Developmental Exam 11/3 Questions

How does self-esteem and emotional self-concept develop in early childhood? What are self-concious emotions and how do they relate to self-concept? What roles do empathy and sympathy play in prosocial development?

As preschoolers think more intently about themselves they construct a self concept. preschoolers High self-esteem consists of self judgments. Thinking and feeling are connected. interpret predict and change others feelings. by ages three to four children are aware of various strategies for emotional self-regulation. as self Concepts develop, preschoolers become increasingly sensitive to praise and blame or the possibility of such feedback. empathy serves as a motivator for pro-social behaviors. empathy can also lead the sympathy

How does self-understanding and understanding others change during middle childhood? What can parents do to help children regulate their emotions? Increase self-esteem?

As school-age children gain perspective-taking skills, their self-concepts increasingly include competencies, personality traits and social comparisons. Although parents support remains vital, children increasingly look to more people beyond their family for information about themselves. Cultural forces, gender stereotypes expectations, and child-rearing practices contribute to variations of self-esteem. Authoritative parenting is linked to favorable self-esteem. encourage children to strive for worthwhile goals to develop a strong sense of attachment security.

What are the 4 types of parenting styles according to Baumrind, and how do they reflect the demands/control and acceptance/responsiveness? How do they differ in their perceptions about children? The role of parents? Power? Methods of discipline? Outcomes for children? Which style is the most effective in producing an independent, self-reliant and socially competent child and why?

Authoritarian: High in demands/expectations, Low in acceptance/responsiveness, original sin, parents train the child, parent has power, punishment (physical), rewards, commands, threats, fearful, anxious, may rebel, may be a bully or a follower, Authoritative: High in demands (not control), high in acceptance/responsiveness, parent is teacher and guide, share power, parents want the child to be gradual self-reliant, independent and socially competent, use discipline, rules with realistic consequences, discussion, empathy for others, Permissive/Indulgent: Low in demands/expectations, high in acceptance/responsiveness, innate goodness, parent help and support the child so the child can be happy, free, and independent, the child has power, few rules, pleading, waiting, giving in, low self control, social incompetence, not independent, Neglectful/uninvolved: Low in demands/expectations, low in acceptance/responsiveness, most harmful parenting style, little control, parents are young, alcoholic/drug addict, divorce workaholics, mental illness, low self-esteem, low self-control, social incompetence, most harmful for children's short and long term development

When is peer victimization (bullying) most likely to occur, and who is most likely to be bullied? What intervention programs can help reduce bullying behaviors?

Bullying happens in schools and online, passive, rejected-withdrawn children, frail children and children with overly controlling parents are victims. Interventions to change victimized children's negative opinions of themselves, help victimized children to form and maintain a gratifying friendship.

What are Condry's 5 principles of authoritative parenting?

Choose your battles, lose gracefully, don't offer choices you don't really mean, don't make threats you can't (or won't) carry through on, use minimal amounts of rewards/punishments, preferably none

What are the types of cognitive play and social play? What gender differences occur in play behavior?

Cognitive play: Functional play (simples repeats, 0-2), constructive play (creating or constructing, 3-6), make believe play (acting out everyday and imaginary roles) Social play: nonsocial activity (onlooker), parallel play (near children with similar materials), associative play (seperate but exchange toys), cooperative play (children orient towards a common goal). Boys more rough-and-tumble, girls more sociodramtic play

What are the 3 components of attitudes, and how do they show up in negative attitudes towards a group of people?

Components: Cognitive (beliefs) (stereotyping), Affective (feelings) (prejudice), Behavioral (behaviors) (discrimination)

How have new digital media formats (including apps, computer games, internet sites, and social media) changed the ways children are affected by media, and which developmental theories are most useful in explaining those impacts?

Cyberbullying is growing with devastating consequences. Media used to be things you went and watched, direct experience learning did not apply except for video games. Lot more educational content for kids

What are parent-child and sibling relationships like during middle childhood? How do only children compare to children with siblings?

Despite declines and time spent with parents call regulation allows parents to exercise General oversight children who increasingly make their own decisions. school-age children tend to turn to their parents for support. mother spend more time with children than father. sibling rivalry tends to increase with participation in a wider range of activities and more frequent parental comparisons. only children are higher and self-esteem school performance and educational attainment

What are some of the direct and indirect effects of television?

Direct effects: due to content (diferent in other countries) Ex: kids will start using bad laguage if they hear it, kids could become physical violent, enfores gender stereotypes) Indirect effects: Due to the act of using the medium, regardless of content, Ex. mostly displacement effects (less human interaction, less reading/exersize, more eating)

How do the different developmental theories apply to children's use of media and the impact that television and other media have on them? Which theories could be used to explain the influence of Pokémon and similar shows on children's beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and emotions, and what would each one predict?

Direct experience (operant conditioning): video games, interactive media w/ immediate feedback Observational learning (social learning theory): tv and visual media provide a lot of role models, children can draw inaccurate conclusions from cartoons Cognitive Development Theory: 2-3 year olds believe that characters live in the TV, theory of mind, Information processing and educational theories: younger children attend to remember less information then older children, children incorporate information they learned from TV Moral development theories: moral lessons depend on action of characters they most identify with

What do psychoanalytic theories say about moral development, and what aspect of personality governs moral behavior, according to psychoanalytic theories?

Fear and Guilt Development of the Superego (internalized conscience)

What roles do guilt and empathy play in governing children's moral behaviors?

Freud: avoidance of Guilt, Fear (of parents) Development of superego (3-6 years) Empathy: perspective-taking

What are the effects of media violence on children (including the link between TV viewing aggression), and what theories explain them?

Imitation (social learning): applies mostly to children, identification with the aggressor Desensitization: need to keep increasing violence to get same effect, may become more accepting of violence as normal or commonplace Arousal: short term Disinhibition: born with aggressive impulses but learn not to act on them Social Scripts: learn what to expect and how to behave in specific situations, even fictional content can effect when there is little or no real world experience Mainstreaming: affects your beliefs about the real world including beliefs about certain groups of people and places, occurs when there is a lack of real world knowledge Catharsis: violence is good for you, bleeds off or reduces your aggressive impulses, applied to media portrayal, is nonsense

What are the immediate and long-term consequences of divorce on children, and do they vary by age, gender, and temperament of a child? What other factors can influence children's adjustment to divorce and life in blended families?

Immediate: Preschool children blame themselves, older children act out, oldest children take on mature role, easy children cope with adversity, girls internalized reaction such as crying self-criticism. both sexes show demanding attention-getting Behavior Long-term: score lower and academics problems with adolescent sexuality and development of intimate ties, positive adjustments as needed through effective parenting, success of joint custody depends on successful co-parenting, in Blended families girls older children and children in Father stepmother family tend to have more judgement problems. step parents who move into their row gradually help children to adjust

What is inductive discipline, and how does it differ from punishment? What are the problems with punishment, and how do the consequences of physical punishment vary by ethnicity? What are alternatives to the use of harsh punishment?

Inductive discipline - A type of discipline in which an adult helps make the child aware of feelings by pointing out the effects of the child's misbehavior on others (helps child develop empathy and sympathy). Punishment does not promote lasting changes, models aggression, wood spiral into physical abuse, weak internalization of moral rules. In black families, spanking was approved mild accompanied by verbal teaching so black children viewed spanking as a practice carried out with their best interest in mind. white parents considered physical punishment to be wrong so when they resort to it they're highly agitated so white children view it as acts of aggression.

What are the influences on moral reasoning, and what are the criticisms of Kohlberg's theory and stages?

Influences on moral reasoning: parent practices (engage discussion, support treating others with respect), Peer interaction (interaction between peers with differing viewpoints), Schooling (nondiscrimination/antibullying policies, college exposure), Cultural (industrialized nations move through Kohlberg's theories quickly) Criticisms of Kohlberg: stage sequences inadequately accounts for Morality in everyday life, because situational factors influence moral judgments, stages are viewed as Loosely organized and overlapping

How did Kohlberg explain moral reasoning and what were his levels and stages? How do parent and teachers sometimes reinforce low levels of moral reasoning?

Kohlberg used moral dilemmas to assess reasoning Level 1: Preconventional (related to self) Stage 1: What will happen to me? (avoidance of punishment, will i get caught?) Stage 2: What's in it for me? (receive rewards, is it work the risk) Level 2: Conventional (related to social group & society) Stage 3: What will people think of me? (loyalty, group identity, social approval of others Stage 4: What if everyone did it? (law & order, "rules are rules") Level 3: Post-conventional (principled) Stages 5/6: balancing individual vs societal rights (going for the greater good

How do learning theories explain moral behaviors and aggression?

Operant conditioning (Skinner) is rewards and punishments Cognitive social learning (Bandura) is role models

How does peer socialbility and friendship change in middle childhood? What are the categories of peer acceptance and what can be done to help rejected children?

Peer interaction becomes more prosocial and physical aggression declines. By end of middle childhood, children organize into peer groups (by proximity, sex, ethnicity, academic achievement, popularity), Friendships contribute to the development of trust and sensitivity. Children tend to select friends similar to themselves. Peer Acceptance categories: Popular children, Rejected children, Controversial children, Neglected children, Average children Coaching in social skills and training in perspective taking and solving social problems can help rejected children. Intervening to improve quality of parent-child interaction.

How do biological and environmental theories explain gender typing? How do parents, peers, and media influence gender-stereotyped behaviors, attitudes and beliefs?

Preschoolers acquire a wide range of gender stereotype beliefs and apply them rigidly. Prenatal hormones to boys higher activity level and rougher play to Children's preference for same-sex Playmates. parents have different expectations for sons and daughters. parents teachers and peers also encouraged many gender types responses. boys seen a sissys are considered weak. Girls who are feminine are diligent and compliant. Boys who are masculine are lazy and troublesome.

What is the difference between primary and secondary sex characteristics? How do they differ by biological cohorts, and what fears have changed historically?

Primary sex characteristics: related to sexual reproduction Secondary sex characteristics: other changes (pubic & auxillary, sweat glands & oil gland production, breast development) Females concerns about period (timing, preparation) and breast size. Males concerned about voice changing, penis size and activity.

What are the types of aggression, and how do they vary by age and gender?

Proactive (instrumental) aggression - a type of aggression in which children act to fulfill a need or desire (to obtain an object, privilege, space or social reward, such as adult or peer attention) and unemotionally attack a person to achieve their goal. Reactive (hostile) aggression - an angry, defensive response to a provocation or a blocked goal, which is meant to hurt another person During early childhood / active aggression declines when reactive aggression increases. boys are more likely to be physically aggressive. girls use indirect relational tactics to disrupt intimate bonds.

What are prosocial and antisocial behaviors in terms of moral development? Why are judgments about what is right and wrong to do often confusing to children?

Prosocial - "right" to do, desirable by parents & society Antisocial - "wrong" to do, undesirable by parents & society May depend on context (rules are not clear)

What's the difference between punishment and discipline? What are the problems with using too much punishment?

Punishment: designed to stop an undesired behavior by giving a negative consequence Discipline: identify why the child did it, then teach: what was wrong, why it was wrong, what you should/could have done instead, provide an opportunity to make it right. Problems with punishment: doesn't teach correct behavior, avoid punishment by not being caught, child doesn't internalize right behavior, develop fear/hatred of punisher, hitting is ok

What are "time-outs?" How can they be used effectively and how are they often misused? Why is "grounding" often ineffective?

Removing a child from the situation, Popular misuse is as an all-purpose punishment, used often to send child on time-out for x minutes, More effective is used when emotions are out of control, separate the individuals involved and then after things have calmed down, have a discussion. "Grounding" is often not used properly because it is not often followed through on.

What is the difference between rewards and incentives? Between conditional and unconditional positive regard? What are the problems with too many awards?

Rewards (bribes) designed to increase likehood of a desired behavior by giving a positive consequence (if you do ______, I will give you _______) Incentives: explains why the behavior is desired or necessary and provides logical incentive for doing it (if you want (to do) _____, then first you need to do _____, and here's why) Problems with Rewards: tends to work only as long as rewards continue, undermines intrinsic motivation Conditional positive regard: love, respect, and other positive feelings that depend on meeting some expectation or condition Unconditional positive regard: love, respect, and other positive feelings that are not dependent on any expectations

What hormonal changes occur during puberty? How do they vary by gender? What are the consequences of early vs late maturation, and how does that vary by gender?

Secretions of growth hormone and thyroxine increase. Adrenal androgens influence girls height and other female sex characteristics. Testosterone leads to muscle growth and other male sex characteristics. Early maturing boys tend to be viewed as popular and as leaders, early maturing girls are unpopular. Adolescents of both sexes who reach puberty early experience more psychological stress, depressed mood, and problem behaviors than their on-time or late-maturing peers.

How has timing of puberty changed historically? What causes precocious puberty?

Secular trend= declining age of menarche in females, Precocious puberty: starting puberty before age 7 for girls and age 9 for boys, more common in females of color, causes: endocrine disruptors, environmental stressors, common with high BMI

What developmental changes occur in emotional development during middle and late childhood, and how do children learn to cope with stress?

Self-conscious emotions of Pride and guilt become clearly governed by personal responsibility. Intense shame is particularly destructive. school-age children develop an appreciation of mixed emotions. empathy increases and includes sensitivity to both people's immediate distress and general life condition. By age 10, most children shift adaptively between problem-centered and emotion-centered coping to regulate emotion

How does gender identity develop over early and middle childhood? What can be done to reduce gender stereotyping?

Social learning theory: Preschoolers first acquired gender-typed responses through modeling and reinforcement. they then organize these behaviors into gender-linked ideas about themselves. School-age children extend their awareness of gender stereotypes 2 personality traits and academic subjects. hard to reduce since biology. You can delay exposure to gender roles, use both boys and girls trucks and dolls, support non-traditional people

How do media messages influence perceptions about gender and race?

Specific gendered media reinforce gender stereotypes, books for girls vs boys, identification of role models, not being able to find a doll of color, only good guys are all men or all white, stereotypes reinforced or broken

How was "adolesence" viewed traditionally and how is it viewed today? When does adolescence begin and end in terms of physical changes? Cultural markers? How is adolescence defined in most research?

Traditional definition of adolescence: teenage years (13-18), heavily influenced by puberty, "sturm und drang" (strom and stress) Current view: social & psychological transition from childhood to adulthood, especially development of identity Begins: biological changes (puberty), cultural markers (PG13, Bar/Bat Mitzvah, middle school) feelings (of independence, self-concipousnees), change in relationships (parents, peers, dating) Ends: cultural markers of adulthood (timing varies: 16, 18, 21, 25) growing responsibilities (jobs, college), continuing changes in relationships (with peers, in romantic relationships, with parents and other adults)

How does typical gender identity exploration in childhood differ from what we see in children who are transgender? What can parents, family members, teachers and schools do to support transgender children and teens?

Transgender children feel distress over-identifying with the gender that matches their birth sex. They are insistent that they were not the gender assigned at Birth. they are consistent in expressing a wish to be the opposite sex. they are persistent because they cannot be persuaded by others to "correct" themselves. Families can support the individual and respect their gender pronouns. if the individual wants to get suppressants then the parents should support that. they should respect the individual and not out them.

What are the types and origins of child maltreatment? What are the consequences for children and what types of interventions have been effective in preventing it?

Types: Physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, emotional abuse Origins: ecological systems theory, family: children who are challenging to rear more likely to be targets, alcoholic, low income/education, the community: live in run-down environment, larger culture: cultural values, laws and customs Consequences: impair development of emotional self-regulation, low self-esteem, PTSD Preventing abuse: teaching high-risk parents effective child-rearing strategies, developing broad social programs aimed at improving economic conditions

What are the characteristics of positive parenting?

Use transgressions as opportunities to teach, reduce opportunities for misbehavior, encourage mature behavior, provide reasons for rules, arrange for children to participate in family routines and duties, when children are obstinate, try compromising and problem-solving

What scares children most in media portrayal and how does that vary by age? What coping strategies do children of different ages use to deal with fears?

What causes fear: Younger children (ages 3-5) afraid of things that look scary, older children (8-12) afraid of things that could really happen Fear responses (coping strategies): Younger children use behavioral strategies (covering their eyes), older children used both behavioral and cognitive strategies (telling themselves it isn't real, couldn't happen to them)

What is "white privilege" and how does it show up? What factors contribute to stereotyping and prejudice, and how can parents and teachers address them and improve relationships between ethnically diverse children?

White privilege - living in a white-dominant society, a white person doesn't need to think about things or adjust their lives in ways POC do. What can we do: Make sure children have diverse experiences and role models, have direct conversations about the importance of accepting and treating people fairly, correct encounter all examples of racism and other stereotypes, provide opportunities for children from diverse backgrounds to work together collaborating on a common goal project

What is brain development like during adolescence? How is the maturation of the prefrontal cortex and amygdala reflected in adolescent?

amygdala matures so that adolescents by the age of 14-15 have a functional emotional system, prefrontal cortex is not developed yet so impulsivity and sensational expression is at a high, adolescents engage in risky behavior

What are the problems with using spanking and other physical punishment with children?

children stop Behavior out of fear not self-control, more likely to hit others, lose the want of pleasing parents

What are some consequences of over-protecting children so they are always "happy?"

parents can interfere with a child's development and maturation