in order for it to be expressed. Since A is dominant of a, the only way to have a's genetic material is to have recessive homozygous aa as alleles.

Discontinuous development

Change is qualitative: Change in kind, structure, or organization. Development proceeds in stages: Each stage builds on previous one and prepares way for next e.g., cognition changes from learning based on simple sensory/motor activity to logical, abstract thought [Piaget]

Continuous development

Change is quantitative - change in number or amount e.g., increases in height, weight, or size of vocabulary across childhood and adolescence.

Embryonic stage

Characterized by Organogenesis -rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs (e.g, respiratory, digestive, and nervous systems) Critical period when embryos are most vulnerable to destructive influences in prenatal development (2 to 8 weeks)

Active development

Children create their experiences and are internally motivated to learn about the world around them. Heredity/internal factors drives developmental change

Reactive development

Children grasp experiences that mold them over time. Environment/external factors drives developmental change

Two forms of associative learning

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning

Multifactorial transmission

Combination of genetic and environmental factors to produce certain complex traits -Are diseases and health traits that involve multiple genes and complex patterns of inheritance. Examples: Intelligence, personality traits, music ability, psychopathy

natural experiment (aka quasi experiment)

Conducted when not possible to conduct a true experiment for practical and/or ethical reasons. ** Compares people who have been accidentally assigned to separate groups by circumstances of life. **(Ex)examine performance on attention tasks for children who are diagnosed with ADHD vs children who do not have ADHD.

Exosystem

Consists of interactions between a microsystem and an outside system or institution.

Macrosystem

Consists of overarching cultural patterns, like dominant beliefs, ideologies, and economic and political systems.

Field experiment

Controlled study conducted in an everyday setting (Ex, home or school)

Passive genotype environment correlation

( early childhood) refers to the association between the genotype a child inherits from his or her parents and the environment in which the child is raised. Parents create a home environment that is influenced by their own heritable characteristics.

Heterozygous

(Aa) Two genes with different genetic materialD; an individual with two different alleles from a particular gene.

Dependent Variable

(DV) Condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable.

independent variable

(IV) Condition over which the experimenter has direct control.

Reactive/evocative genotype environment correlation

(whole life) Children with differing genetic makeups evoke different responses from adults. refers to the association between an individual's genetically influenced behaviour and others' reactions to that behaviour i.e. good athletes get more attention and get better when the average players don't get better because the good players are getting all the attention i.e A child's smiling may elicit smiles from others

maternal illness

- Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS): Caused by HIV - undermines function of immune system If mother has virus in blood, Perinatal transmission may occur - Virus may cross over to the fetus's bloodstream through the placenta, during pregnancy, labor, or delivery or, after birth, through breast milk - Rubella: If contracted by a women before 11th week of pregnancy - causes deafness and heart defects in baby

Ethnographic study

- Definition > In-depth study of a culture. - *Seeks to describe the pattern of relationships, customs, beliefs, technology, arts, and traditions that make up a society's way of life - *Uses a combination of methods, including informal, unstructured interviewing and participant observation (Observer lives with the people or participates in the activity being observed.) ** ADVANTAGES** 1- Can help overcome culturally based biases in theory and research 2- Can test universality of developmental phenomena ** DISADVANTAGE** 1- Subject to observer bias because of researchers involvement in societies they are observing.

Normative age-graded influences: def. & ex.

- Events such as puberty and entry into formal education, which are highly similar for people in a particular age group. Ex. The impact of technological developments such as video games, computers, and the Internet

The three domains of development studied by developmental scientists

- Physical development: Growth of body and brain (ex. Biological and physiological patterns of change in sensory capacities, motor skills, and health) - Cognitive development: Pattern of change in mental abilities (ex. Learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.) - Psychosocial development: Pattern of change in emotions, personality, and social relationships All three are interrelated

Nonnormative influences: def. & ex.

- Unusual events that have a major impact on individual's lives because they disturb the expected sequence of the life cycle. - Typical event that happens at an unusual time of life or atypical events. - May be beyond a person's control or person participates actively in creating own nonnormative influence - e.g. death of a friend, cancer in loved one, car accident/ injury.

Laboratory observation--what is it advantages/ disadvantages

-Main characteristics: Participants are observed in the laboratory, with no attempt to manipulate behavior. -Advantages: Provides good descriptions; offers greater control than naturalistic observation because all participants are observed under same controlled conditions. -Disadvantages: Observer bias; controlled situation can be artificial.

Behavioral and performance measures--what is it advantages/ disadvantages

-Main characteristics: Participants are tested on abilities, skills, knowledge, competencies, or physical responses. -Advantages: Provides objectively measurable information; avoids subjective distortions. -Disadvantages: Cannot measure attitudes or other non behavioral phenomena; results may be affected by extraneous factors.

Naturalistic observation--what is it advantages/ disadvantages

-Main characteristics: People are observed in their normal setting, with no attempt to manipulate behavior. -Advantages: Provides good description of behavior; does not subject people to unnatural settings that may distort behavior. -Disadvantages: Lack of control; observer bias.

Cross-sectional research design--what is it advantages/ disadvantages

-Procedure: Data are collected on people of different ages at the same time. -Advantages: Can show similarities and differences among age groups; speedy, economical; presents no problem of attrition or repeated testing. -Disadvantages: Cannot establish age effects; masks individual differences can be confounded by cohort effects

Lab & field experiment differences

1- Degree of control exerted by the experimenter *Lab more control; field less control 2- Degree to which findings can be generalized beyond the study situation *Lab less generalizable; field more generalizable

(PERSONALITY) Characteristics influenced by heredity & environment

1- Genes directly linked with specific aspects of personality **EXAMPLE** (neuroticism > anxiety, depression). 2- Heritability of personality traits between 40-50% 3- Temperament (characteristic disposition, or style of approaching and reacting to situations) mostly inborn and stable; can respond to special experiences or parental handling.

(PHYSICAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL TRAITS) Characteristics influenced by heredity & environment

1- Monozygotic twins more concordant than dizygotic twins in risk for hbp, heart disease, stroke, rheumatoid arthritis, peptic ulcers, and epilepsy 2- Lifespan also influenced by genes 3- Obesity is multifactorial - 40-70% genetic; risk is 2-3x > for child with family hx; environmental factors include: kind an amount of food eaten in home; amount of exercise encouragedIntelligence

labratory experiment

1- Participants are brought to a laboratory, where they experience conditions manipulated by the experimenter. 2- the experimenter records participant's reactions to manipulated conditions (and may compare them with their own or other participant's behavior under different conditions) 3- Provides the control necessary for establishing cause and effect.ii.

(INTELLIGENCE) Characteristics influenced by heredity & environment

1- Strong genetic influence on general intelligence based on adoption and twin studies; lesser extent on specific abilities **EXAMPLE** (memory, verbal, and spatial ability). 2-Polygenetic inheritance - influenced by additive effects of large numbers of genes working together. 3-Intelligence depends on brain size and structure (under strong genetic control) 4- Influenced by experience - enriched or impoverished environment can substantially affect development and expression of innate ability. 5- Genetic influence increases with age (due to niche picking)

(PsychoPathology) Characteristics influenced by heredity & environment

1- strong hereditary influence for schizophrenia, autism, alcoholism, and depression.Inherited tendency can be triggered by environmental factors. 2- Schizophrenia: Heritability 80-85%; •Rare genetic mutations may increase susceptibility. •Series of neurological insults in fetal life (maternal exposure to influenza, rubella, respiratory infections, fetal malnutrition 3- Advanced paternal age (>30 yrs)

Names and age ranges of the five major age periods studied in child development

1. Prenatal: Conception to birth 2. Infancy and Toddlerhood: Birth to age 3 3. Early Childhood: Ages 3-6 4. Middle Childhood: Ages 6- 11 Adolescence:Ages 11- 20

3 types of heritability studies that are used to study the relative influence of heredity and environment

1.Family studies 2.Adoption studies 3.Twin Studies

Accommodation

Adjusting schema to fit new information.

Factors that helped to pioneer the study of child development as a true science

Adolescence was first considered a period of development when G Stanley Hall published his book, Adolescence (1904) Establishment of research institutes (e.g., Yale Child Study Center) marked emergence of child psychology as a true science. Longitudinal studies provided research based information about normative developments at different ages

Correlation Advantges and Disadvantages

Advantages: 1- Enables prediction of one variable on basis of another 2- Can suggest hypotheses about causal relationships. Disadvantages: cannot establish cause and effect.

Active genotype environment correlation

As children grow older, they select experiences consistent with their genetic tendencies (Niche picking) extrovert kids tend to hang out/ be friend with extroverted people.

Chronosystem

adds dimension of time: change or constancy in child and environment

Self report-- what is it advantages/ disadvantages

diary, visual reports, interview, or questionaire -Main characteristics: Participants are asked about some aspects of their lives; questioning may be highly structured or more flexible; self-report may be verbal or visual. -Advantages: Can provide first hand information about a person's life, attitudes, or opinions. Visual techniques (i.e. drawing, mapping, graphing) avoid need for verbal skills. -Disadvantages: Participant may not remember information accurately or may distort responses in a socially desirable way; how question is asked or by whom may affect answer.

Observational learning

learning through watching the behaviors of others.

Imitation

models most important element in how children learn language, handle aggression, develop morality, and learn gender

How heredity is expressed & what higher heritability estimates indicate

numerically ranging from 0 to 1.0, higher heritability estimates indicate genes are more responsible for variance in trait

Reinforcement vs. Punishment: which one increases/ decreases behavior.

reinforcement increases behavior punishment decreases behavior Organisms will tend to repeat a response that has been reinforced and suppress a response that has been punished.

Evolutionary psychology

· application of darwinian principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to human psychology. these psychologists apply Darwinian principles to human behavior. Individuals unconsciously strive for survival and to perpetuate genetic legacy. · Seek to maximize chances of having offspring who will survive to reproduce - passing down their characteristics. · Emphasizes environment to which humans must adapt and the flexibility of the human mind. · Within developmental psychology, evolutionary psychologists apply evolutionary principles to child development · Topics studied: Parenting strategies, attachment, gender differences in play, peer relations