Developmental Exam 3
What is the delay of gratification paradigm? Why do we see changes over time?
o Immediate small incentive Vs. Better incentive for which they have to wait o 3-5 year olds cant keep minds off of tempting objects for long o 6- 8 year olds physical distactions o 11-12 year olds abstract thoughts o Prehschoolers don't know strategies that can be used to delay gratification • Adolescents who were unable to delay gratification during preschool years are characterized by parents as impatient and impulsive • Adolescents who had been better at delay gratification were better adjusted socially and academically
What influences do children have on parenting?
*Attractiveness* -A childs physical attractiveness can influence the way their parents treat them *Childs behavior and temperament* -differences in childrens behavior can be because of genetic factors that influence temperament ---children with a difficult temperament often react worse when they receive nonsupportive or nonoptimal parenting -children who don't comply and are resistant to following their parents rules may cause parent to back down leading the child to behave the same way in the future to get what they want *bidirectionality*- idea that the parents and their children are mutually affected by one anothers characteristics and behaviors ---a whiny, difficult 6-8 yr old child predicted mothers punitive reactions (ex: scolding and rejection) to the childs expression of negative emotions when they expressed them ages 8-10. in turn, the mothers punitive reactions to the child when they were 8-10 leads the child to low levels of self-regulation when they are 10-12
How might we intervene to promote attachment with at-risk groups?
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What is child maltreatment? What are some causes? Consequences?
*Child Maltreatment*- Intentional abuse of neglect that endangers the well-being of anyone under 18 -*Causes?* -On the microsystem: Characteristics of parents like low self-esteem, negative reactions to stress and poor impulse control. Drug and alcohol abuse have an impact. Also abusive relationships can result in abusing the kids -On the mesosystem and exosystem: massive life stressers on the parent like low family income, high levels of unemployment, bad housing, and community violence. ---a particularly important cause on the exosystem is a family's social isolation and lack of social support -*Consequences*- -they manifest primarily in the microsystem -less secure relationships with their parents -show less empathy for others -have lower self-esteem -in elementary school: they tend to be more aggressive -later on they have difficulty maintaining friendships
What is ethnic identity? What are the three phases of ethnic identity? Are these phases related to adjustment?
*Ethnic identity*- individuals sense of belonging to an ethnic or racial group including the degree to which they associate their thinking, perceptions, feelings, and behavior with membership in that group *Three phases of ethnic identity* -Ethnic- id diffusion/foreclosure: when teens have examined their ethnicity and are not particularly interested in it. Some have internalized the majority of societies negative views of their group -Ethnic- id search/moratorium: teens develop interest in learning about their culture and start to think about the effects their ethnicity might have on their life, present and future -ethnic- id achievement: teens more conscious awareness and commitment to ones ethnic group and ethnic identity *related to adjustment?* -research shows that higher levels of ethnic identity are generally associated with higher self-esteem, well being and low levels of emotional and behavioral probs -most ethnic teens have stable ethnic identities or progress thru the sequence stated above ---does not always follow this pattern tho ---establishing a clear ethnic id may be harder for some teens who id with many ethnicitys
How does temperament relate to adjustment outcomes? Do outcomes depend on the parenting context (think goodness of fit)?
*Goodness of fit*- the degree to which an individuals temperaments is compatible with the demands and expectations of his or her social environment -children with difficult temperaments have better adjustment if they receive parenting that is supportive or consistent rather than punishing or inconsistent -Children exposed to subpar parenting do worse if they have unregulated or reactive temperaments
How do heredity, parents, peers, and ethnicity contribute to self-esteem? If so, how?
*Heredity* -physical appearance and athletic ability -those who are more attractive, as a consequence behave in more socially competent ways and are well adjusted -association between self-esteem and attractiveness may be stronger for girls than boys -genetically based intellectual abilities and aspects of personality, like sociability, no doubt play a part in academic and social self-esteem -self-esteem is more similar in identical twins than in fraternal twins -genetic contribution to self-esteem appears to be stronger for boys than girls *others contributions to self-esteem* -most important influence on self-esteem is approval and support they receive from others -if child feels loved when they are young, they come to believe that they are lovable and worthy of others love. -parents who are loving and supportive tend to have children with high self-esteem -support from nonparental adults like teachers has been associated with higher self-esteem -over the course of childhood, childs self-esteem is increasingly affected by peer acceptance -in late childhood, peers might have more of an influence than parents on self-esteem -adolescents increasingly evaluate themselves on the basis of their own internalized standards rather than on the approval of others *School and neighborhood* -school environment is most apparent in the decline in self-esteem that is associated with the transition from elementary school to middle school -childrens self-esteem that can be affected by their neighborhood is suggested by evidence that living in poverty leads to low self-esteem -may be due to high levels of stress that undermine the quality of parenting, prejudice from more affluent peers, and inadequate material and psychological resources *Self-esteem in minority children*- -minority children in US are more likely to live in undesirable locations and are subject to prejudice and tend to have lower self-esteem -although discrimination can have a negative effect on adolescents self-esteem, how minorities think about themselves is influenced more strongly by acceptance from their family, neighbors and peers rather than society as a whole
What changes in positive and negative emotions do we see in early development?
*Positive Emotion* -First month: babies exhibit fleeting smiles mainly during REM phase sleep and after the first month they sometimes smile after being stroked gently -3-8 weeks- begin to smile in reaction to external stimuli and by 6-7 weeks they start to smile specifically at people -2 months- they show happiness in both social and nonsocial settings in which they can control a particular event -7 months- they start to smile at PARTICULAR people. not just people in general -Childrens expression of positive emotions increases across the first year of life maybe because they are able to understand and respond to more interesting and positive events stimuli. *Negative emotions* -Newborns- first negative emotion that is obvious is generalized distress often expressed with cries and tight grimaces -Fear and distress: --4 months: infants are wary of unfamiliar objects and events ---6-7 months: initial signs of fear start to appear particularly the fear of strangers. it intensifies and lasts until about AGE 2 ---6-7 months: other fears include fears of novel toys, loud noises, and sudden movements by people or objects and this tends to increase until age 12-16 months ---8 months: separation anxiety is huge at this age -Anger and Sadness ---4-8 months: anger is distinct from other negative emotions ---1 years old: infants clearly and frequently express anger often towards other people and their anger typically increases until 16 months of age ---when infants and toddlers are separated from their parents for extended periods of time without sufficient care they often express prolonged periods of sadness ---Toddlers are quicker to respond with physical expressions of anger at 18-24 months of age than they are 36 months or older
What is a secure base?
*Secure base*- refers to the idea that the presence of a trusted caregiver provides an infant or toddler with the sense of security that makes it possible for the child to explore the environment -the primary caregiver serves as a haven of safety when the infant feels threatened or insecure, and the child derives comfort and pleasure from being near the caregiver
What are some components of self-esteem? How do we measure self-esteem?
*Self-esteem*- ones overall evaluation of the self and the feelings caused by that evaluation -Sources of self-esteem: --genetic inheritance --the quality of their relationships w/ others --various cultural factors --how children think about themselves in a variety of contexts *measurement of self-esteem* -researchers ask questions verbally or through questionnaires about their perceptions of themselves -the questions assess: ---childs sense of physical attractiveness --athletic competence --social acceptance --scholastic ability --appropriateness of their behavior --their global self-esteem- how they feel about themselves in general
What is the main idea of social learning theory? How is it different from other learning theories?
*Social Learning Theory*- attempts to account for personality and other aspects of social development in terms of learning mechanisms. -In assessing environmental influences on children development, it places a strong emphasis on observation and imitation rather than reinforcement. -According to Bandura, observational learning depends on basic cognitive processes: 1. paying attention to others behaviors 2. encoding what is observed 3. storing the information in memory 4. and retrieving it at some point later on -Different from other learning theories because it emphasizes the active role of the child in their own development as a reciprocal determinism between children and their social environment ---*reciprocal determinism*-children are affected by aspects of their environ but the also influence the environ -Evocative and Active child ideas play a role here -It is also emphasized the importance of a perceived self- efficacy ---*perceived self- efficacy*- an individuals beliefs about how effectively he or she can control his or her own behavior, thoughts, & emotions in order to achieve desired goal.
What changes do we see in self-concept across development?
*The self in infancy* -compelling evidence that infants have a rudimentary sense of self in the first month of life -2-4 months- infants have a sense of their ability to control objects outside of themselves -8 months- a sense of self becomes much more distinct when infants react with separation distress if taken away from their mom -1 yr- infants begin to show joint attention with respect to objects in the environment -18-20 months- recognition of the self becomes more directly apparent when many children can look int the mirror and know they are looking at themselves -2 yrs- become extremely self-aware. ex: children can recognize themselves in photos ---also evident in their use of language like in their use of pronouns to refer to themselves *the self in childhood* -as childhood progresses their conception of themselves becomes increasingly complex and encompassing -3-4 yrs- children understand themselves in terms of concrete, observable characteristics related to physical attributes, physical activities and abilities, social relationships, and psychological traits ---their self-evaluations of themselves are unrealistically positive -by elementary school, they begin to refine their conceptions of self due to social comparison (comparing themselves to their peers) -by middle to late elementary school, children's conceptions of self have begun to become integrated and more broadly encompassing -developmental changes in older childrens conceptions of self reflect cognitive advances in their ability to use higher order conceptions -b/c older school aged childrens conceptions of self are strongly influenced by the opinions of others, children at this age are vulnerable to low self-esteem *the self in adolescence* -change fundamentally across adolescence due in part to the emergence of abstract thinking during this stage of life -adolescences can conceive themselves in terms of a variety of selves, depending on the context -Personal fable- adolescents overly differentiate their feelings from those of others and come to regard themselves and especially their feelings as unique and special -imaginary audience: the belief, stemming from adolescent egocentrism, that everyone else is focused on the adolescents appearance and behavior -in late adolescence and early adulthood, the individuals conception of self comes more integrate and less determine by what others think
what is differential susceptibility? What factors might promote different susceptibility to parenting
*differential susceptibility*- individuals vary in the degree they are affected by experiences or qualities of the environment they are exposed to. -some children are more affected by parenting ---difficult temperament appear more affected by quality of parenting -children w/ difficult temperament + unsupportive parents---> negative outcomes -children w/ difficult temperament + supportive and loving parents---> positive outcomes
What is emotion regulation? How does it change over time?
*emotional self-regulation*- a complex process that involves initiating, inhibiting or modulating the following aspects of emotional functioning: 1. internal feeling states (the subjective experience of emotion) 2. emotion-related cognitions (eg, thoughts about ones desires or goals; ones interpretation of an evocative situation; self-monitoring of ones emotional states) 3. emotion-related physiological process (eg, heart rate and hormonal or other physiological reactions, including neural activation, that can change as a function of regulating ones feeling states and thoughts) 4. emotion- related behavior (eg, actions or facial expressions related to one's feelings) -emergence of emotional regulation in childhood is a long slow process *the shift from caregiver regulation to self-regulation* -parents usually help young infants regulate their emotion by attempting to soothe or distract them -6 months- infants show signs of rudimentary emotional self-regulation ---occasionally they self soothe and sometimes they distract themselves -over the course of early years, children develop and improve their ability to distract themselves by playing on their own when distressed -also become less likely to seek comfort from their parents when they are upset -these changes in self-regulation are partly due to the increasing maturation of neurological systems- including portions of the front lobes -also due in part to changes in what adults expect from children ----ex: when a child can crawl they are viewed as more responsible for their behavior -across the early years, childrens ability to regulate their attention improves *use of cognitive strategies to control negative emotions* -older children use cognitive strategies and problem solving to adjust to emotionally difficult situations -this ability helps children avoid acting in ways that might be counterproductive *the selection of appropriate regulatory strategies* -over time, when dealing with emotions, children become better at choosing cognitive or behavioral strategies that are appropriate for the particular situation and stressor -one reason: with age children are more aware that the appropriateness of a particular coping behavior depends on their specific needs and goals as well as the nature of the problem -second reason: planning and problem-solving skills, which likely contribute to the selection and use of appropriate strategies, improve across childhood and adolescence -third reason: also aided by their ability to distinguish between stressors that can be controlled (like hw) and those that can't be controlled
What attachment classifications are there? What behaviors in the strange situation do we see in kids with these attachment classifications? What attachment classification is most common for US children with their primary caregivers?
*secure attachment* - use caregiver as secure base to explore when present - when caregiver is not present they might mildly protest, and when caregiver returns babies reestablish positive interaction like smiling - then resume playing *insecure*- less positive attachment to c.g. *insecure avoident attachment*- insecurity by avoiding mom/ no contact - strange situation: babies have little interaction w/ C.G - not distressed when C.G leaves - usually don't reestablish contact with C.G returns, and could turn back on C.G - if there is contact baby usually leans away or looks away. *insecure resistant attachment*- cling to caregiver and resist her by fighting against the closeness, pherhaps by kicking or pushing away. - Stranger situation: babies often cling anxiously to C.G, and don't explore playroom - when C.G leaves, they cry loudly and push away if she tries to comfort them on her return *disgorganized attachment*- - disorganized and disoriented - Strange: babies might appear dazed, confused, and fearful - babies must show strong patterns of avoidance and resistance or display certain specified behaviors, such as extreme fearfulness around C.G to be classified as disorganized
What is attachment? How do we measure it? What is attachment NOT?
-*Attachment*- an emotional bond with a specific person that is enduring across space and time. Usually attachments are discussed in regard to the relationship between infants and specific care givers, although they can also occur in adulthood -Attachment is NOT: -the same as bonding. Bonding refers to affectionate feelings between parent and infant, and does not involve secure base behavior -something that sometimes doesnt happen -A trait of persons --- It is universal. Kids can have more than one attachment relationship, each with different qualities -not weak or strong ---The quality of attachment predicts security
What is the positive illusory bias? Have we seen changes in self-esteem in young adults across generations?
-Positive illusory bias: an unrealistically favorable attitudes that people have towards themselves or to people that are close to them -Young kids tend to overestimate their skills and competencies -This changes as we get older? IDK the answer to this
What are the statuses of identity development? What outcomes are associated with identity development?
-*Identity diffusion status*- the individual does not have firm commitments regarding the issues in question and is not making progress toward developing them -*Foreclosure status*- the person has not engaged in any identity experimentation and has established a vocational or ideological identity based on the choices or values of others -*Moratorium status*- the individual is exploring various occupational and ideological choices and has not yet made a clear commitment to them -*identity-achievement status*- the individual has achieved a coherent and consolidated identity based on personal decisions regarding occupation, ideology, and the like. believes that these decisions were made by themselves and is committed to them
What is an internal working model? How is it related to attachment?
-*Internal working model of attachment*- the child's mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general that is constructed as a result of experiences with caregivers. The working model guides children's interactions with caregivers and other people in infancy and at older ages -Believed that this internal working model guides the individuals expectations about relationships throughout life
What are fear of strangers and separation anxiety? How do they develop?
-*Separation anxiety*- distress due to separation from the parent who is the child's primary care giver or someone they are emotionally attached to ---separation anxiety tends to increase from 8-13/15 months and then begins to decrease ---pattern of separation anxiety occurs across many cultures -*Fear of strangers*- ---6-7 months is when fear of strangers starts to begin ---the starting to recognize unfamiliar people does not provide comfort or pleasure like familiar people do ---lasts until age 2 ---fear of strangers is quite variable --------depends on both the babies temperament and the context of the situation
What are self-conscious emotions? What cognitive developments are necessary for their emergence? What are the differences between different types of self-conscious emotions? What parenting practices elicit specific self-conscious emotions? Are there cross-cultural differences in what induces self-conscious emotions?
-*self-conscious emotions*- emotions such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and pride that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others reactions to use *necessary cognitive developments* -by 2 yrs, kids can start to understand themselves as beings distinct from others and begin to develop a sense of self -also fostered by childrens growing sense of what adults and society expect of them and their acceptance of these external standards *Differences in emotions* -Children feel pride when they know they have successfully met a challenge or achieved something new -guilt: associated with empathy for others and involves feelings of remorse and regret about ones behavior as well as the desire to undo the consequences of that behavior -Shame: when children feel same they focus on themselves and feel exposed *parenting practices* -children are more likely to feel GUILT than SHAME if when they have done something wrong and their parents emphasize the badness of the BEHAVIOR rather than the child -also children are more likely to feel guilty if their parents help them understand the consequences of their actions on others, teach them the need to repair the harm they have done, avoid publicly humiliating them and communicate love and respect *Cross culturally* -situations that induce these emotions varies across cultures as well as the frequency with which specific emotions are likely to be experienced -ex: in Zuni culture, standing out among others is discouraged and instead of feeling pride when they do better than others they feel shame or embarrassment ex: Japan: they dont like praise b/c it seems as if they are focusing on the self as opposed to the group as a whole Ex: in asian cultures, not living up to social or familial obligations is like to evoke shame or guilt
What is sexual identity? What developmental milestones do we see in the process of coming out? What are some consequences of coming out?
-*sexual orientation*- a persons preference in regard to men or women as objects of erotic feelings *process* -first recognition: an initial realization that one is different than others. generally some awareness that same-sex attractions may be the relavent issue but the individual does not reveal this to others ---lots of variability with age -test and exploration -identity acceptance: marked by preference for social and sex with others of the same sexual id and coming to think more positively about it all ---when they inform loved ones of their sexual preferences -identity integration: gays/lez/bi firmly view themselves as such and are proud and they are public to their community *Consequences* -If some religions are against them coming out, it might stop someone from doing it for a while -a lot of times parents react negatively with disappointment and denial ---sometimes they receive threats from relatives -sometimes they are victims of abuse from the community -gay youths are very vulnerable to a number of social and psychological problems ---prone to negative affect, depression, low self-esteem, and low feelings of control in romantic relationships -also report more probs in school and with drugs
What are Baumrind's parenting styles? How do each reflect demandingness and control? What are the correlates of each style? Why does authoritative parenting work?
-Baumrind differentiated among four styles of parenting relating them to dimensions of support and control *authoritative parent*- parents who are demanding and supportive. -they set clear standards and limits for kids -firm about their standards -but encourage kids to be autonomous within those limits -attentive, responsive and respectful of their children's perspectives Correlates: --->academic and social competence, self confidence, low drug use and problem behavior *authoritarian parent*- very demanding and not very responsive -not responsive to their childrens needs - tend to enforce their demands through parental power and the use of threats and punishment -expect kids to comply and be obedient without question Correlates: --->low self-confidence, higher antisocial behavior, unhappy or unfriendly; more conforming *permissive parent*- high in responsiveness but low in demandingness -respond to childrens needs to but do not require children to regulate themselves or act in appropriate or mature ways Correlates: --->impulsivity, lack of self control (poor grades), more drug use in teens *rejecting-neglecting parent*- low in both demandingness and responsiveness -dont monitor or set limits for their children -not supportive -more focused on their own needs rather than the childs Correlates: --->poor social competence, internalizing problems, antisocial behavior, risky sexual behavior *Why authoritative parents better* -they are just more understanding -set limits/restrictions -teaches that the child is to be socialized ----willingness to adhere to rules
How do socioeconomic factors relate to parenting? Why?
-Parents with lower SES= authoritarian parenting styles -Parents with higher SES= authoritative parenting styles -some of the SES differences in parenting styles could be related to differences parental beliefs and values ---ex: Higher SES parents might view themselves as teachers while lower SES parents might view themselves as providers -education is an important aspect of SES associated with difference in parent values and knowledge -SES differences in parenting styles and practices may partly reflect differences in environments which families live -low SES parents have more stress especially if they live below the poverty line
What is Bronfenbrenner's contextual theory of development? What are the layers of context?
-Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory focuses on the quality and context of the child's environment. -He states that as a child develops, the interaction within these environments becomes more complex. -He conceptualized the environment as a set of nested structures, each inside the next -Over the course of development, the individual characteristics interact with the environmental forces present at each level Systems: 1. *Microsystem*- the immediate environment that an individual personally experiences (peers, parents/immediate fam, extended fam, school, religious setting, etc.) 2. *Mesosystem*- the connections of the microsystem (family, peers and school. for ex: a childs academic success is facilitated when they have supportive parents) 3. *Exosystem*- environmental settings that a person does not directly experience butthat can affect the person indirectly (mass media, work place, local industry, school board, local government) 4. *Macrosystem*- the larger culture and social context within which the other systems are embedded (the culture) *Chronosystem*- historical changes that influence other systems --for example: when someone moves, each of their systems completely change
How do the effects of divorce on children change with age? What are some parent and child factors that influence the impact of divorce on children?
-Divorce impacts all ages, the amount impacts varies *Parent Characteristics* -Stress, reactivity, social support ---loss of some friends due to the divorce can cause a lot of stress *Child characteristics* -temperament- ex: difficult temperaments have a harder time -Age ---preschool/early school age: have a hard time understanding whats going on. more likely to have feelings of anxiety and abandonment ---school-aged children/teens: more acting out. girls tend to internalize their feelings while boys can become more aggressive ---college students/young adults: some feel their childhood was a lie cuz their parents didnt actually love each other. there is definitely an impact but its not as intense because they are mature enough to comprehend whats going on
What is the main approach to development proposed by Erikson? What are the differences between Freud's theory and Erikson's theory? (NOTE: I do not expect you to memorize each of Erikson's psychosocial stages.)
-Each of Erikson's stages is characterized by a specific crisis or set of developmental issues that the individual must resolve. -If the dominant issue of a given stage is not successfully resolved before the onset of the next stage, the person will continue to struggle with it -Erikson's emphasis on the quest for identity in adolescence has had a lasting impact, providing the foundation for a wealth of research on this aspect of adolescence. -How are they different? --Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan.
According to Freud, what are the three aspects of the human mind? How does development in these aspects of the mind influence personality development? What are some of Freud's contributions to current perspectives in developmental psychology? (NOTE: I do not expect you to memorize each of Freud's stages.)
-Freuds theory of development is referred to as the theory of psychosexual development because he thought that even young children have a sexual nature that motivates their behavior and influences their relationships with others. -Three aspects of the the human mind: -*Id*- the earliest and most primitive personality structure. it is unconscious and operates with the goal of seeking pleasure -*Ego*- the second personality structure to develop. it is the rational, logical, problem-solving component of personality -*Superego*- the third personality structure. consisting of internalized moral standards -The passage through the stages of psychosexual development shapes the individual's personality for life. -The most significant contributions that Freud made to developmental psych were his emphasis on the importance of early experience and emotional relationships and his recognition of the role of subjective experience and unconscious mental activity.
What is social cognition? What are the steps in social information processing and how do they relate to aggression? What is a hostile attribution bias?
-Has to do with children's abilities to think and reason about their own and other people's thoughts, feelings, motives, and behaviors -Children pay attention to what others do and say and they are constantly drawing inferences, forming interpretations, constructing explanations or making attributions regarding what they observe. -Crick and Dodge steps: -*Encode*- Attention to specific cues -*Interpret*- aggressive kids are more likely to assume that someone has bad intentions -*Formulate a goal*- aggressive children are more likely to identify instrumental goals and less likely to identify rational goals -*Generate strategies*- aggressive kids access fewer, more aggressive and avoidant response -*Evaluate strategies*- evaluate aggression more positively, expect positive outcomes following aggression, decide to behave aggressively *Hostile attributional bias*- In Dodge's theory, the tendency to assume that other people's ambiguous actions stem from a hostile intent
What cultural variations do we see in attachment?
-Humans are believed to be biologically predisposed to form attachments with their caregivers so its not unrealistic to assume that attachment behaviors are similar cross culturally -Infants behaviors in the Strange Situation are similar across numerous cultures -It is possible that differences in childrens experiences with separation within or across cultures contribute substantially to the variability in childrens behavior in the stranger situation
What outcomes are typical of children of gay/lesbian parents (e.g., are they more likely to be homosexual? To exhibit adjustment problems)?
-Literally the outcomes are the same for both -they are similar in sexual orientation to their peers too, they aren't more likely to be gay ----they might seem like they may have a higher rate of being gay but it could be because they feel more comfortable coming out of the closet. -the adjustment depends on family dynamics like the closeness of parent-child relationships, how well the parents get along, supportiveness
Is it better to stay together for the children rather than divorce? Why or why not? Does it depend on the level of interparental conflict?
-No it is not -Spill over hypothesis: --- marital conflict---> diminished parenting --->child behavior problems --- marital conflict---> parent-child conflict---> child behavior problems
What is the best type of parenting to promote conscience development in fearful and fearless children? What does this tell us about parent-temperament interactions in predicting development? How do these findings relate to the idea of goodness of fit?
-Parenting style effects on conscience depended on temperamental features: -fearful children: gentle discipline -fearless children (kids who have no problem getting into trouble)- close parent-child relationship -Goodness of fit: how ones environment fits with their lifestyle IDK THIS ONE
What are the Bobo doll studies? What are the findings of this research? What is the learning vs. performance distinction, and how do the Bobo doll studies address this issue?
-Researcher: Albert Bandura *Experiment*: He studied children's behavior after watching an adult model act aggressively towards a Bobo doll. There are different variations of the experiment. The most notable experiment measured the children's behavior after seeing the model get rewarded, get punished, or experience no consequence for beating up the bobo doll. -Vicarious reinforcement: Observing someone else receive a reward or punishment *Results:* -Found that the children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to act in physically aggressive ways than those who were not exposed to the aggressive model. -children were more influenced by same-sex models -evidence strongly supports that males tend to be more aggressive than females -Children who had seen the model punished imitated the behavior less than did those in the other two groups ***IDK What is the learning vs. performance distinction, and how do the Bobo doll studies address this issue?***
What are some risks of divorce? Why is divorce associated with risk for children?
-Risks: ---Academic- poor grades ---Psychological- depression --Behavioral note: these risks are mainly short term -children with parents who are divorced are more likely to get divorced themselves -
What is the rouge test? When do kids pass this test?
-Rouge test: -an experimenter repetitiously puts dots of a rouge on a child's face -places the child in front of a mirror -asks the child who the person with the red spot is or tells the child to clean the spot off the person in the mirror -kids pass the test by 18 months- many children touch the rouge on their own face, so it is assumed that they realize the mirror image is a self-reflection
Does attachment status predict important developmental outcomes? If so, why?
-Securely attached infants appear to group up to be better adjusted and more socially skilled than do insecurely attached children ----they may develop positive and constructive internal working models of attachment -a childs security of attachment is related to their later psychological, social, and cognitive functions -some theorists believe that early security of attachment has important effects on later development because it provides enduring working models of positive relationships -other theorists believe that early security of attachment predicts later development primarily to the degree that the child's environment does not change
What is the Five Factor Model of personality? What are the factors? At what ages do these factors emerge? (HINT: is there a little 5, and when do they emerge?)
-The Big Five personality traits are five broad domains or dimensions of personality that are used to describe human personality. *Openness to experience*- Artistic, curious, imaginative, insightful, original, having wide interests, unusual thought processes, intellectual interests *Conscientiousness*- Efficient, organized, planful, reliable, thorough, dependable, ethical, productive *Extraversion*- Active, assertive energetic, outgoing, talkative, gesturally expressive, gregarious *Agreeableness*- appreciative, forgiving, generous, kind, trusting, noncritical, warm, compassionate, considerate, straightforward *Neuroticism*- Anxious, self-pitying, tense, emotionally unstable, impulsive, vulnerable, touchy, worrying *NEED TO FINISH THIS ONE*
What are some effects of the media on child development?
-The media is apparent in each of the systems ->In the macrosystem: cultural values and govt policies ->In the exosystem: economic pressures ->in the microsystem: parental monitoring -Some "educational" DVDs might have negative effects on language development -Media violence has negative effects on children -Exposure to media violence has an impact in four different ways: 1. seeing actors engage in aggressive behaviors teaches and inspires them 2. viewing aggression activates the viewers own aggressive thoughts, feelings, & tendencies. 3. media violence is exciting and arousing for most youths and their heightened physiological arousal makes them more likely to react violently to provocations right after watching violent films 4. frequent long-term exposure to media violence gradually desensitizes ppl -There is a lack of physical activity and going outdoors due to the sedentary nature of screen time -there is a strong relationship between media and school grades. more media --> poorer grades -socio-economic inequalities will be exacerbated by the digital divide- unequal access to and use of computers as a function of SES
What economic and ethnic variations do we see in parenting? In the outcomes of parenting? Are there cultural differences in parenting styles and associated outcomes?
-They are more authoritarian --Economically disadvantaged parents --Younger african american parents --->may feel the need to use control to protect their kids from dangers in the hood -Racial differences: -the *outcomes* depend on how the children interpret their parents behavior (whether they see it as loving or harsh) -BUT adjustment of children with authoritarian parents does not exceed authoritative *cross cultural differences* -positive relations between authoritative parenting and positive adjustment across culture ---but the relationship isn't always as strong -different cultures have different views of appropriate behaviors ---this relates to differences in out comes
Is attachment security to fathers important? Are father involvement and parenting behaviors associated with child outcomes? Is quality, or quantity, of time with nonresidential fathers most important?
-YESS attachment security to fathers is very important *father involvement and outcomes* -academic achievement -socio-emotional development *QUALITY MATTERS MORE THAN QUANTITY*
What is emerging adulthood? How is it different from adolescence and adulthood (consider issues such as demographics, subjective sense, etc., as discussed in class)? Is it present across cultures? What are some of the potential limitations of having this developmental stage? The advantages?
-exploration before settling into adult roles -demographics: residential settling: some stay at home others go out on their own -contrasts with adolescence because when youre a teen you stay at home -schooling: some kids go to college, others go right to work -some kids get married earlier than others -theres variability with everyone Identity exploration: love (relationships are more serious and tend to last longer), work (more focused on vocation), worldviews (may have your own that different from your parents, these are also a part of cognitive development), often explore the world! Cultural influences: culturally bound: only in cultures that postpone entry into adult roles and responsibilities ---industrialized countries that require high levels of edu ---social class may be important because higher SES means you have the means to travel and figure yourself out more, working class means you may have to take on responsibilities earlier -may become more common in developing countries- trend of marrying later observed across different countries The biological clock: best ages to be pregs are 20-35 otherwise there are higher risk pregnancies or you cant get pregnant anymore Risky behavior: peaks during emerging adulthood: unprotected sex, substance use and abuse, risky driving behaviors. ---maturation happens over time but the rate at which it does differs for everyone -Depression: in emerging adulthood depression symptoms decrease cuz of independence and autonomy Self-esteem: self-esteem increases because of coming to terms with who you are and for women they might feel more power and independence
How does emotional understanding develop?
-first step in development of emotional knowledge is the recognition of different emotions in others ---by 3 months infants can distinguish facial expressions of happiness, surprise, and anger -knowing the cause of emotions is also important for understanding ones owns and others behavior and motives -understanding the realizing that the emotions people do express do not necessarily reflect their true feelings ---beginning of this realization is often seen in 3 yr olds ---part of the improvement in understanding false emotion involves a growing understanding of display rules ------*display rules*- a social groups informal norms about when, where and how much one should show emotions and when and where displays of emotions should be suppressed or masked by displays of other emotions
What cultural differences do we see in self-esteem (e.g., individualistic vs. collectivistic societies)?
-in diff cultures sources of self-esteem, its form and its function and the criteria that children use to evaluate themselves may vary -USA- self-esteem is related to individual accomplishments and self-promotion -Asian cultures- (traditionally collectivists)- self-esteem is believed to be more related to contributing to the welfare of the larger group and affirming the norms of social interdependence -In the context of Asia, self-criticism and efforts at self-improvement may be viewed as evidence of commitment to the group but by USA standards, this motivation towards self-criticism is reflected as lower self-evaluation
What predicts attachment? How do we know? What is Ainsworth's caregiving hypothesis? Kagan's temperament hypothesis? What support is used for each? Which has received more support?
-parenting styles predict attachment -*Ainsworth caregiving hypothesis*- ---adult attachment models: working models- working models of attachment in adulthood that are believed to be based on adults perceptions of their own childhood experiences ---the way the adult was raised reflects on their ability to raise their babies Caregiving hypothesis: Secure babies have: sensitive, responsive caregivers Resistant babies have: inconsistent caregivers Avoidant babies have: impatient, negative, rejecting caregivers -This theory has received more support than Kagans theory -*Kagan temperament hypothesis*- -Temperament --> attachment? -Problems: ---Attachment describes the relationship, not the infant ---Contributions of parental characteristics ---Twin studies ---Intervention studies
What continuity and change do we see in temperament and personality?
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What cultural differences are there in emotional development?
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What effects does child care have on child development (e.g., on the attachment relationship, social adjustment, cognitive development)? Do the effects depend on the SES of the family? Are the effects of influences at home larger or smaller than the effects of child care?
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What family influences do we see on emotional expression?
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What genetic and environmental influences do we see on temperament?
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What is social referencing?
Social Referecning: the use of parents or other adults facial expression or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous or possible threatening situations. -in studies to test this, infants are typically exposed to novel people or toys while their mother at the experimenters direction, shows a happy, fearful or neutral facial expression -results show that 1 yr olds tend to stay near their mother when she shows fear; to move toward the novel person or object if she expresses positive emotion; and to move partway toward the person or object if she shows no emotion
What is temperament? What are dimensions of temperament? What do easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up infants look like?
temperament: constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self regulation that demonstrate consistency across situation, as well as relative stability over time *easy babies (40%)*- adjust readily to new situations, quickly established daily routines such as sleep and eating, and generally were cheerful in mood and easy to calm *difficult babies (10%)*- were slow to adjust to new experiences, tended to react negatively and intensely to novel stimuli and events and were irregular in their daily routines *slow-to-warm-up (15%)*- were somewhat difficult at first but became easier over time as they had repeated contact with new objects, people and situations *six dimensions of temperament* 1. fearful/distress inhibition: distress and withdrawal, and their duration in new situations 2. irritable distress: fussiness, anger and frustration, especially if the child is not allowed to do what he or she wants 3. attention span and persistence: durantion of orienting toward objects or events of interest 4. activity level: how much an infant moves (waves arms, kicks, crawls) 5. positive affect/ approach: smiling and laughing, approach to people, degree of cooperativeness and manageability 6. rhythmicity: the regularity and predictability of the childs bodily functions such as eating and sleeping --the first five of these dimensions are particularly important in classifying children's temperament and predicting their behavior
