dev psych ch9

Asian parents often talk about a child's misdeed with the intention of making the child feel

guilty or ashamed.

Positive emotionality is rooted in

our basic biological drive to approach and seek rewards, and negative emotionality in our basic need to monitor threats and avoid danger

authoritative parenting

parenting that is high in both warmth/responsiveness and control

Children of uninvolved parents fared the worst in terms of

psychological adjustment, academic achievement and other aspects of development

2 views on prosocial behavior

1 Prosocial behavior is innate to the human species, and represents a general means by which human beings survived as a group 2 Another proposal is that prosocial behavior emerges early out of a more general desire by toddlers (ages 12 to 24 months) to be involved in social interaction.

Young children display more advanced emotions, such as embarrassment, pride, and shame between ages ________. These self-conscious emotions are crucial to human interaction.

18 to 24 months Around age 18 to 24 months, more complex emotions emerge, such as embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt, which all involve a clear sense of self.

children have the makings of a conscience by ages

2 ½ to 3.

positivity bias

A bias by young children to view themselves in a positive light.

sympathy

A feeling of concern or sorrow for another person. 2 years old

cycle of coercion

A pattern in which family members use aggression to control one another.

Although these positive outcomes may seem to contradict the finding of higher externalizing behavior associated with extensive child care experience, there are two possible explanations. 2nd:

A second explanation is that the average quality of child care facilities in the United States is somewhat low. Externalizing problems might result from the lack of supervision or a failure to promote effortful control and emotional regulation in lower quality child-care facilities. In countries such as Norway, attendance in government-subsidized, high-quality child care and preschool education was found to be associated with fewer behavior problems, particularly for children whose parents suffered economic misfortunes

secure attachment and emotional regulation

A secure attachment at 12 to 18 months is linked with higher skills in emotional regulation. Researchers think that securely attached infants are able to tolerate a negative emotion for a few moments longer than insecurely attached children, giving them a chance to figure out what is bothering them and possibly resolve the situation, or take evasive action in order to calm down

gender schema

A set of beliefs, observations, and expectations about male and female roles. The schema is created when the child knows his or her own gender, and begins to categorize objects and activities based on gender.

gender segregation

A tendency for boys and girls to play in same-sex groups. (Begins at age 3, typically)

internal working model

According to attachment theorists, children with a history of secure attachments are viewed as developing an internal working model

Adults refer to issues of harm and individual rights in talking about _ rules, whereas they focus on maintaining social harmony and adult authority in talking about _ rules. Adults are less likely to impose authority in situations of _

Adults refer to issues of harm and individual rights in talking about moral rules, whereas they focus on maintaining social harmony and adult authority in talking about social conventional rules. Adults are less likely to impose authority in situations of personal choice, such as what toys to play with

reactive (hostile) aggression

Aggression directed at retaliating to aggression, or harming another person.

CAH influences

Although treated as female by their parents, girls with CAH have a tendency toward masculine activity, toy, and playmate preferences. These preferences are stronger among girls with higher androgen exposure. In contrast, socialization pressure from parents to be more feminine seems to have little impact on these girls' toy and activity preferences

Gender segregation is not as distinctive in preschools in China, Japan, and Korea as it is in the United States, perhaps due to a greater emphasis on cooperation and group harmony.

American boys were more direct and assertive, and girls were more indirect, as we would expect. However, the opposite pattern was found in China. Boys used a mixture of direct and indirect statements to influence one another, whereas girls used direct commands with both other girls and boys

conscience

An internal guidance system that regulates behavior without the need for external control.

Some researchers view this style of parenting as closer to _. Others view traditional Chinese parenting as _

Baumrind's authoritarian parenting (high control, low warmth), and argue that authoritative parenting is not as effective in traditional Chinese families; a culturally different version of authoritative parenting, characterized by high control and moderate levels of warmth and affection

Which of the following is an example of a bidirectional influence of biological sex differences and experience?

Boys' innate higher activity levels lead to different types of social interactions.

undercontrolled

Children (20%) who tended to be disobedient, impulsive, and emotional.

overcontrolled

Children (30%) who were generally shy and nervous, but obedient.

resilient

Children (50% of the sample) who tended to be self-confident, outgoing, and emotionally stable.

Children's thinking about people's personality traits is limited by the same positivity bias they have toward their own abilities.

Children ages 3 to 6 need only one or two examples of positive behavior to make a positive judgment (such as smart or kind) about a character in a story, but require at least five examples of negative behavior to make a negative judgment about a character

Support for Kochanska's theory comes from longitudinal studies in which 2- to 3-year-olds who had a mutually responsive orientation with their mothers were compared to children whose mothers used power-assertive techniques.

Children whose mothers had mutually responsive orientations were more cooperative in laboratory play activities with the mother at ages 2 to 3, and less likely to cheat at games or to touch toys they were told not to touch at ages 4 to 5 years

In one study, parents of 4-year-olds were randomly assigned to one of three conditions for four months: marital relationship training, parenting-skills training, or a control group.

Compared to the control group, parents in the marital relationship training group quarreled less in front of their children in the year after the treatment ended, and those in the parenting-skills condition were more affectionate and more structured (in other words, more authoritative) with their children in a joint activity observed by the researchers. Relative to the control group, children in the two intervention groups showed gains in academic achievement and self-confidence, and reductions in externalizing and internalizing behavior problems between kindergarten and first grade. The findings of the intervention study suggest that improvements in both the marital relationship and in authoritative parenting can benefit children Continued benefits for marital satisfaction, child social behavior, and self-control were seen in a 10-year follow-up

What is an important difference between moral and social conventional rules?

Conventional rules are viewed by children as more open to change than moral rules. Social conventional rules refer to rules of conduct in particular social contexts, such as school rules, game rules, and rules of politeness.

sociodramatic play

Cooperative play in which children plan and assign roles to each other.

effortful control

Effortful control involves the ability to inhibit the most typical action you might take in a situation (pet a friendly dog) and to activate a less typical action but more adaptive action (ask the owner if it is OK to pet the dog).

specific parenting practices that show associations with child social and emotional development:

Establish family routines and responsibilities Respond to transgressions with inductive reasoning Reward children for positive behavior, especially when it is inconsistent with negative behavior the child has exhibited in the past Reduce opportunities for misbehavior Use milder punishment techniques, rather than resorting to spanking

parents effect on emotions + language

Expanding language skills and parents' efforts to label and explain emotions are also important factors. Mothers who looked at emotionally rich picture books with their children and provided more elaborate explanations for the emotions (such as, "he's happy because he won the race") tended to have children who used more emotionally descriptive language.

Although these positive outcomes may seem to contradict the finding of higher externalizing behavior associated with extensive child care experience, there are two possible explanations. 1st:

First, it is likely that the children who show increases in social competence are not the same children who show externalizing behavior problems. In other words, both patterns may be occurring (increases in social competence among some children and increases in externalizing behavior in others)

They have found that children begin to develop an informal theory of human social behavior at about the same age that they solve theory of mind tasks

For example, if 4- to 5-year-old children are told that a girl in a story is "unselfish" they can predict that she will share her lunch. They can also make a reverse prediction. If told about a girl who wants to play instead of comfort an injured friend, they can rate her accurately on a scale from "unselfish" to "very selfish." These findings show that children can connect concepts to behavior, and vice versa

teacher helping boy react healthily after another student took his toy:

In this simple interchange, the teacher helped the boy to label and understand his emotions, and to some extent regulate them. Repeated and developmentally appropriate experiences of this kind may help children develop emotional competence.

what influences the development of a conscience

It is likely that a close relationship with a parent, as well as advancing language and cognitive skills, influence the development of a conscience.

cortisol levels and child care

Levels of cortisol (a key stress hormone) in samples of saliva rise during the day among children in full-time child care, the opposite of the typical daily cortisol profile. A similar rise is not seen in the same children on at-home days (see Figure 9.5). The largest increases in afternoon cortisol are seen in children who have difficulties regulating their behavior and emotions and in fearful or shy children

According to research, what should a father who wants to increase prosocial behavior in his 3-year-old boy do?

Model prosocial behavior or help the child regulate his emotions. Parents who model prosocial behavior and coach their children in emotional regulation tend to have children with higher rates of prosocial behavior.

biological influences on gender identity

One possible biological influence is through hormonal effects on the brain. As the study highlighted in Figure 9.1 illustrates, the clearest evidence for hormonal effects in humans is found with girls who have congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a genetic disorder that results in high prenatal levels of male sex hormones (androgens).

physical aggression

Physical aggression (pushing, hitting, biting, or grabbing another child's toy) becomes common at 18 months, reaches a peak between 24 and 42 months, and declines after that

rough and tumble play

Playful fighting involving positive emotions.

emotional regulation

The ability to modulate one's emotional arousal depending on the situation.

self esteem

The degree to which a child feels a sense of overall self-worth.

A child asks for some candy in the car ride to the grocery store and starts crying when denied. Her father calmly explains that they are stopping at the store to buy groceries for dinner, and not candy. He tells his daughter she is expected to hold his hand and walk through the store quietly. Which parenting technique did this father use?

The father established family routines and responsibilities. Children benefit from knowing what is expected of all family members at certain points in the day. Parents need to be patient and help children learn these routines, which can extend to other contexts, such as a parent explaining how he expects the child to behave during grocery shopping.

gender identity

The inner sense of being a male or a female

Families/storytimes in Taipei v Chicago

The overall intention of the stories was very different. In Taipei, parents sought to correct the child's behavior, whereas in Chicago, they sought to promote the child's autonomy and self-esteem

Which of the actions below appropriately uses more than one of the parenting techniques recommended in the chapter in a situation in which a child has just hit another child hard enough to leave a bruise?

The parent explains to the child how aggression makes others feel and puts the child in time out to calm down and think about it. This response combines inductive reasoning with milder punishment techniques.

The term familismo refers to _. A second principle, respeto, refers to _.

The term familismo refers to the high value many Latino families place on close family ties, which can involve putting the needs of the family above one's own needs. A second principle, respeto, refers to the maintenance of respect for elders, particularly male relatives, and the practice of good manners and warmth in one's dealings with other people

Moral and social conventional rules can be contrasted to situations in which children are making a personal choice. By ages 3 to 4, children studied in a variety of cultures (including the United States, China, and Korea) understand these distinctions.

They view moral rules as unalterable across all contexts (home, school, etc.), whereas social conventional rules are more flexible and dependent on the situation

mutually responsive orientation

This occurs when a child's emotions and attempts to be independent are met with warmth and firmness by the parent. 15 months

mutually responsive orientation is similar to the concept of attachment, but

This orientation is similar to the concept of attachment, but adds the notion of parental control. Children raised in this way are usually eager to please their parents and cooperate with them.

uninvolved parenting

Uninvolved parents are low in warmth/responsiveness and low in control. These parents generally focus on their own needs rather than the needs of the child. Hence, they have low expectations for child maturity and responsibility, and pay little attention to the child's accomplishments and developmental needs.

prosocial behavior

Voluntary actions to help another person.

The emotion of guilt is distinct from shame, as it seems to involve

a child's realization that she has harmed or disappointed another person. Guilty children often attempt to make reparations. In contrast, shame appears to be felt as a personal or moral failure, and leads to social withdrawal

Children with characteristically strong negative emotions face

a continual challenge, because there are so many situations that upset them.

One possible clue to the association of child care hours with aggression and noncompliance is that:

a full day of child care or preschool is stressful for some children, and they may respond by misbehaving

It seems clear that something about the authoritative parenting style benefits children's socioemotional and cognitive development. However, the parent-child relationship is most likely

a reciprocal one from infancy onward, with factors such as child temperament, attachment security, and continuing levels of parental warmth and control combining to influence the child's later behavior

Some of the differences noted by researchers between European American and Latino families are:

a stronger involvement of fathers with their preschool-age children, and a stronger relationship of the father's authoritative parenting to child achievement and behavior

empathy

ability to feel an emotion similar to one another person is experiencing 2 years old

adult emotions such as scorn, disgust, anger, and general disapproval may evoke a _ reaction in the child, whereas adult emotions such as disappointment, pain, and fear may evoke a _ reaction

adult emotions such as scorn, disgust, anger, and general disapproval may evoke a shame reaction in the child, whereas adult emotions such as disappointment, pain, and fear may evoke a guilty reaction

relational aggression

aggression that involves gossiping, spreading rumors, or social exclusion in order to damage a child's social relationships

Children who can guess what a character described as selfish might do next in a story appear to have a level of understanding of other people that has been termed ____________.

an informal theory of human social behavior Using compelling short stories about fictional children, researchers have found that children begin to develop an informal theory of human social behavior at about the same age that they solve theory of mind tasks.

In a meta-analysis of 26 longitudinal studies, mild spanking that was conditional on the child's failure to respond to an alternative discipline method, such as verbal reminders and time-outs, was found to be:

as effective as any of these discipline methods by themselves

Gender schemas help children

attend to and remember information that is relevant to their gender schemas, and ignore or forget information inconsistent with the schema. This explains why young children view all police officers as male and nurses as female, even though they have seen counterexamples. However, schemas are susceptible to the child's experiences.

A mother asks her 3-year-old son to keep his food on the table, and reminds him when he "accidentally" knocks it off. When he throws food at his sister, she explains to him that this is against the rules because it makes things dirty and hurts his sister's feelings. This parenting style would be classified as ________.

authoritative Authoritative parenting is high in both warmth/responsiveness and control. Explaining the rules patiently is a common practice among this group of parents.

European-American parents often have the goal of making children feel

better about themselves.

ages children develop gender identity

between the ages of 2 and 7 years of age. Most children can correctly identify themselves as girls or boys by the age of 2 ½ (Thompson, 1975). Between 3 and 6 years of age, children around the world think of gender in terms of culturally-defined roles that a boy or girl must play.

Parent-child social influences are likely _.

bidirectional. For example, girls tend to be more advanced in language skills, and might therefore be more interested in literacy activities than boys.

The finding that many Chinese parents use a style that is more demanding and less overtly affectionate than the average Western (European or Euro American) parent _____.

can be viewed as a culturally-influenced variation on authoritative parenting Some researchers view this style of parenting as closer to Baumrind's authoritarian parenting (high control, low warmth), and argue that authoritative parenting is not as effective in traditional Chinese families. Others view traditional Chinese parenting as a culturally different version of authoritative parenting, characterized by high control and moderate levels of warmth and affection.

shame

casting the eyes downward, shoulder slumping, and turning the corners of the mouth downward

When changes in personality type occurred, they were related to

changes in the social environment. For example, children who changed over time to the resilient category (from undercontrolled or overcontrolled) tended to have highly effective parents

The traditional approach to parenting adopted by many parents born in China is based on two concepts:

chia-shun, translated as "training," and guan, which means parental responsibility for children

sociodramatic play

children actively plan and assign roles, is common. Children act in and direct their own little plays, and will stop to discuss how to change things if someone has a better idea, or the actors become confused

Gender schema theory proposes that

children view some objects and activities as "male," "female," or "neutral." Boys pay more attention to and remember more details about "male" objects and activities, and girls attend to and remember "feminine" objects and activities.

A cultural difference in moral socialization goals was found in which Taiwanese parents emphasized ____________ with their young children, whereas European American parents emphasized ______________ days or weeks after the original misbehavior.

children's misdeeds and their consequences; the children's autonomy and self-esteem A frequent theme of the stories in Taiwanese families was a child's misdeed; the Chicago families focused more often on positive actions of the child after a misdeed occurred (such as apologizing to one's sister for hitting her).

Maternal warmth during the toddler years was also linked to

children's use of emotion terms at later ages

three subgroups of authoritative parents in the original data:

classic authoritative (high warmth, high control), directive (moderate warmth, high control), and democratic (high warmth, moderate control).

Although the total amount of aggressive behavior decreases between 4 and 8 years of age, as a proportion of aggressive behavior, instrumental aggression ________ and reactive aggression ________.

declines; increases Between the ages of 4 and 8, instrumental aggression becomes proportionately lower and reactive (hostile) aggression proportionately higher.

instrumental aggression

designed to achieve a goal (such as acquiring objects, attention, or privileges).

Sociodramatic play may also be important in:

developing an understanding of other people. Taking on and negotiating different roles in play may help children understand that other people have different viewpoints and emotions. Children who engage in more social pretend play (with peers or siblings) tend to have more advanced levels of theory of mind performance, taking into account age and language ability

Baumrind speculated that the parenting behavior of many Chinese and Chinese American families may overlap with the _

directive subgroup, as was also the case for about one-third of Baumrind's primarily European American families.

Four-year-old Lisa meets a friendly dog at the park. Before petting the dog, she asks the dog's owner if it's OK. Lisa is demonstrating ________.

effortful control Effortful control is the ability to inhibit the most typical action in a situation in order to activate a less typical and more adaptive action.

A child who shouts and bites another child who has just taken his toy needs some help in __________.

emotional regulation Emotional regulation is the ability to modulate one's emotional arousal depending on the situation.

self-conscious emotions

emotions such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and pride that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others' reactions to us

moral rules

emphasize issues of harm, personal welfare, and individual rights, and cover actions such as hitting, stealing, cheating, and lying.

Parents promote gender typing not only through direct reinforcement of gender-typical behavior, but also by _____________.

engaging in gender-typical play with their children Fathers, in particular, tend to engage in physical play with sons and quieter activities with daughters.

Adoptive parents who were authoritative tended to have adoptive children with higher social competence at age 7, independently of the child's temperament or attachment security. This finding suggests that there are ______________.

environmental influences of parenting style on social competence An environmental influence of parenting style on social competence is a reasonable explanation of the relationship found between authoritative parenting at 30 months and 7 years and child's social competence (rated by teachers) at age 7, but it must be kept in mind that the data are still correlational and an alternative explanation is still possible. However, genetic factors, temperament, and attachment security are not viable alternative explanations in this study.

Studies measuring cortisol levels as children were induced to experience a self-conscious emotion revealed that________.

evaluative embarrassment and shame are more stressful than simple embarrassment Simple embarrassment (evoked by complimenting the children or otherwise drawing attention to them) did not lead to a rise in cortisol. The researchers concluded that simple embarrassment was less stressful than the other emotions, which involved self-evaluation of failure.

To measure environmental influences of parents on their children's prosocial development, researchers adopted a clever design in which they ________.

examined whether differences in treatment between identical twins were associated with differences in later prosocial behavior To separate environmental from genetic influences of parents on prosocial behavior, researchers have made clever use of the twin design.

According to Vygotsky, sociodramatic play may have benefits for ______.

executive functioning Vygotsky viewed sociodramatic play as one of the primary contributors to the development of executive functioning (the ability to control one's attention, to plan, and to inhibit and monitor one's behavior).

3 components of emotional competence

expressivity, understanding, and regulation

Children of permissive parents were more likely than children of authoritarian parents to have

externalizing behavior problems (such as impulsivity and aggression).

Children who have spent 20 or more hours on average in non-parental care between birth and 4½ years of age, are more likely than children raised exclusively at home to show:

externalizing problems such as aggression and noncompliance with adults at ages 4 to 5, and in grades 1 to 3 The only exception is low-income children, for whom part- or full-time child care has been found to be associated with decreases in behavior problems

A longitudinal study of personality types revealed that undercontrolled children were rated by teachers as having more ___________ than the other two groups, and lower scores in reading and math. Overcontrolled children had more ______________ in relation to resilient children.

externalizing problems; internalizing problems Undercontrolled children were rated by teachers as having more externalizing behavior problems (disobedience, hyperactivity, and antisocial behavior) than the other two groups, and lower scores in reading and math. Overcontrolled children did as well as the resilient children in reading and math, but had more internalizing problems (clinging to an adult, anxiety/depression, and shyness).

The inner knowledge of gender, i.e., of one's maleness or femaleness, is known as _________.

gender identity Gender identity is defined as the inner sense of being a male or a female.

A 4-year-old boy who adamantly believes that only boys can be firefighters and only girls can be nurses is applying his ________ to the classification of these two careers.

gender schema Gender schema refers to a set of beliefs, observations, and expectations about male and female roles.

Evidence for ________ is provided by studies showing that each gender pays greater attention and has better memory for objects and events associated with their own gender.

gender schema theory Gender schema theory proposes that children view some objects and activities as "male," "female," or "neutral." Boys pay more attention to and remember details about "male" objects and activities, and girls attend to and remember "feminine" objects and activities.

Between 2 and 8 years of age, boys gradually play more with boys and girls with girls, a phenomenon known as _________.

gender segregation Gender segregation is the tendency for boys and girls to play in same-sex groups.

In a classic study of delay of gratification, it was observed how long 4-year-olds could wait for a larger treat when they had a smaller treat in front of them. Children who could wait longer, or who did not give in and eat the smaller treat, __________.

had higher educational achievement and social competence in adolescence When the children were followed up at the average age of 17 years, those who were better at holding out for the larger treat had obtained higher scores on the SAT, better grades in school and were better at coping with stress and frustration.

In one study, parents in an experimental group were trained to rely on alternatives to spanking. A key finding was that children in the experimental group

had lower levels of externalizing behavior than children in a control group

Poverty also has an impact on the parent-child relationship. Parents from all ethnic groups who are experiencing economic hardship and stress, as well as a lack of social support, are more likely to be:

harsh, restrictive, and punitive with their children

personality

has an inner "core" of temperament, around which the child builds more complex and individualized sets of thoughts, feelings, and behavioral habits

Parents who use power-assertive techniques to enforce compliance with rules (stern commands, physical restraints, and physical punishment) are likely to

have children who tend to break rules when the parent is not present

Diana Baumrind's influential studies of parenting style showed that children of authoritarian parents were more likely to ________ than children of authoritative parents.

have higher levels of both internalizing and externalizing behavior Children of authoritarian parents tended to have higher levels of internalizing (for example, withdrawal, anxiety) and externalizing (such as aggression, destruction of objects) behavior.

children of authoritarian parents tended to

have higher levels of internalizing (for example, withdrawal, anxiety) and externalizing (such as aggression, destruction of objects) behavior.

authoritarian parenting

high in control but low in warmth/responsiveness. Authoritarian parents have strict rules and expect obedience, but don't often discuss the rules. They are more interested in instilling a sense of obedience rather than responsibility in the child. They tend to be less affectionate, praise the child's accomplishments less, and are less sensitive to the child's emotional needs.

permissive parenting

high in warmth/responsiveness, but low in control. Permissive parents are affectionate, accepting, and indulgent toward their child's desires. They have lower expectations for maturity and responsibility than the other two parenting styles, and avoid punishing the child.

parents who model prosocial behavior and coach their children in emotional regulation tend to have children with

higher rates of prosocial behavior

Children were asked to say what makes people feel happy, sad, etc., and the number of situations they provided was summed to give an emotional knowledge score. The three groups comprised children living in Beijing, and Chinese immigrant children and Euro-American children living in upstate New York.

highest mean emotional knowledge score: euro-american, then chinese immigrant, then chinese (chinese started higher than chinese immigrant but changed at age 4)

Throwing a temper tantrum is universal, but Asian parents are more likely than European-American parents to talk about

how the child embarrassed the parent.

effortful control is related to + what ages

increases in executive functioning in early childhood, which are thought to be based in part on maturation of the prefrontal cortex Effortful control improves dramatically between ages 2 and 4, but there are stable individual differences in the extent of effortful control after age 3

children of authoritative parents tended to be

independent, self-reliant, cheerful, and cooperative with adults and other children

The fact that in the afternoon child care is associated with rising levels of cortisol and staying at home with falling levels of cortisol ___________.

indicates that at least some children may experience child care as stressful There was a mean difference in cortisol levels between children who spent the day in child care as opposed to being at home, and a reasonable inference is that at least some children experienced child care as stressful. However, caution is warranted as it was not an experimental study.

rough and tumble play

involves playful fighting accompanied by positive emotions. Rough-and-tumble play might be a good context in which children can learn to regulate aggression. Recall that physical aggression reaches a peak between 2 and 3½ years of age and declines afterwards. In rough-and-tumble play, children can gradually escalate the level of aggression, and then scale it back when someone yells, "Ouch!" or "Cut it out!"

Children's emotional knowledge is greater when parents _________.

label and explain emotions Parents who label and provide explanations for emotions help children improve understanding of their own emotions.

Children of permissive parents tended to be

low in self-control and cooperativeness with peers and teachers, and the boys in particular were impulsive and aggressive

High quality child care is linked to _________ and ____________.

low levels of aggression; high levels of social competence High-quality child care (measured in terms of caregiver sensitivity and other program characteristics) is linked not only to higher social competence, but to lower levels of externalizing behavior.

Girls exposed to male sex hormones prenatally may tend to show ______________.

masculine play preferences An extreme example of this would be girls with CAH (congenital adrenal hyperplasia) a genetic disorder that results in high prenatal levels of male sex hormones (androgens).

In a longitudinal study, undercontrolled children were rated by teachers as having

more externalizing behavior problems (disobedience, hyperactivity, and antisocial behavior) than the other two groups, and lower scores in reading and math.

Differences among the children in temperament and attachment security were associated with

more positive social behavior at age 7, indicating possible childhood influences on later development. Environmental influences by the adoptive parents were observed as well. Authoritative parenting at 30 months and 7 years predicted the child's social competence (rated by teachers) at age 7 independently of child temperament and attachment security

Across many correlational and longitudinal studies, physical punishment in early childhood is associated with:

negative outcomes, such as higher aggression and antisocial behavior, reduced quality of parent-child relationships, and elevated child mental health problems (depression, anxiety, and substance abuse)

In extreme cases, the behavior of uninvolved parents may border on

neglect or abuse, which has developmentally cascading effects on many aspects of children's development

evaluative embarrassment

nervous smile, gaze aversion, and touching the face or body

A style of parenting characterized by expectations of immediate and unquestioned obedience, use of physical punishment, and a high level of affection and use of reasoning that has been observed in some African American parents living in low-income areas of the inner city, is known as_____.

no-nonsense parenting A variant of the authoritative style, no-nonsense parenting may have developed in part as a means of protecting children from dangers of the urban environment.

for groups where spanking is a cultural norm, such as some Asian American and African American families, spanking is

not found to be associated with as many negative outcomes as are observed in middle-class European American samples

children who engaged in frequent sociodramatic play in preschool showed more growth over time in the ability to

pay attention and control their behavior during clean-up periods or group time, compared to children who engaged in less frequent play

A key factor in cross-ethnic comparisons of parenting is the children's and parents' _ of the child-parent relationship.

perceptions; As long as both parents and children perceive the parent to be warm and involved with the child, and the discipline to be culturally normative, parenting style is positively associated with child outcomes. However, psychological manipulation of the child, overly harsh punishment, and outright hostility toward the child are thought to have negative effects in any cultural group studied

Two of the main categories of infant temperament are moderately stable between infancy and early childhood:

positive emotionality (pleasure and activity level) and negative emotionality (fear and frustration/anger)

Young children's self-assessments of their abilities and personality traits are often characterized by an overconfidence known as _________.

positivity bias Positivity bias is defined as a bias by young children to view themselves in a positive light.

Parents help children form a self-concept by

prompting them to remember the details of activities, evaluating how well the child did, and reminding the child how he felt about the activity.

social conventional rules

refer to rules of conduct in particular social contexts, such as school rules, game rules, and rules of politeness.

When a child seeks to harm another child's social reputation or social relationships, this type of aggression is called _______ aggression.

relational Relational aggression involves damaging another person's position or relationships within the peer group by means of social exclusion or spreading rumors about the person.

longitudinal studies show that 10% to 20% of children

remain aggressive or increase their aggression from early to middle childhood (see Figure 9.4). Higher levels of aggressive behavior at ages 4 to 5 predict problems in social adjustment and academic achievement in elementary school and beyond

The style of play most characteristic of boys, involving physical play and mock aggression, is called ________ play.

rough and tumble Rough-and-tumble play involves playful fighting accompanied by positive emotions.

Which type of play generally does not begin until a child is at least 2 years of age?

rough and tumble play Rough-and-tumble play involves playful fighting accompanied by positive emotions. It may be a good context in which children can learn to regulate physical aggression, which peaks between 2 and 3-1/2 years of age and declines afterwards.

Beginning as early as 24 months, children engage in two additional types of play:

rough and tumble play and sociodramatic play

An overall sense of self-worth is known as _______.

self-esteem Self-esteem is the degree to which a child feels a sense of overall self-worth.

Parenting intervention studies can be used to ________.

show that changes in parenting style may be causally linked to changes in child behavior Parenting intervention studies can establish causal influences of parenting.

With regard to personality type, overcontrolled children are _________ and undercontrolled children are __________.

shy but obedient; impulsive and emotional Overcontrolled children are generally shy and nervous, but obedient, whereas undercontrolled children are more likely to be disobedient, impulsive, and emotional.

Extensive experience in child care (an average of 20 hours per week or more) over the first four years is linked at age five to ____________.

slightly higher externalizing of problems and lack of compliance with teachers Children who have spent 20 or more hours on average in non-parental care between birth and 4½ years of age, are more likely than children raised exclusively at home to show externalizing problems such as aggression and noncompliance with adults, although these effects are not extreme, and occur for only a minority of children experiencing child care.

A second major seemingly contradictory finding is that child-care and preschool experience can promote:

social competence. Children experiencing moderate- to high-quality child care are found in some studies to be able to engage in more complex and mature types of social interactions with peers than children who are not in child care. High-quality child care (measured in terms of caregiver sensitivity and other program characteristics) is linked not only to higher social competence, but to lower levels of externalizing behavior

A third major variation on the authoritative parenting style, called "no-nonsense parenting," is found among:

some low-income, urban-dwelling African American families. In these families, parents often expect immediate and unquestioned obedience, and use physical punishment more often than European American middle-class parents, but combine this with a high level of affection and use of reasoning. No-nonsense parenting may have developed in part as a means of protecting children from dangers of the urban environment (McLoyd, 1998; Murry et al., 2015). It is associated with higher school achievement and fewer behavior problems among children

Which method of parental correction has been frequently (though not consistently) associated with negative outcomes, such as higher aggression and antisocial behavior, reduced quality of parent-child relationships, and elevated child mental health problems?

spanking Across many correlational and longitudinal studies, physical punishment in early childhood is associated with these negative outcomes.

Both evaluative embarrassment and shame reactions (evoked when the child failed at a rigged task) were associated with

spikes in cortisol. In contrast, simple embarrassment (evoked by complimenting the children or otherwise drawing attention to them) did not lead to a rise in cortisol. The researchers concluded that simple embarrassment was less stressful than the other emotions, which involved self-evaluation of failure

through guan, parents view themselves as responsible for raising their children to be

successful, and they regard misbehavior or low school achievement as a personal failure. They pay less attention to children's emotions than many Western parents.

_ and _ both contribute to emotional regulation.

temperament and attachment

Psychologists infer that children know they have a personality because when asked to compare themselves to a puppet's personality ______________.

the children described how they usually acted in a way that was consistent with parents' assessment of their personality traits Children responded consistently in judging their own personality traits, such as timidity ("I don't climb things that are high") and agreeableness ("I share toys with kids I don't know"). Furthermore, parents' ratings of the children's personalities agreed fairly well with the children's self-ratings.

To reduce aggression in a highly aggressive young child, parents should try to stop ________.

the cycle of coercion The cycle of coercion is a pattern in which family members use aggression to control one another. When parents break the cycle of coercion, children's aggression decreases.

gender typing

the process of learning cultural norms -- begins to happen ages 2-4

Overcontrolled children did as well as

the resilient children in reading and math, but had more internalizing problems (clinging to an adult, anxiety/depression, and shyness).

when Chinese parents are harsh, dominating, and psychologically manipulative, their children tend to have:

the same outcomes observed in the United States for coercive forms of parenting, such as poor academic achievement and externalizing and internalizing problems

As effortful control develops, children can exert more control over

their reactive tendencies (both positive and negative).

A Chinese boy whose parents recently emigrated from China to the United States becomes impatient with a trip to the grocery store and starts whining loudly. He is likely to be __________.

told by his parents that he is embarrassing them In predominantly collectivistic cultures such as East Asia, emotions are often viewed as something that should be suppressed, or expressed mainly in the service of group harmony rather than individual well-being.

Part of the reason children can discriminate between moral and social conventional rules at such a young age is that parents ____________.

treat moral rules more seriously and speak about different kinds of issues in connection with the two types of rules Adults and children communicate quite a bit about violations of moral and social conventional rules, and that adults treat moral rules more seriously.

According to Kochanska's longitudinal studies, children who develop a mutually responsive orientation with their parents are more likely to __________ than the children of power-assertive parents.

understand their parents' rules Children of parents with a mutually responsive orientation are more likely to understand their parents' rules than children raised by power-assertive parents.

Children who engage in more sociodramatic play with peers or siblings are found in longitudinal studies to exhibit higher levels of____.

understanding of other people's mental states (theory of mind) Taking on and negotiating different roles in play may help children understand that other people have different viewpoints and emotions.

Researchers find that parents of highly emotional children are more helpful when they act

warmly and sympathetically toward the child, and provide verbal advice about how to cope with the distressing emotions, rather than scolding or punishing their child for the negative emotion

A mutually responsive orientation at ages 1 to 2 years differs from secure attachment in infancy in that it consists of ___________.

warmth and responsiveness as well as the establishment of rules Mutually responsive orientation occurs when a child's emotions and attempts to be independent are met with warmth and firmness by the parent.

waiting 5 minutes before eating the treat and future results

when the children were followed up at the average age of 17 years, those who were better at holding out for the larger treat had obtained higher scores on the SAT, better grades in school and were better at coping with stress and frustration. The study showed that the ability to regulate one's emotions and behavior is a long-lasting individual difference.

children and conflicting emotions v salient emotions

young children have trouble understanding that people can have two conflicting emotions, such as in a picture of a child with a broken bike who looks happy, because he can get a new bike. As a result, they tend to focus on the more salient emotion until ages 7 to 8, when they can recognize both emotions