DHN201-101: Notes for Exam 3

According to the 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines For Americans, which of the following vitamins is a nutrient of public health concern?

-vitamin D

renin

enzyme secreted in response to low blood volume and falling blood pressure

major minerals

essential mineral elements required in amounts of 100 mg or more per day

trace minerals

essential mineral elements required in amounts that are less than 100 mg per day

age-related macular degeneration (AMD)

eye disease resulting in changes in the macula of the eye, causing distorted vision.

Over the past few years, the scientific community's enthusiasm for using high doses of vitamin E supplements to prevent or treat chronic disease, including CVD and cancer has subsided considerably. Major long-term trial have

failed to show that high intakes of vitamin E consistently reduce the risk of these chronic diseases. Furthermore use of vitamin E supplements has been associated with an increased risk of hemorrhagic stroke.

diastolic pressure

pressure in an artery when the left ventricle relax between contractions

The small intestine is the

primary site of vitamin absorption

bone mineralization

process by which bone tissue gains strength and rigidity

calcium-binding protein

protein necessary for absorption of calcium in the small intestine

When taken in excess during pregnancy vitamin A is a

teratogen, an agent that causes birth defects

Ron's diet lacks niacin. He hasn't developed pellagra, because he consumes a high-protein diet that contains plenty of _____, the precursor for niacin.

tryptophan

Spina bifida

type of neural tube defect in which the spine does not form properly before birth an fails to enclose the spinal cord

Although many American adults do not consume recommended amounts of

vitamin E. vitamin E deficiency is rare. A healthy body stores the vitamin in body fat, skeletal muscles, and the liver.

phylloquinone

vitamin K1, found in plant foods

menaquinone

vitamin K2, found in animal and fermented foods

Retinol

alcohol form of vitamin A and the most active form of vitamin A in the body

Dark green fruits and vegetables also contain carotenoids

but the green pigment chlorophyll hides the yellow=orange pigments

The body maintains the balance of compartmental fluids

by controlling concentrations of ions in each compartment.

Factors that affect vitamin bioavailability include:

-Lifestage and nutrient status of the individual. Nutrient absorption tends to decrease with age but increases during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Individuals with a low status of some vitamins, such as vitamin C, absorb more from the GI tract. -Changes to the normal GI transit time. When foods more too quickly through the GI tract, such as in cases of frequent diarrhea, vitamin bioavailability is decreased. -Health conditions that affect absorption of fats also affect fat-soluble vitamin absorption, reducing vitamin bioavailability. -Food processing and preparation techniques; heat treatment of some foods increases the bioavailability of certain nutrients while reducing the bioavailability of others. -Source of the vitamin. Most, but not all, vitamins are more bioavailable from natural food sources.

Summary of Section 11.8: Magnesium

-Magnesium is important for contraction and relaxation of muscles, enzyme function, energy production, and protein synthesis. Adequate magnesium intake may also contribute to the prevention and/or treatment of serious chronic diseases, including diabetes and cardiovascular disease. - Green leafy vegetables, whole grains, beans, nuts, seeds, and chocolate are among the richest sources of magnesium. -Magnesium deficiency is uncommon among healthy children and adults. Hypermagnesemia most often occurs from overuse of laxatives, antacids, and dietary supplements that contain magnesium

Summary of Section 11.3: Minerals : The Basics

-Major minerals are those required by the average man adult in excess of 100 mg/day. Minerals required in smaller amounts are identified as trace minerals. -The major minerals include calcium, chloride, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and sulfur. Plant foods often contain phytic acid or oxalic acid, substances that reduce the bioavailability of minerals.

Summary of Section 10.4: Niacin

-Nicotinic acid and nicotinamide the two forms of niacin, are components of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate. NAD and NADP participate in over 200 reactions involving carbohydrate, protein, and fatty acid metabolism. -Enriched grains, liver, fish, poultry, and pork are good sources of niacin. Niacin can also be made from the amino acid tryptophan. -A niacin deficiency causes pellagra, characterized by dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and death-the 4 Ds of pellagra. Healthcare providers may prescribe megadoses of niacin for the treatment of abnormal blood lipid levels. High doses of niacin can cause flushing, itchy skin, nausea, and vomiting.

Summary of Section 10.9: Vitamin B-12

-The body needs vitamin B-12 to metabolize folate and homocysteine and to maintain the insulation surrounding nerves. -Although vitamin B-12 does not occur naturally in plant foods, the vitamin is in animal foods and products that have been fortified with the micronutrient. -Vitamin B-12 deficiency is more common in older adults due to poor absorption of the vitamin, often a result of gastritis -Megaloblastic anemia is an early sign of a vitamin B-12 deficiency. Long-term vitamin B-12 deficiency can result in paralysis

Summary of Section 10.10: Vitamin C

-The body uses vitamin C to synthesize and maintain collagen, as an antioxidant, and for normal immune function -Fresh fruits and vegetables, especially citrus fruits, are generally good sources of the micronutrient -A vitamin C deficiency results in scurvy. Excess vitamin C may cause diarrhea and increase the risk of kidney stones in some people

Summary of Section 9.3: An Overview of Fat-Soluble Vitamins

-The fat-soluble vitamins include a hydrocarbon chain as part of their structure. -Vitamins A, D, E, and K each have unique food sources and functions in the human body.

Summary of Section 11.2: Water balance and Hydration

-The kidneys are the body's major regulator of water balance. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), aldosterone, and the renin-angiotensin system control water balance, primarily through regulation of urine output. -Dehydration results when water losses are greater than fluid intake. Some cases of dehydration can be treated with oral rehydration therapy, but others require intravenous (IV) fluids. Water intoxication is not as common as dehydration but can result in hypoatremia, low blood sodium

Summary of Section 10.2: Thiamin

-Thiamin, a component of thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP), helps cells metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins -Enriched grain products, whole grains, pork, legumes, and orange juice are common sources of thiamin. -Beriberi is the severe thiamin deficiency disease; toxicity from thiamin is very uncommon.

Summary of Section 10.1: Introducing Water-Soluble Vitamins

-Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, vitamin B-6, folate, vitamin B-12, and vitamin C are water-soluble vitamins. B vitamins function as components of coenzymes of coenzymes necessary for chemical reactions.

Summary of Section 10.7: Vitamin B-6

-Vitamin B-6 as pyridoxal phosphate, is involved in protein metabolism -Vitamin B-6 may help to relieve morning sickness in pregnancy and premenstrual syndrome, but further research is needed before routine supplementation should be recommended. -Healthy people can obtain enough vitamin B-6 by eating varied diet that contains animal foods and rich plant sources of the micronutrient. -High doses of vitamin B-6 should be avoided because the vitamin can cause nervous system damage.

Summary of Section 9.5: Vitamin D

-Vitamin D is both a hormone and a vitamin. Vitamin D, calciferol is present in both plant and animal sources; ergocalciferol is present in plant foods, and cholecalciferol is present in animal foods. -Exposure to sunlight enables human skin to synthesize a precursor of the vitamin from a cholesterol-like substance. The body can covert this substance to the active form of vitamin D. -Infants and children who do not obtain enough vitamin D may develop riches, and adults with inadequate amounts of the vitamin in their bodies may develop osteomalacia. Excess intakes of vitamin D can cause the body to deposit calcium in soft tissues.

vitamin B-12 or cobalamin

B vitamin that is a component of coenzymes that participate in a variety of cellular processes, including transfer of CH3 groups in the metabolism of folate. It is also needed for homocysteine metabolism and to convert folate to coenzyme forms that are needed for metabolic reactions, such as DNA synthesis

Which of the following foods is the best source of potassium?

Baked potato

Which of the following processes require thiamin pyrophosphate? Check all that apply.

Breakdown of carbohydrates to yield ATP Synthesis of neurotransmitters

Which of the following minerals is necessary for proper muscle contraction?

Calcium

T/F Although healthcare providers may prescribe niacin supplements for patients who cannot tolerate statins, the treatment can have several unwanted side effects, such as flushing of the skin and liver damage.

True

T/F Consuming a diet rich in calcium Amy have beneficial effects on heart disease risk factors.

True

T/F Hyperkalemia can cause a person's heart to stop beating

True

T/F The body can make choline, which is classified as a vitamin-like substance

True

There are certain instances in which a vitamin supplement may be indicated. Match the scenario with the fat-soluble vitamin that would most likely be recommended.

Vitamin D: an adult woman who is told after a bone mineral density test that she has osteomalacia. Vitamin A: a child in the developing world who stumbles frequently and is diagnosed with night blindness. Vitamin K: a newborn baby who has difficulty with blood clotting. Vitamin E: an older adult who has trouble walking because of nerve damage.

Vitamins play numerous roles in the body and each of these micronutrients generally has more than one function. Some vitamins, such as vitamin D

act as hormones; other vitamins such as thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin, participate in chemical reactions by accepting or donating electrons

Vitamins were first defined in 1912, when Polish chemist Casimir Funk coin the termed vitamine (vita= necessary for life; amine = a type of nitrogen-containing substance)

after discovering a substance now known as thiamin, in an extract made from rice bran.

Which of the following is an example of a potential carcinogen?

alcohol

In the United States, people with

alcoholism, anorexia nervosa, and rare disorders that disrupt tryptophan metabolism are generally the only groups at risk of niacin deficiency

Certain white blood cells produce antibodies which

are proteins that participate in the body's immune response. Antibodies help destroy infectious agents, such as bacteria. Vitamin A also plays a role in the production and activity of white blood cells. Thus, people deficient in vitamin A are at greater risk of infections than those with adequate levels of the vitamin in their bodies. Normal bone growth development also require vitamin A. Although bones do not appear to change their shape, they are constantly being remodeled by processes that involve tearing down and rebuilding the tissues to meet the physical demands placed on them each day. Vitamin A participates with some other vitamins as well as certain minerals in the bone-remodeling process.

Individuals with chronic kidney disease often experience abnormal blood levels of phosphorus, calcium, or both

as a result of hyperphosphatemia. IN this population, the synthesis of calcitriol, the most metabolically active form of vitamin D, is decreased because calcitriol is made in the kidneys. Thus, kidney disease patients often need to monitor and regulate their phosphorus intake to avoid hyperphosphatemia. Avoiding meat, poultry, fish diary foods, nuts, carbonated soft drinks, and cereals is generally among the dietary recommendations for patients with chronic kidney disease.

Vitamin C

ascorbic acid; cofactor that performs a variety of important cellular functions, primarily by donating electrons to other compounds

selectively permeable membrane

barrier that allows the passage of certain substances and prevents the movement of other substances

Consuming too much avidin, a protein found in raw egg whites, may inhibit ___________ absorption.

biotin

resistant hypertension

blood pressure that remains uncontrolled while taking three medications or is controlled only through continued use of four or more medications

dehydration

body water depletion

osteoblasts

bone cells that add bone to where the tissue is needed

osteoclasts

bone cells that break down bone tisssue

pernicious anemia

condition caused by a lack of intrinsic factor and characterized by vitamin B-12 deficiency, nerve damage, and megaloblastic red blood cells

peripheral neuropathy

condition characterized by severe sensory nerve damage

osteomalacia

condition characterized by softening of the bones as a result of inadequate vitamin D status in adults

water intoxication

condition that occurs when too much water is consumed in a short time period or the kidneys have difficulty filtering water from blood

carcinogen

environmental factor, such as radiation, tobacco smoke, or a virus, that triggers cancer

retinoids (preformed vitamin A)

family of compounds called vitamin A (retinol, retinal, retinoid acid)

For adults under 70 years of age, the RDA is 15ug/day (600 IU/day). Many Americans do not consume enough vitamin D to meet the RDA. According to the finds of a nationwide survey, nearly half of Americans adults have low blood levels of vitamin D. Individuals who have a darker skin tone and those who are overweight are more likely to be vitamin D deficient. Other factors that have been associated with low vitamin D status

include using electronic media or games for more than 4 hours daily and drinking milk less than once a week.

peak bone mass

point at which bones have their maximum strength

7-dehydrocholesterol

precursor for vitamin D found in skin

Angiotensin II

protein secreted in response to low blood volume and falling blood pressure

Rich food sources of vitamin E include sunflower seeds, almonds, peanuts, and plant oils especially sunflower, safflower, canola, and olive oils. Products made from vitamin E-rich plant oils such as margarine and salad dressing also

supply the micronutrient. Other important dietary sources of vitamin include fish, whole grains, nuts, seeds, and certain vegetables.

Lean muscles tissue contains more water

than fat tissue

the simplest way to determine if an individual is consuming enough water is

to observed the volume of their urine. When fluid intake is adequate, the kidneys produce enough urine to maintain fluid balance. If fluid consumption is more than the body needs, the kidneys eliminate the excess, and the body produces more urine. If fluid intake is limited or the body loses high amounts of fluid, such as through heavy perspiration, the kidneys produce less urine. In addition to urine volume, the color of urine ay be a useful indicator of hydration status.

megaloblastic anemia

type of anemia characterized by large, immature red blood cells; deficiency of folate and/or vitamin B-12 can lead to this form of anemia

Anencephaly

type of neural tube defect in which the brain does not form properly or is missing

rickets

vitamin D deficiency disorder in children resulting in improper bone growth; Children with rickets have bones that are soft and can become malformed. Leg bones, for example, bow under the weight of carrying the upper part of the body.

Summary of Section 11.5: Phosphorus

-Along with calcium, phosphorus is involved in the formation of bones and teeth. Dairy foods, meat, and cereal grains are the primary sources of phosphorus in the typical American diet. -Phosphorus deficiencies are rare because of the wide variety of foods that supply the nutrient. A deficiency in phosphorus can lead to hyperphosphatemia. Individuals with kidney disease are at an increased risk for phosphorus toxicity.

Summary of Section 9.4: Vitamin A

-Vitamin A is involved in vision, immune function, and cell development. The vitamin A family includes retinol, retinal, and retinioic acid. The vitamin A precursor, beta-carotene, functions as an antioxidant -Dietary sources of preformed vitamin A include fortified milks and eggs; provitamin A carotenoids are especially plentiful in dark green and orange fruits and vegetables. -A deficiency of vitamin A contributes to night blindness and weakened immunity. Excess vitamin A can be toxic and cause birth defect when taken during pregnancy. Eating a diet rich in fruits and vegetables may help prevent chronic diseases, particularly heart disease and cancer.

Put the following steps that relate to vitamin B-12 in the order in which they occur in the body.

1. Vitamin B-12 is freed from food protein; intrinsic factor is produced. 2. Vitamin B-12 binds with intrinsic factor. 3. The vitamin B-12/intrinsic factor complex is absorbed into the blood. 4. Vitamin B-12 is stored.

Depending on a person's age, sex, and body composition

50 to 75% of their body is water weight

The adult RDA for vitamin C is

75 mg/day for women and 90 mg/day for men. Cigarette smokers should add an extra 35 mg/day to their RDA because exposure to tobacco smoke increases free radical formation in the lungs

In the mid-1700s, British physician James Lind performed a crude experiment on 12 sailors suffering from scurvy. Lind divided the sick sailors into six pairs, and each pair received a different treatment. The six different treatments were cider, vinegar, sulfuric acid, seawater, nutmeg, or oranges and lemons.

According to Lind's observations, the sailors given the citrus fruit were the only ones to recover from scurvy. As a result of his testing, Lind found the cure for scurvy: eating oranges and lemons

Which of the following enhances calcium absorption?

Adequate amounts of calcitriol

Which of the following foods contains the highest amounts of vitamin E per serving?

Almonds (1oz)

_________prevent or limit the ability of free radicals to damage polyunsaturated fatty acids and DNA in cells.

Antioxidants

Label the figure below with the clinical signs and symptoms of biotin deficiency.

Convulsions, Hair loss, Skin rash

Sodium is involved in all of the following body functions EXCEPT:

Energy metabolism

Which of the following statements is FALSE?

Energy metabolism is an important function of fat-soluble vitamins

T/F In general, plant foods take more water to produce than animal foods

False

It is not necessary to consume 100% of every vitamin each day. IF a person is healthy and usually follows a nutritionally adequate diet, their cells should contain a supply of vitamins that can last for several days and possibly even years depending on the vitamin

Furthermore bacteria that reside in the lower intestinal tract produce certain vitamins particularly biotin and vitamin K, which can be absorbed to some extent. Additionally under certain conditions the body can synthesize vitamin D, niacin, and choline

Why is taking excess amounts of fat-soluble vitamins more likely to cause toxicity than taking excesses of water-soluble vitamins?

In general, excesses of fat-soluble vitamins cannot be excreted as easily as water-soluble vitamins

In the body vitamin A helps______________.

Maintain epithelial cells

Food-cobalamin malabsorption

Malabsorption of vitamin B-12 due to the inability to release vitamin B-12 from animal protein during the digestion process

__________________. as part of NAD and NADP, is important for energy metabolism.

Niacin

___________________, as a part if NAD and NADP, is important for energy metabolism.

Niacin

The micronutrient content of a whole grain is dramatically decreased during the refining process. To counteract these losses, in the United States, food manufacturers are required to enrich breads and cereals made from milled, refined grains with which B vitamins? Check all that apply.

Niacin, Riboflavin, Thiamin, and Folic acid

Which of the following food items contains the least biotin?

Orange juice

Which of the following vitamins is most important for energy metabolism?

Pantothenic acid

According to the 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, which of the following minerals is a "nutrient of public health concern?"

Potassium

electrolytes

Substances that release ions in water

multivitamin-multimineral supplement

Supplement containing two or more vitamins and minerals

Which of the following is the best food source of beta-carotene?

Sweet potatoes

__________________ is added to refined grain products as part of the enrichment process.

Thiamin

Match the typical disease signs and symptoms with the vitamin that is deficient in the person's diet.

Thiamin: weakness, loss of appetite, poor coordination, and severe edema Riboflavin: inflammation of the mouth and tongue, inflamed skin, and cracking of the tissue at the corners of the mouth. Niacin: poor appetite weakness, and weight loss; eventually progresses to dementia, diarrhea, and dermatitis Vitamin B-12: megaloblastic anemia despite adequate folate intake; eventually progresses to nerve degeneration, paralysis and death Vitamin C: weakness, slow wound healing, bone pain, bleeding gums, and petechiae

Absorbing the vitamin B-12 that is naturally in food requires a complex series of steps. Natural vitamin B-12 is bound to animal protein that prevents its absorption. When the food enters the stomach, the vitamin is released from the protein, primarily by the actions of hydrochloric acid in gastric juice. Synthetic vitamin B-12 in dietary supplements or fortified foods is not bound to food protein so it does not need stomach acid for digestion.

Thus, synthetic vitamin B-12 is more readily absorbed than the natural form of the micronutrient

Which of the following foods is NOT a good source of thiamin?

Watermelon

Which of the following is an example of a trace mineral?

Zinc

osteopenia

a condition in which a person has weak bones that are susceptible to fracture

metastasized

cancer that has moved from one tissue to other parts of the body

Vitamin absorption tends to increase when the body needs more of a particular micronutrient. The body's requirements for vitamins generally increase

during periods of growth, such as infancy and adolescence, and during pregnancy and breastfeeding

Major food sources of vitamin K2 are

egg yolks, butter, certain cheeses, liver, beef, and some fermented foods. Other reliable sources of the vitamin are soybean and canola oils, and products made from these oils, such as salad dressing.

calcitonin

hormone secreted by the thyroid gland when blood calcium levels are too high

Like sodium, potassium plays key in

maintaining proper fluid balance. Unlike sodium, potassium is associated with lower, rather Han higher, blood pressure values. Potassium is also necessary for transmitting nerve impulses, contracting muscles, and maintaining normal kidney function

Although not used direction for energy,

many vitamins participate in the chemical reactions that release energy from glucose, fatty acids, and certain amino acids

myelin sheath

structure that wraps around and insulates a part of certain nerve cells

When excess vitamin D is consumed

the small intestine absorbs too much calcium from foods and in the absence of vitamin K2 the mineral can be deposited in soft tissues, including the kidneys, heart, and blood vessels. The calcium deposits can interfere with cells' ability to function and cause cellular death. Other signs and symptoms of vitamin D toxicity include muscular weakness, loss of appetite, diarrhea, vomiting, and mental confusion. The body does not make toxic levels of vitamin D when exposed to sunlight because skin limits its production of 7-dehydrocholesterol

Major minerals are called major not because of their relative importance to health but because

they are needed in greater amounts in the diet and are stored in larger quantities in the body than are trace minerals

Because vitamin A has a role in the production of healthy epithelial tissues, physicians may prescribe medications derived from vitamin A, such as isotretinonin or tretinonin topical, to treat severe acne and other skin disorders. Ingesting excessive amounts of these prescription medications can produce harmful symptoms. Women of childbearing age should avoid pregnancy while using these medications because

they can cause severe birth defects and spontaneous abortion

However, other studies have found no support for taking vitamin A or beta-carotene supplements

to reduce the risk for CVD

keratin

tough protein found in hair, nails, and the outermost layers of the skin

biotin

vitamin component of a coenzyme that participates in chemical reactions that add carbon dioxide to other compounds; the vitamin promotes the synthesis of glucose and fatty acids and the breakdown of certain amino acids

pantothenic acid

vitamin component of coenzyme A (CoA); helps release energy from macronutrients and is needed for fatty acid synthesis

Water soluble vitamins

vitamins that are hydrophilic and found in the watery portion of food; thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B-6, pantothenic acid, folate, biotin, vitamin B-12, and vitamin C

Fat soluble vitamins

vitamins that are hydrophobic and found in the lipid portions of food; A, D, E, K

metabolic water

water formed by cells as a metabolic by-product

Total water intake

water ingested by consuming beverages, including drinking water, and foods

Intracellular water

water that is inside cells

Extracellular water

water that surrounds cells or is in the fluid portion of blood

Compared to fat-soluble vitamins, excesses of most

water-soluble vitamins are filtered through the kidneys and eliminated in the urine, rather than stored in large amounts

Water-soluble vitamins can leach out of food and dissolve in cooking water, which is often discarded. Cooking vegetables in small amounts of water and reusing the water for soups or sauces helps retain those water-soluble nutrients. Cutting produce into large pieces reduce the amount of surface area exposed to heat, water, and other conditions that can increase vitamin losses. As well, cooking fruits and vegetables

with their skins on helps keep nutrient content, as does consuming edible skins

carotenoids

yellow-orange pigments in fruits and vegetables

Carotenemia

yellowing of the skin that results from excess beta-carotene in the body

Click to select the two MyPlate food groups that provide the most naturally nutrient-dense food sources of vitamin C.

Fruits and vegetables

Most people do not need to be concerned about vitamin toxicity unless they are taking excessive amounts (megadoses) of vitamin supplements or consuming large amounts of vitamin-fortified foods regularly. In their natural states, most commonly eaten food do not contain levels of vitamins. Taking a

"once daily" type of multivitamin supplement regularly is unlikely to cause toxic effects in adults because these products usually these products usually contain les than two times the Daily Values of each micronutrient component.

Summary of Section 9.6: Vitamin E

-Alpha-tocopherol is the most active form of vitamin E Vitamin E functions primarily as an antioxidant. Plant oils and products made from these oils are generally rich food sources of vitamin E. -High doses of vitamin E may be detrimental to health.

Summary of Section 11.7: Potassium

-As the primary charged ion in the intracellular fluid, potassium helps maintain proper fluid and electrolyte balance. -Fruits and vegetables are excellent sources of potassium. Processed foods are poor sources of potassium. -A potassium deficiency leads to hypokalemia. People taking potassium supplements may develop hyperkalemia. Both conditions can be fatal.

According to the American Cancer Society, people can reduce their risk of cancer by

-Avoiding exposure to tobacco -Achieving and maintaining a healthy weight and body composition -Adopting a physically active lifestyle -Eating a healthy diet that limits intake of processed meats and emphasizes plant foods, including fruits, vegetables, and whole grains

Which of the following carotenoids can be converted into a biologically active retinoid?

-Beta-carotene -Alpha-carotene -Beta-crytoxanthin

Summary of Section 10.6: Biotin

-Biotin participates in chemical reactions that add carbon dioxide to other compounds. -Biotin is readily consumed in a variety of foods; deficiency is very uncommon

Summary of Section 11.4: Calcium

-Calcium is essential for bone and teeth formation, muscle contraction, blood clot formation, nerve transmission, and cell metabolism. -Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is secreted in response to low blood calcium levels and calcitonin in response to high blood calcium levels. The human skeleton is constantly remodeled through the activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. -Dairy products, including fluid milk, yogurt, and cheese, are the primary sources of calcium in the typical American's diet. -A deficiency in calcium results in osteoporosis. Excessive calcium intake results in hypercalcemia

Summary of Section 10.12: Diet and Cancer

-Cancer occurs when genes that regulate cellular growth, division, and death mutate, resulting in abnormal cell development, rapid cell growth, and unchecked cell division. -Research linking specific vitamins to cancer risk is conflicting. Maintaining a healthy body weight, exercising regularly, consuming a diet that supplies plenty of fruits and vegetables, limiting intakes of grilled and processed meats, and avoiding tobacco and excess alcohol may reduce the risk of cancer.

Summary of Section 11.9: Chloride

-Chloride is essential for maintaining proper fluid and electrolyte balance as the primary anion in extracellular fluid. Chlorine is also found in gastric juice as a component of HCl. -For the typical American, the major dietary source of chloride is sodium chloride. Chloride deficiency is unlikely, but excessive chloride intake can contribute to hypertension

Summary of Section 10.11: Vitamin-Like Compounds

-Choline, carnitine, inositol, taurine, and lipoid acid are examples of vitamin-like compounds. Unlike most vitamins, these compounds can be synthesized by the human body. Deficiencies or toxicities of choline, carnitine, inositol, taurine, or lipoid acid are unlikely.

Summary of Section 9.8: Cystic Fibrosis and Fat-Soluble Vitamins

-Cystic fibrosis is a common inherited disease that causes a thick mucus buildup. -Respiratory and digestive problems are common in cystic fibrosis, with fat and fat-soluble vitamin absorption significantly impaired. -Mucus buildup reduce the availability of gastrointestinal secretions, contributing to fat malabsorption. Without supplementation, fat-soluble vitamins are often deficient in patients with cystic fibrosis. Healthcare professionals continue to evaluate the potential value of fat-soluble vitamin supplements in treating cystic fibrosis.

Which of the following factors limit vitamin B-12 absorption and thereby may lead to vitamin B-12 deficiency? Check all that apply.

-Decreased production of intrinsic factor -Decreased production of hydrochloric acid -Use of certain medications to reduce heartburn

Click to select good food sources of vitamin B-12 from the list below.

-Enriched breakfast cereal -Milk, fat-free -Ground beef patty -Tuna, canned in water

Summary of Section 10.8: Folate

-Folate plays important roles in DNA synthesis and homocysteine metabolism. -Rich food sources of folate are leafy vegetables, organ meats, and orange juices -Signs of folate deficiency include megaloblastic anemia and neural tube defects in offspring -Excess folate in the diet can mask a vitamin B-12 deficiency

Summary of Section 10.5: Pantothenic Acid

-Pantothenic acid is a component of coenzyme A, which is essential for energy metabolism -Pantothenic acid deficiency is rare because the vitamin is found in a wide variety of both plant and animal food sources.

Summary of Section 10.3: Riboflavin

-Riboflavin is a component of flavin mono nucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), coenzymes essential to energy metabolism -Dairy foods and enriched grans are rich sources of riboflavin -A deficiency of riboflavin, ariboflavinosis, is rare; fatigue, glossitis, and cheilosis are common symptoms. Riboflavin is readily excreted in urine.

Summary of Section 11.6: Sodium

-Sodium plays a major role in the maintenance of normal fluid balance, the transmission of nerve impulses, the transport of substances into cells, and muscle function. -Sodium chloride is the primary source of sodium in American diets. Processed foods are high in sodium, whereas uncooked fruits and vegetables are low in sodium. -Although rare, a sodium deficiency leads to hyponatremia. High sodium intakes have been associated with hypertension. Hypertension is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, including heart disease and stroke.

Which of the following cooking methods minimizes the loss of water-soluble vitamins from vegetables?

-Steaming -Stir-frying -Microwaving

Summary of Section 11.10: Sulfur

-Sulfur is a component of the sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cysteine. Therefore, diets rich in protein provide adequate amounts of sulfur. Sulfur is essential for the activity of several enzymes and as part of antioxidant systems. There is no AI, RDA, or UL established for sulfur.

Summary of Section 9.7: Vitamin K

-Vitamin K is a family of compounds that includes phylloquinone, menaquinone, and menadione. Vitamin K1 is essential for the blood-clotting process, and vitamin K2 is important in healthy bone formation. -Green leafy vegetables, including kale, spinach, and turnip greens, are good dietary sources of vitamin K1. Liver, beef, and egg yolks are good natural sources of vitamin K2. -Inadequate consumption of the vitamin can cause uncontrollable bleeding. Babies are usually born with low vitamin K stores and require an injection of vitamin K soon after birth.

Summary of Section 9.2: Vitamins: The Basics

-Vitamins are organic compounds. Foods generally contain much smaller amounts of vitamins than of macronutrients. -Vitamins play numerous roles in the body, and each vitamin usually has more than one function. In general, vitamins regulate a variety of body processes, including those involved in cell division and development, as well as the growth and maintenance of tissues. Vitamins are nota source of energy. -Certain vitamins act as antioxidants -Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble vitamins; thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B-6, pantothenic acid, folate, biotin, vitamin B-12, and vitamin C are water-soluble vitamins. the body stores extra fat-soluble vitamins. -Vitamin deficiency disorders generally result from inadequate diets or conditions that increase the body's requirements for vitamins. -Most commonly eaten foods do not contain toxic levels of vitamins. Vitamin toxicity is most likely to occur in people who take megadoses of vitamin supplements. -The bioavailability of a vitamin is dependent on a variety of factors.

Summary of Section 9.1: Introducing Vitamins

-Vitamins include thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, biotin, pantothenic acid, folate, and vitamins A, B-6, B-12, C, D, E, and K. Choline, carnitine, inositol, lipoid acid, and taurine are vitamin-like nutrients

Summary of Section 11.1: Water

-Wate has several important roles in the body, including removing waste products, lubricating tissues, regulating body temperature, and maintaining acid-base balance. Water is a major component of blood, saliva, sweat, tears, mucus, and the fluid between joints. -Water can be found inside cells (intracellular water) and surrounding cells (extracellular water). Water needs depend on environmental temperatures, health conditions, physical activities, and dietary choices

Young children are at risk for developing rickets if they ________.

-are breast-fed -have dark skin -have limited sunlight exposure -have little or no vitamin D intake

Long-term vitamin E deficiency may result in__________.

-nerve damage -impaired immune system function -blindness

Phosphorus is needed to:

-synthesize adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate, substances that are essential for energy production -Synthesize phospholipids, DNA, and RNA -Regulate acid-base balance -Activate many enzymes and hormones necessary for energy metabolism

Put the vitamin A-containing foods in order of highest vitamin A (mcg RAE) content (1) to lowest vitamin A content (4)

1. 4 oz baked sweet potatoes 2. 1/2 cup canned pumpkin 3. 1/2 cup cooked carrots 4. 1 cup fat-free milk with vitamin A

Put the types of cancer responsible for female cancer deaths in 2020 in order from greatest percentage of deaths (1) to lowest percentage of deaths (2)

1. Lung 2. Breast 3. Colorectal 4. Ovary

Vitamin B-6

B vitamin component of the coenzyme pyridoxal phosphate (PLP); important for energy metabolism, particularly protein metabolism

Folate

B vitamin that is a component of the coenzyme tetrahydrofolate (THF), includes folic acid, and is important for energy metabolism, DNA synthesis, and homocysteine metabolism

Functions of Vitamin K

Blood contains inactive clotting factors and cell fragments called platelets that are necessary for blood clotting to occur. When a blood vessel is cut, blood in the injured area undergoes a complex series of steps to form a clot that stops the bleeding. A clot comprises strands of the protein fibrin, which traps blood cells, forming a mesh. The liver synthesizes several blood-clotting factors and the organ needs vitamin K1 to produce four of them, including prothrombin properly.

Which of the following symptoms is NOT associated with hypokalemia?

Bone pain

Which of the following cooking techniques is best for conserving the vitamin content of a fruit or vegetable? For each preparation option, drag the photo to either "Cooking Technique Leads to More Vitamin Losses" or "Cooking Technique helps Conserve Vitamins"

Cooking technique leads to more vitamin losses: Boiling vegetables in water Cooking technique helps converse vitamins: stir-frying vegetables in wok and microwaving vegetables

T/F Alana is a 24-year-old healthy female. She is not pregnant or breastfeeding and does not have plans to become pregnant in the next several years. Based on the adult RDA for folate in the United States, she should consume 200 ug/day of folate

False

T/F Long-term trials have shown that high intakes of vitamin E reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in women.

False

Which of the following foods is a natural source of vitamin D?

Fatty fish and fish oils

T/F A carcinogen is any environmental factor such as asbestos, tobacco smoke, radiation, or a virus that triggers cancer

True

T/F Choline is necessary for the formation of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine involved in muscle contraction, memory, and learning.

True

T/F To reduce the risk of stroke in patients who cannot tolerate statins, physicians may prescribe megadoses of niacin supplements to reduce the elevated LDL cholesterol level in their blood.

True

Click to select all of the water-soluble vitamins from the list below.

Vitamin B-12, Pantothenic acid, Vitamin C, Vitamin B-6, Niacin, and Thiamin

Vitamins contribute to a wide variety of vital functions in the human body. Match each of the vitamins with a key function of that vitamin. Each vitamin can be used only once.

Vitamin B-12: red blood cell formation Vitamin K: blood clotting Vitamin E: antioxidant defense Vitamin A: Growth and development Vitamin D: bone health

Match the vitamin's role in the body to its corresponding vitamin.

Vitamin D: increases calcium and phosphorus deposition in bones. Vitamin A: important for vision Vitamin K: assists with blood clotting Vitamin E: donates electrons to neutralize free radicals Vitamin B-6: important for amino acid metabolism

Hypertension

a condition characterized by persistently elevated blood pressure, is a serious pubic health problem in the United States. Individuals have a greater risk of CVD, especially heart disease and stroke, as well as kidney failure and damage to other organs. It is also called the silent killer because high blood pressure generally does not cause symptoms until the affected person's organs and blood vessels have been damaged

Water is

a major solvent; many substances, including glucose, dissolve in this. This often participates directly in chemical reactions, such as those involved in digesting foods.

oxidizing agent or oxidant

a substance that removes electrons from atoms or molecules

biological activity

a vitamin's degree of potency or effects in the body

Humans need vitamin B-6 for_____________

amino acid metabolism

Pistachio nuts, walnuts, salmon, and beef are

among the best dietary sources of vitamin B-6. Additionally, potatoes, bananas, spinach, sweet red peppers, and broccoli are good sources of the vitamin

Cow's milk, yogurt, and other dairy products, enriched cereal, almonds, and liver are

among the best sources of riboflavin. Mushrooms, broccoli, asparagus, spinach, and other green leafy vegetables also contain the vitamin.

Bioavailability

amount of a nutrient that can be effectively digested, absorbed, and used by the body

Hydration

another term for the body's water status

In the United States, preschool children who do not eat enough vegetables, those who consume very-low-fat diets, low-income urban residents, older adults, and people with severe alcoholism, fat malabsorption, or liver diseases

are at risk for vitamin A deficiency

Whole grain and enriched breads and cereals, pork, legumes, and nuts

are good food sources of thiamin. Brewer's yeast is also a rich source of thiamin but its consumption in the United States is low.

People suffering from beriberi

are very weak and have poor muscular coordination. A severe lack of thiamin also negatively affects the functioning of their cardiovascular, digestive, and nervous systems

The riboflavin deficiency is known as_________________

ariboflavinosis

An atom or a molecule that loses one or more electrons has

been oxidized

Vitamin E protects polyunsaturated fatty acids in cell membranes from being damaged

by free radicals. Such oxidative damage may be associated with the development of atherosclerosis, the process that occurs within arteries and contributes to heart attack and stroke, cancer, and premature cellular aging and death. Other roles for vitamin E include maintaining nervous tissue and immune system function

beta-carotene

carotenoid that the body can convert to vitamin A

epithelial cells

cells that form protective tissues that line the body including the skin and linings of the digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts

According to results of observational and experimental studies,

certain substances in foods and beverages promote cancer development

neurotransmitters

chemicals produced by nerve cells that enable the cells to communicate with other nerve cells

osteoporosis

chronic disease characterized by bones with low mass and reduced structure

vitamin

complex organic compound that regulates certain metabolic processes. -The body cannot synthesize the compound or make enough to maintain good health (it is an essential nutrient) -The compound naturally occurs in commonly eaten foods

In the body, most water-soluble vitamins function as

components of specific coenzymes

xerophthalmia

condition affecting the eyes that results from vitamin A deficiency

hydroxyapatite

crystalline structure that forms on the collagen protein complex as bone is made

Although the body stores very little vitamin K,

deficiencies among adults rarely occur. this type of deficiency can develop in people who have taken long courses of antibiotics, consume very-low-fat diets, or have liver diseases or conditions that impair fat absorption, such as cystic fibrosis

Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome

degenerative brain disorder associated with a deficiency of thiamin and most commonly caused by excessive alcohol consumption

If a person does not consume enough fluids to replace that water,

dehydration can occur

Signs and symptoms of vitamin B-6 deficiency include

dermatitis, anemia, convulsions, depression, and confusion

Plant foods are the best

dietary sources of vitamin C. Peppers, citrus fruit, papaya, broccoli, cabbage, and berries contain relatively high amounts of the micronutrient. Potatoes and vitamin C-fortified fruit drinks and ready-to-eat cereals also supply vitamin. C. Most animal foods, with the exception of liver, are not sources of the micronutrient

Ions

elements or small molecules that have electrical charges

neural tube

embryonic structure that eventually develops into the brain and spinal cord

Major food sources of niacin include

enriched cereals, beef liver, tuna, salmon, poultry, pork and mushrooms. When diets supply plenty of protein-rich foods, the human body can synthesize niacin from the amino acid tryptophan.

Signs of ariboflavinosis include

fatigue, inflammation of the mucous membranes that line the mouth and throat, and glossitis, a swollen and sore throat. The tongue which also appears lumpy and reddish-purple in color is called magenta tongue. Other signs include chapped-appearing lips; cheilosis, scaling and cracking of the skin around the corners of the mouth; a type of dermatitis (inflammation of the skin) and eye disorders

collagen

fibrous protein that gives strength to connective tissue such as bone, cartilage, and tendons

cholecalciferol

form of vitamin D found in animal food sources; vitamin D3

ergocalciferol (vitamin D2)

form of vitamin D found in plant food sources; vitamin D2

gamma-tocopherol

form of vitamin E that has a significantly lower biological activity than alpha-tocopherol

alpha-tocopherol

form of vitamin E used by the body; found in most foods and vitamin E supplements

Leafy vegetables, liver, legumes, asparagus, broccoli, and orange juice are

good natural sources of folate. Enriched grain products and fortified cereals are among the richest sources of folate in the American diet

Major food sources of vitamin K1 are

green leafy vegetables such as kale, turnip greens, cabbage, and spinach; broccoli; and green beans.

tocopherols

group of four structurally similar forms of vitamin E

Calcium-rich diets may have beneficial effects on

heart disease risk factors, including hypertension, insulin resistance, chronic inflammation, and abnormal blood lipid levels. Although dietary calcium may protect against heart disease, calcium supplements have actually been associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Dietary sources of calcium may also be associated with successful weight loss and improved body composition.

Hypercalcemia

high blood caclium

hypermagnesemia

high blood magnesium levels

hyperphosphatemia

high blood phosphorus level

hyperkalemia

high blood potassium

adolsterone

hormone secreted from adrenal glands in response to dehydration; stimulates kidneys to conserve sodium and water

Antidiuretic hormone (ADP)

hormone secreted from pituitary glands in response to dehydration; stimulates kidneys to conserve water

25-hydroxyvitamin D

inactive form of vitamin D, made in the liver from cholecalciferol

In the body, vitamin C has widespread roles,

including collagen synthesis, antioxidant activity, and immune function

How much water is necessary to drink for good health?

individual water needs are dependent on factors such as environmental temperature and humidity, age, health conditions, physical activities, and dietary choices. total water intake varies widely.

gastritis

inflammation of the lining of the stomach

Cystic fibrosis

inherited respiratory disease caused by a defective gene that leads to overproduction of thick and sticky mucus

hemoglobin

iron-containing protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen

The chemical commonly called "table salt" or simple "salt"

is actually sodium chloride, a compound comprising two minerals, sodium and chloride.

However, produce that is frozen immediately after being harvested and them properly stored can be

just as nutritious as fresh produce. Frozen fruits and vegetables are often economical alternative to fresh produce, but they need to be cooked without thawing to conserve much of their vitamin content.

Severe vitamin deficiencies are uncommon in the United States, thanks in part to modern food preservation practices, food enrichment and fortification and the year-round widespread availability of free fruits and vegetables from other countries. Many Americans however consume

less than recommended amounts of vitamins A, D, E, and K

If we do not have any water

life cannot be sustained for more than a few days. Fortunately our bodies obtain water from beverages and foods, especially fruits and vegetables. The body also makes some water as a result of metabolism.

sodium sensitive

more likely to develop hypertension as a result of consuming a high-sodium diet

total parenteral solution

liquid mixture that provides nourishment to those who are unable to eat normally; administered intravenously

hypokalemia

low blood potassium

hyponatremia

low blood sodium

malignant tumors

masses of cancerous cells

systolic pressure

maximum blood pressure within an artery that occurs when the ventricles contract

Routine vitamin C supplementation______________

may reduce the duration of cold symptoms by a day or so

Major sources of vitamin B-12 in the typical American diet include

meat, milk and milk products, poultry, fish, shellfish, and eggs. Although liver is not a popular food in the United States, it is one of the richest sources of vitamin B-12 because the vitamin is stored in the liver

Many of the chemical reactions involved in the the

metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids involve coenzymes that contain B vitamins

simple diffusion

molecular movement from a region of higher to lower concentration

Calcium is the

most abundant mineral element in the human body. Although the body needs calcium to form bones and teeth, the mineral is also necessary for muscle contraction, blood clot formation, nerve impulse transmission and cell metabolism

1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (calcitriol)

most biologically active form of vitamin D

Osmosis

movement of a solvent, usually water through a selectively permeable membrane

acetylcholine

neurotransmitter associated with attention, learning and memory, muscle control, and other nervous system functions

pellagra

niacin deficiency disease characterized by dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and death

benign masses (tumors)

noncancerous tumors that are usually harmless

Which of the following hormones acts to increase calcium absorption and decrease urinary calcium excretion?

parathyroid hormone

lecithin

phosphatidylcholine; phospholipid found in egg yolk that acts as an emulsifier in certain foods

Dairy foods, meat, and cereal grains are the primary sources of

phosphorus in typical American diet. Fruits and vegetables are generally poor sources of the mineral.

Severe deficiencies of biotin

rarely occur because intestinal bacteria produce some biotin and the vitamin is found in a wide variety of foods

Which of the following foods is a rich source of vitamin C?

red peppers

When needed, vitamin A is transported in the blood bound to

retinol-binding protein (RBP)

ariboflavinosis

riboflavin deficiency disease characterized by fatigue, inflammation of the mucous membranes that line the mouth and throat, and glossitis

Which of the following foods is a good source of vitamin B-12?

sardines

Although most Americans who eat animal products consume more than the RDA<

some members of the population are at risk of vitamin B-12 deficiency. Vegans, for example, need to be concerned about their intake of vitamin B-12 because plant foods are not sources of the micronutrient

Milk products, such as fluid milk, yogurt, and cheese, are significant

sources of calcium in the diet for many americans

oral rehydration therapy

specially prepared solutions of water and electrolytes used to prevent and treat dehydration

retinal esters

storage of vitamin A

phytic acid

substance found in grains, seeds, and beans that interferes with mineral absorption

oxalic acid

substance found in spinach, collard greens, and sweet potatoes that interferes with mineral absorption

vasoconstrictor

substance that contributes to the constriction of blood vessels

diuretic

substance that increases urine production

prooxidant

substance that promotes production of free radicals

Free radicals

substance with an unpaired electron; highly reactive that is chemically unstable, and they remove electrons from more stable molecules such as proteins, fatty acids, and DNA. As a result, free radicals can damage or destroy those molecules. If the loss of electrons is uncontrolled, a chain reaction can occur in which excessive oxidation takes place and affects many cells. Many medical researchers suspect excess oxidation is responsible for promoting chemical changes in cells that ultimately lead to heart attack, stroke, cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and even the aging process.

vitamin-like compounds

substances that maintain normal metabolism but are not essential since the body can synthesize them

glutathione

sulfur-containing antioxidant molecule

menadione

synthetic form of vitamin K

Fish liver oils and fatty fish, especially salmon, herring, and catfish, are among the few foods

that naturally contain vitamin D. Cow's milk is routinely fortified with vitamin D and some brands of ready-to-eat cereal, orange juice, and other processed food products have the vitamin added to them as well

Vitamin D is not widespread in food; therefore

the body depends on sunlight to synthesize the vitamin

Over 90% of vitamin A is stored in

the liver.

The AI for sodium for healthy adults is 1500 mg daily. For those who perspire heavily, such as athletes and individuals working outdoors in high temperatures

the need for sodium is increased

Vitamin D is necessary for

the regulation of calcium and maintenance of phosphorus levels in the blood, as well as the production and maintenance of healthy bones. Vitamin D stimulates small-intestinal cells to absorb calcium and phosphorus from food. When vitamin D is lacking, the intestine absorbs only 10 to 15% o the calcium in foods; with the vitamin, intestinal absorption of dietary calcium increases to 30 to 80%. Vitamin D also stimulates bone cells to form calcium phosphate the major mineral compound in bone. Without adequate vitamin D, bone cells cannot deposit enough calcium and phosphorus to produce strong bone tissue.

beriberi

thiamin deficiency disease characterized by weakness, poor muscular coordination and abnormal functioning of the cardiovascular, digestive, and nervous systems

What are the eight B vitamins?

thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, vitamin B-6, folate, and vitamin B-12

The adult RDA for calcium ranges from 1000 to 1200mg/day. For children and adolescents between the ages of 9 and 18, the RDA is higher

to allow for increases in bone mass during growth and development. In the United States, average calcium intakes were 1084 mg/day for men and 857 mg/day for women in 2017-2018. People who consume vegan diets based solely on plant foods and people who are lactose intolerant are at risk of calcium deficiency because they often avoid consuming milk and milk products, which are the most reliable dietary sources of calcium

PLP helps convert a potentially

toxic homocysteine, to cysteine, a nonessential amino acid. If the body lacks vitamin B-6, homocysteine can accumulate in blood and may contribute to CVD in some individuals

rhodopsin

vitamin A-containing protein that is needed for vision in dim light

Sanako follows an exclusively plant-based diet. Based on this information, sank is at the greatest risk for a ________________ deficiency.

vitamin B-12

Thiamin

vitamin B-1; vitamin component of a coenzyme that is important for energy metabolism as part of thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP)

riboflavin

vitamin B-2; important for energy metabolism as part of flavin mono nucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), two coenzymes that play key roles in enzymatic reactions, including those that are critical to fatty acid and folate metabolism

Niacin

vitamin B-3; important for energy metabolism as part of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP). The body uses nicotinic acid and nicotinamide to synthesize two coenzymes. This coenzymes participate in at least 200 reactions, including pathways involved in the release of energy from macronutrients

scurvy

vitamin C deficiency disease

High intakes of fruits and vegetables reduce the risk of cancer, especially lung, oral, esophageal, stomach, and colon cancer. Fruits and vegetables are rich sources of

vitamin C, as well as carotenoids and other phytochemicals that may have antioxidant activity in the body.

To digest naturally occurring folate, specific intestinal enzymes are necessary to remove all except one of the glutamates,

which results in the folic acid form of the vitamin. Because of the additional steps required to remove the glutamates, naturally occurring folate is not as bioavailable as folic acid