developmental psychology ch.1-4

Piaget's 1st intellectual developmental stage

sensorimotor stage (birth-2) the baby manipulates objects to pin down the basics of physical reality. This stage, ending with the development of language

Attachment theory

theory formulated by John Bowlby centering on the crucial importance to our species' survival of being closely connected with a caregiver during early childhood and being attached to a significant other during all of life.

longitudinal study

a developmental research strategy that involves testing an age group repeatedly over many years

cross-sectional study

a developmental research strategy that involves testing different age groups at the same time

zygote

a fertilized ovum

representative sample

a group that reflects the characteristics of the overall population

naturalistic observation

a measurement strategy that involves directly watching and coding behaviors

self-report strategy

a measurement strategy that involves having people report on their feelings and activities through questionnaires

how is play important in the life of a child?

1. play allows children to practice adult roles 2. allows children a sense of control 3. furthers our understanding of social norms

3 major principles about intellectual development from Vygotsky

1. we develop intellectualy through social interactions 2. development is a collaborative endeavor 3. people cause cognitive growth

Soma

A set of nerves that conveys information into and out of the central nervous system.

teratogen

A substance that crosses the placenta and harms the fetus.

correlational study

a research strategy that involves relating two or more variables

self-efficacy

according to cognitive behaviorism, an internal belief in our competence that predicts whether we initiate activities or persist in the face of failures, and predicts the goals we set.

Mahler's concept of symbiosis

1-5 months During these first few months, babies begin to learn about their world and develop their very first human bond -- that which they share with their mothers. Positive stimuli (cuddling, smiling, engaged attention) and relief of discomfort (feeding promptly when hungry, changing of soiled nappies, providing an appropriate sleep environment) all help the infant to develop a trust that their needs will be met, building a basis for security and confidence.

Mahler's concept of practicing

10-16 months As children's mobility increases, they are able to explore their environment with an autonomy that was previously impossible. Still not ready for extended separation from their mothers, crawlers and beginning walkers will sometimes choose to separate briefly from their mums, but will typically return quickly for assurance and comfort. Some independent play time is enjoyed, but often the baby is only comfortable to play on their own when the mother is within the child's line of sight. Mothers who are able to release their children to a beginning level of independent exploration whilst staying nearby will provide their baby with the ability to take pleasure in their growing world. Mahler described this "hatching" as the true birth the individual occurs, with the child beginning to have a basic sense of self not directly connected to the mother.

Mahler's concept of rapprochement

16-24 months As parents of toddlers know, they can be a confusing bunch. One minute, they are running from their mothers, refusing her attention or wishes, and the next they are anxiously clinging to her. Mahler referred to this as "ambitendency" and explained that this behaviour is representative of a toddler's sometimes opposing desires and needs. It is during these months that children first get a real sense that they are individuals, separate from their mothers, which is both an exhilarating and frightening discovery. Toddlers continue to take pleasure in exploring their environment, but during this phase, much of their growth comes from socialisation. Imitation of others is common (much to the amusement and sometimes dismay of parents!), as is the tendency to want the things that others have, taking them by force if necessary. Mahler also observed that toddlers often become a bit "low key" when they are not around their mothers, and may withdraw a bit into themselves. Unlike when they were babies, toddlers learn that their emotional needs are not automatically sensed or tended to, so they may be especially demanding of their mother's attention. When they don't get their way, frustrated toddlers often resort to throwing temper tantrums.

Mahler's concept of Differentiation

5-10 months As the baby matures, he develops an increased interest in both the mother and the outside world. Not yet able to understand that she exists outside of his view, parents often first notice their baby's first outward signs of separation anxiety during this time as the baby continually "checks back," looking at other things but then looking for the mother as a reassurance that she is still present. Often, babies are most comfortable to express interest in outside stimuli when they feel safe in their mother's arms during this phase. Consistent access to the mother aids the baby's emotional well-being and while it first appears about this time, this need may continue well into the practicing sub-phase.

Nature vs. Nurture

A controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior.

Erikson's 5th psychosocial stage

Adolescence (12-18) Ego identity vs. role confusion Basic virtue:fidelity This is a major stage in development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational.Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can adapt and "grow into" the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity. Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others even when there may be ideological differences. During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don't know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society. In response to role confusion or identity crisis an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g. work, education or political activities). Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feelings of unhappiness

chronological age

Age as measured in years from date of birth.

Freud's 2nd psychosexual stage

Anal stage (1-3) The libido now becomes focused on the anus and the child derives great pleasure from defecating. The child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e. their ego has developed). Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority. Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and possessions. This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their faeces when toddlers, and their mum's then insisting that they get rid of it by placing them on the potty until they perform!

Pneuma

the vital spirit, soul, or creative force of a person

Erikson's 2nd psychosocial stage

Early childhood (1-3) Autonomy vs. shame Basic virtue: will The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile. Between the ages of 18 months and three, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc. The child is discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys etc. Such skills illustrate the child's growing sense of independence and autonomy. Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.

How are Erikson's and Freud's stages the same?

Erikson's theory followed Freud's and was based on many of Freud's ideas. Because of this, the two theories have similarities. Both theorists recognize the importance of the unconscious on development. They also both separate development into stages of a person's life and utilize similar age divisions for these developmental stages

How do Erikson's and Freud's stages differ?

Freud's psychosexual theory emphasizes the importance of basic needs and biological forces, while Erikson's psychosocial theory is based upon social and environmental factors. Erikson also expands his theory into adulthood, while Freud's theory ends at an earlier period.

Freud's 5th psychosexual stage

Genital stage (puberty-adult) This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's. Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self pleasure like during the phallic stage. For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop. For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.

Erikson's 1st psychosocial stage

Infancy (0-1) Trust vs. Mistrust basic virtue: hope During this stage the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live. To resolve these feelings of uncertainty the infant looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care. If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable they will develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there are a source of support. Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear.

Freud's 4th psychosexual stage

Latency stage (5/6-puberty) No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden). The libido is dormant. Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage and sexual energy can be sublimated (re: defense mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies and friendships. Much of the child's energies are channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.

Freud's 1st psychosexual stage

Oral stage (0-1) In the first stage of personality development the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and breast-feeding. -oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. *smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviors particularly when under stress.

Freud's 3rd psychosexual stage

Phallic stage (3-5) Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new source of pleasure. The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls). This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the characteristics of the same sex parent.

ainsworth

Placed human infants into novel situations; observed infants' reactions when placed into a strange situation - their parents left them alone for a short period of time and then returned: saw that there were infants with secure attachment, avoidant attachment, and anxious/ambivalent attachment

Erikson's 3rd psychosocial stage

Play age (3-5) Initiative vs. guilt basic virtue: purpose During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities. Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions.

What is the significant contribution to the field of developmental psychology made by freud?

Regardless of the perception of Sigmund Freud's theories, there is no question that he had an enormous impact on the field of psychology. His work supported the belief that not all mental illnesses have physiological causes and he also offered evidence that cultural differences have an impact on psychology and behavior. His work and writings contributed to our understanding of personality, clinical psychology, human development, and abnormal psychology. Freud wrote and theorized about a broad range of subjects including sex, dreams, religion, women, and culture.

Erikson's 4th psychosocial stage

School age (5-12) Industry vs. inferiority Basic virtue:competency It is at this stage that the child's peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the child's self esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society, and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments. If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential. If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g. being athletic) then they may develop a sense of inferiority. Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Yet again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.

Erikson's 6th psychosocial stage

Young adult (18-40) intimacy vs. isolation basic virtue: love Occurring in young adulthood (ages 18 to 40), we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with someone other than a family member. Successful completion of this stage can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.

cognitive behaviorism (social learning theory)

a behavioral worldview that emphasizes that people learn by watching other and that our thoughts about the reinforcers determine our behavior. Cognitive behaviorists focus on charting and modifying people's thoughts

operant conditioning

according to the traditional behavioral perspective, the law of learning that determines any voluntary response. Specifically, we act the way we do because we are reinforced for acting in that way.

gestational age

actual time, from conception to birth, that the fetus remains in the uterus

Eikson's 7th psychosocial stage

adult hood (40-65) generativity vs. stagnation basic virtue: care During middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65), we establish our careers, settle down within a relationship, begin our own families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture. We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. By failing to achieve these objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.

common teratogens

alcohol, marijuana, cigs, meds.

fetus

an unborn offspring of a mammal, in particular an unborn human baby more than eight weeks after conception.

an embryo

an unborn or unhatched offspring in the process of development.

collaborative pretend play

fantasy play in which children work together to develop and act out the scenes.

assimilation

in Jean Piaget's theory, the first step promoting mental growth, involving fitting environmental input to our existing mental capactities

accommodation

in Piaget's theory, enlarging our mental capacities to fit input from the wider world

infant reflexes

lift their heads and upper torsos, then sit up, then finally at around age 1, take their 1st steps

Erikson's 8th psychosocial stage

maturity (65+) ego integrity vs. despair basic virtue: wisdom As we grow older (65 years and over) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity, and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear

qualitative research

occasional developmental science data-collection strategy that involves interviewing people to obtain info that cannot be quantified on a numerical scale

Competence/ Environmental Press

people adapt most effectively when there is a good match between their competence(abilities) and the environmental "press" or demands put on them by the environment

Psuche

personality; totality of the human mind, conscious and unconscious

gender-segregated play

play in which boys and girls associate only with members of their own sex-typical of childhood

fantasy play

play that involves making up and acting out a scenario...aka pretend play

rough and tumble play

play that involves shoving, wrestling, and hitting, but in which no actual harm is intended, especially characteristic of boys

piaget's 2nd intellectual developmental stage

preoperational stage (2-7) Children's perceptions are captured by their immediate appearances. "What they see is what is real." They believe, among other things, that inanimate objects are really alive and that if the appearance of a quantity of liquid changes (for example, if it is poured from a short, wide glass into a tall, thin one), the amount actually becomes different.

Piaget's 3rd intellectual developmental stage

stage of concrete operations (8-12) children have a realistic understanding of the world. Their thinking is really on the same wavelength as adults. While they can reason conceptually about concrete objects, however, they cannot think abstractly in a scientific way.

Piaget's 4th intellectual developmental stage

stage of formal operations (12+) Reasoning is at its pinnacle; hypothetical, scientific, flexible, fully adult. Our full cognitive human potential has been reached.

quantitative research

standard developmental science data-collection strategy that involves testing groups of people and using numerical scales and statistics

traditional behaviorism

the original behavioral worldview that focused on charting and modifying only "objective" visible behaviors

scaffolding

the process of teaching new skills by entering a child's zone of proximal development and tailoring one's efforts to that person's competence level.