EDUC 220 Chapter 12 and 15

3 kinds of motivational sets that come from beliefs about ability, self-efficacy and self-worth

mastery oriented, failure avoiding, and failure accepting

true

true or false: a sense of efficacy, control, or self-determination is critical if people are to feel intrinsically motivated

false

true or false: interest in school increases over time from elementary to high school

true

true or false: to help students cope with academic anxiety in classrooms, both emotional and cognitive support and self-regulation strategies must be taught, because anxiety is an emotional construct that occurs in a performance context

unfair penalization

using a reference, phrase, or language in a test that penalizes students who, for example, are not from a specific group or place

goal

what an individual strives to accomplish

offensiveness

when a particular group may be offended or insulted by test content

distractors

wrong answers offered as choices in a multiple choice item - geared towards distracting students who only have a vague understanding of the content knowledge

arousal and anxiety

arousal involves both psychological and physical reactions - changes in brain wave patterns, blood pressure, heart rate and breathing rate. we feel alert, wide awake, even excited -there is an optimum level of arousal for most activities - for each specific task, when arousal levels are too low, you will not be spurred to action - as arousal increases, it has a facilitative effect on the motivation to perform - once the pressure to perform reaches a critical level, high anxiety begins to impede performance - generally speaking, higher levels of arousal are helpful on simple tasks but lower levels of arousals are better for complex tasks

reward

an attractive object or event supplied as a consequence of a behavior

motivation

an internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior

incentive

an object or event that encourages or discourages behaviour

behavioural approaches to motivation

an understanding of student motivation begins with a careful analysis of the incentives and rewards present in the classroom - providing reinforcers for learning or demerits for behaviour is an attempt to motivate students by extrinsic means

performance assessment

any form of assessment that requires students to carry out an activity or produce a product in order to demonstrate learning - proof of what they have done ex: evaluating students' abilities during a science lab project (organizing data, plotting info, assessing results)

humanistic interpretations of motivation

approach to motivation that emphasizes personal freedom, choice, self-determination, and striving for personal growth

personal interests

are more long lasting aspects of the person, such as an enduring tendency to enjoy subjects or activities - students with personal interests seek new info and have more positive attitudes toward schooling

situational interests

are more short lived aspects of the activity, text or materials that catch and keep the student's attention

5 general approaches to motivation

behavioural, humanistic, cognitive, social cognitive, sociocultural

entity view of ability

belief that ability is a fixed characteristic that cannot be changed

incremental view of ability

belief that ability is a set of skills that can be changed

epistemological beliefs

beliefs about the structure, stability, and certainty of knowledge, and how knowledge is best learned

self-actualization

fulfilling one's potential

anxiety

general uneasiness, a feeling of tension

legitimate peripheral participation

genuine involvement in the work of the group, even if your abilities are undeveloped and contributions are small - participation in the community motivates one to learn the values and practices of the community - gradually, one gains the knowledge, skills, practices and values towards becoming "experts", making their way toward the center of the community - each task is a piece of the real work of the "expert"

curiosity and interests

interest and curiosity are related - curiosity can be defined as a tendency to be interested in a wide range of areas - individual interests begin to emerge as we raise and answer curiosity questions - for situational interests to develop into long term individual interests curiosity and the desire for exploration are necessary - the more curious and the more likely the child is to explore to resolve uncertainty

maslow's theory and indigenous perspectives

it draws on many indigenous concepts - he did cultural anthropology work with the blackfoot tribe - the triangle is actually a tipi - in the blackfoot tradition, self-actualization was at the bottom of the tipi, with cultural propriety on the top - indigenous scholars claim he misinterpreted some of the indigenous understandings, because he did not situate the individual in a cultural and community setting - he did not incorporate anything about ancestral knowledge either - some scholars have reinterpreted the theory through an indigenous lens, arguing that needs are not hierarchical, but integrated with cultural values - indigenous perspectives of needs situate the individual within a collective

intrinsic motivation

motivation associated with activities that are their own reward - the human tendency to seek out and conquer challenges as we pursue personal interests and exercise our capabilities - does not require incentives or punishments, because the activity itself is satisfying and rewarding - associated with many positive outcomes in school

scoring rubrics

rules that are used to determine the quality of a student's performance - used to grade portfolios and performances - focused on worthwhile skills that can be taught and assessed (not too vague or specific) - points are assigned to categories of performance guidelines for use: get students to use the rubric to evaluate sample texts or performances, after testing the rubric, allow students to revise their work, have students help you design the rubric

self-handicapping strategies

students may engage in behaviour that blocks their own success in order to avoid testing their true ability

failure-avoiding students

students who avoid failure by sticking to what they know, by not taking risks, or by claiming not to care about their performance

failure-accepting students

students who believe their failures are due to low ability and there is little they can do about it

work-avoidant learners

students who don't want to learn or to look smart, but just want to avoid work and/or putting in time and effort - they feel success when they do not have to try hard, when the work is easy, or when they can "goof off"

mastery-oriented students

students who focus on learning goals because they value achievement and see ability as improvable

cognitive evaluation theory

suggests that events affect motivation through the individual's perception of the events as controlling behavior or providing information

need for autonomy

the desire to have our own wishes, rather than external rewards or pressures, determine our actions

learned helplessness

the expectation, based on previous experiences with a lack of control, that all of one's efforts will lead to failure

need for competence

the individual's need to demonstrate ability or mastery over the tasks at hand - all about the environment - satisfying this need results in a sense of accomplishment, promotes self-efficacy, and helps learners establish better learning goals for future tasks

stem

the question part of a multiple-choice item - where the problem or ask is presented

mastery goals

a personal intention to improve abilities and learn, no matter how performance suffers - engagement in the task is higher; they are more invested

performance goals

a personal intention to seem competent or perform well in the eyes of others; to look good ex: winning, outperforming others, looking smart - what matters is evaluations of their performance by others - may make students act in ways that actually interfere with learning

social goals

a wide variety of needs and motives to be connected to others or part of a group - associated with student's emotional well-being and self-esteem

intrinsic and extrinsic tendencies as two independent possibilities

- an explanation of motivation that avoids either/or thinking - at any given time, we can be motivated by some aspects of each - teaching can create intrinsic motivation by connecting to students; interests and supporting them to develop competence - there are situations where incentives are necessary - teachers must encourage and nurture intrinsic motivation, while making sure that extrinsic motivation supports learning

four types of extrinsic motivation

- an explanation of motivation that avoids either/or thinking; claims our activities fall along a continuum from fully self-determined (intrinsic) to fully determined by others (extrinsic) most extrinsic to least: 1. external regulation - completely controlled by outside factors 2. introjected regulation - engaging in the task to avoid guilt or negative self-perceptions 3. identification - participating despite lack of interest because it serves a larger, personally motivating goal 4. integrated regulation - participating in a task because it is both interesting and has extrinsic reward value

first model of the impact of academic anxieties on achievement

- cognitive interference model - classic notion - anxiety interferes with performance by drawing necessary cognitive resources away during the testing phase - presumes the learner has effectively learned the material, but anxiety blocks adequate retrieval

self-determination in the classroom

- greater student interest and curiosity, sense of competence, creativity, conceptual learning, grades, school attendance etc. - when students have the authority to make choices they are more likely to believe that the work is important, even if it is not fun - tend to internalize educational goals and take them as their own - teacher should focus on info, not control in interactions with students - controlling environments tend to improve performance only on rote, recall tasks involving memorization

cognitive approaches to motivation

-people are viewed as active and curious, searching for info to solve personally relevant problems - emphasize intrinsic motivation - developed as a reaction to the behavioural views - believed behaviour is determined by our thinking, not simply by reward or punishment for the behaviour in the past - behaviour is initiated and regulated by plans, goals, schemas, expectations and attributions

pros of traditional testing

- knowledge and right answers can be important in some disciplines - it's important to be able to use facts, concepts and ideas correctly

goals in a social context

- people in the situation socially construct the meaning of an activity; goals set for the activity will reflect the participants' understanding of what they are doing - in a highly competitive classroom climate, students might be more likely to adopt performance goals - in contrast, in a supportive, learner centred classroom, even a student with lower self efficacy might be encouraged to aim for higher mastery goals - goals are part of the triadic reciprocal interaction of person, environment and behaviour

second model of the impact of academic anxieties on achievement

- students with high levels of anxiety are less effective at organizing info, engaging in study strategies and performing on tests

specific, elaborated, moderately difficult and proximal goals

- tend to enhance motivation and persistence - provide clear standards for judging performance. if performance falls short, we keep going

cons of traditional testing

- tests ask students to demonstrate knowledge out of context -- may not be the best assessment of whether students can apply skills - bias can arise from the content, language and examples included ex: unfair penalization, offensiveness - have colleagues check your tests for bias

are all performance goals bad?

-may not be all bad, all of the time - both mastery and performance goals are associated with using active learning strategies and high self-efficacy - college students pursuing performance goals related to higher achievement - students can and often pursue mastery and performance goals at the same time

considerations for using rubrics or performance assessments

- they can be great for increasing reliability between graders by offering point values for each level of performance - some students may perform very well when they are used, but do very poorly when objective testing is used -- or vice versa. no form of assessment is necessarily better than others - students cannot be separated from their identities during a performance; implicit or confirmation biases may come through because you cannot "blind" this test like you could an essay test

coping with anxiety in the classroom - 4 things teachers can do

- to help students cope and self-regulation strategies that will reduce the negative effect of anxiety - 1. recognizing the source of their anxious feelings and accurately interpreting them - help students adopt attributional styles that they have control over learning and performance 2. help students to set realistic goals because they may have difficulty making wise choices as they tend to select either extremely easy or difficult tasks - they will succeed on easy ones but will miss the sense of satisfaction that could encourage greater effort and ease their fears about school work. they are likely to fail extremely difficult tasks and will increase their hopelessness and anxiety about school 3. support improved performance by teaching students more effective methods for learning and studying - they tend to spend more time on studying but methods may be repetitive and low quality - teachers help build cognitive and emotional skills to over come anxiety , they will internalize the strategies that help them be more successful 4. limit environmental triggers for anxiety in classroom by examining their underlying biases - promoting mastery-oriented classroom goal structures - providing a positive role model for appropriate interest and excitement for the content - the more teachers are visibly stressed about assessment testing, the more students will have negative emotions and activate test anxiety

impacts of anxiety on achievement

- two models that explain the impact - most of research of these models focus on test anxiety

catching and holding interests

- whenever possible, it helps to connect academic content to student's personal interests - challenge is to not only catch but also hold their interests - lessons that hold their interest over time - relate to real life problems and active participation, - another source of interest is fantasy - challenge, novelty, working with others, assuming the role of an expert, and participating in a group project also can support interest

development of view of ability

- young children tend to hold an exclusively incremental view of ability. most elementary students believe that effort is the same as intelligence. - around age 11 or 12, children can differentiate among effort, ability and performance. this is when beliefs about ability begin to influence motivation

seductive details

-adding interests by incorporating fascinating but irrelevant details that actually gets in the way of learning the important info. - divert readers' attention from the less-interesting main ideas

anxiety in the classroom

-anxiety can be both a cause and an effect of school failure - students do poorly because they are anxious, and their poor performance increases their anxiety

achievement emotions

-emotions are both causes and consequences of learning processes - goal orientations - mastery, performance approach and performance avoidance - with a mastery goal, students focused on an activity, having mastery goals predicted enjoyment in learning, hope, and pride, and less likely to feel angry or bored about learning - boredom is a big problem - associated with difficulties in paying attention, lack of intrinsic motivation, weak effort, shallow processing of info, and poor self-regulated learning - students are more likely to feel bored if they believe they have little control over the learning activities and they do not value the activities - matching challenge to the students' skill levels and giving choices can increase the students' sense of control - efforts to build student interest show the value of the activities help to fight boredom - achievement emotions are domain specific - teachers who enjoy their subjects tend to be more enthusiastic and encourage student enjoyment

criticisms of maslow's theory

-people do not always appear to behave as the theory would predict -most of us move back and forth among different types of needs and may even be motivated by many needs at the same time

neuroscience and emotion

-stimulation to a small area of the brain called the amygdala seems to trigger emotional reactions such as "fight or flight" response - human emotions are the outcome of physiological responses triggered by the brain, combined with with interpretations of the situation and other info - emotions are a constant interplay between cognitive assessments, conscious feelings, and bodily responses, with each able to influence the other - humans are more likely to pay attention to, learn about, and remember events, images, and readings that provoke emotional responses - emotions can affect learning by changing brain dopamine levels that influence long-term memory and by directing attention toward one aspect of the situation - experiences of success or failure can provoke achievement emotions such as pride, hope, boredom, anger or shame

approach/avoidance framework for mastery and performance goals

-students may be motivated to either approach mastery or avoid misunderstanding - may approach performance or avoid looking incompetent

teacher actions and student attributions

-when a teacher assumes that student failure is attributable to forces beyond the student's control, teacher tends to respond with sympathy and avoids giving punishment - but if failures are attributed to a controllable factor such as lack of effort, the teacher's response is more likely to be irritation or anger, and reprimands may follow - these tendencies seem to be consistent across time and cultures - when young students received attributional feedback during a learning activity that was either ability focused or effort focused, their problem solving effort and skills were increased, also promoted higher levels of perceived self-efficacy

4-phase model of interest development

1-situational interest triggered 2- situational interest maintained 3- emerging individual interest 4- well developed individual interest

3 dimensions of attributed causes for successes or failures

1. Locus - location of the cause - internal or external to the person 2. Stability - whether the cause of the event is the same across time and in different situations 3. Controllability - whether the person can control the cause

4 main reasons why goal setting improves performance

1. direct attention to the task at hand and away from distractions 2. energize effort 3. increase persistence 4. promote the development of new knowledge and strategies when old strategies fall short

3 types of deficits caused by learned helplessness

1. motivational - students feel hopeless, expect to fail, so motivation suffers 2. cognitive - they are pessimistic about learning, they miss opportunities to practise and improve skills so they develop cognitive deficits 3. affective - because of poor performance, they often suffer from affective problems such as depression, anxiety, and listlessness - once established, very difficult to reverse the effects of learned helplessness

3 phases of the learning-testing cycle that are affected by anxiety

1. preparation - with anxiety, they have difficulty focusing attention on materials, study tactics and maintaining positive self worth orientation - anxious students may miss much of the info because they focus on their own worries 2. performance - anxiety blocks retrieval of what was (often poorly) learned 3. reflection - learners with anxiety build attributions for failure that further impede their future performance by believing they are simply incapable of succeeding, that they have no control over the situation, and setting ineffective goals for future situations

coping with anxiety in the classroom - 3 kinds of strategies students may use

1. problem-focused self-regulating learning strategies - include planning a study schedule, borrowing good notes, or finding a protected place to study 2. emotional management - emotion-focused strategies are attempts to reduce the anxious feelings, e.g. by using relaxation exercises or describing the feelings to a friend 3. avoidance - e.g. going out for pizza or all out desk cleaning attack - different strategies are helpful at different points, and fit different people and situations

2 kinds of portfolios

1. process: includes works in progress, revisions, feedback -- used to see growth 2. best-work: polished, final copies, end-result of a period of learning

5 dimensions of epistemological beliefs

1. structure of knowledge - set of facts or complex set of relationships? 2. stability/certainty of knowledge - fixed or does it evolve? 3. ability to learn - fixed/innate or changeable? 4. speed of learning - can knowledge be gained quickly or over time? 5. nature of learning - does learning mean memorizing facts or developing integrated understandings?

amotivation

A complete lack of any intent to act—no engagement at all.

authentic assessments

Assessment procedures that test skills and abilities as they would be applied in real-life situations ex: music or dance recital, sports game, interview - tests and demonstrations of core skills - might ask students to problem-solve, interpret, make mistakes and self-correct in the moment

deficiency needs

Maslow's four lower-level needs, which must be satisfied first - physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem - when these needs are satisfied, the motivation for fulfilling them decreases

maslow's hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of 7 levels of human needs, beginning with basic physiological requirements to the need for self-actualization - physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, cognitive, aesthetic, self-actualization - lower-level needs must be met before higher-level needs can be addressed - gives us a way of looking at the whole student, whose physical, emotional and intellectual needs are interrelated

being needs

Maslow's three higher-level needs, sometimes called growth needs - cognitive, aesthetic, self-actualization - when they are met, a person's motivation increases to seek further fulfillment - they can never be completely filled

locus of causality

The location—internal or external—of the cause of behaviour internal = intrinsic motivation external = extrinsic motivation

arousal

Physical and psychological reactions causing a person to feel alert, excited, or tense.

self-determination theory

Suggests that we all need to feel competent and capable in our interactions in the world, to have some choices and a sense of control over our lives, and to be connected to others - to belong to a social group - similar to early conceptions of basic needs for achievement (competence), power (autonomy and control) and affiliation (belonging and relatedness)

essay tests

TIMED tests where students are asked to respond to prompts in paragraph form - important to provide students with a page limit and a clear question or task - use a scoring criteria or rubric that clearly sets expectations for answers and assigns points to various parts of the essay best practices for grading them: - grade all answers for question 1 before moving on to the next one - before moving on to the next question, shuffle your papers - could also ask another teacher to double-check your grading

classroom goal structure

The goals that students think are emphasized in the class

academic anxieties

a broad term that encompasses anxiety experiences in educational settings - test anxiety, math anxiety, science anxiety public speaking anxiety etc. - can lead to patterns of beliefs and behaviours that hamper performance and promote disengagement in learning - has both trait and state components - the level of trait anxiety tends to be constant across most situations, but each situation carries a degree of state anxiety as well, which may increase feelings of stress - perception of threat imposed by specific conditions dictating the degree of elevated anxiety - poor quality of sleep is related to debilitating anxiety and school perfomance

portfolio

a collection of the student's work in an area, showing growth, self-reflection, and achievement - systematic - 2 types - guidelines include: choose pieces that demonstrate self-reflection/self-criticism, portfolios should demonstrate growth, students should have a choice over what goes into portfolios

flow

a mental state in which you are fully immersed in a challenging task that is accompanied by high levels of concentration and involvement

the connection between learning theories and assessment

depending on what learning theory a teacher employs, they will use certain forms of assessment

attribution theories

descriptions of how individuals' explanations, justifications, and excuses influence their motivation and behavior

need for relatedness

desire to belong and establish close emotional bonds and attachments with others who care about us

2 views of ability

entity and incremental

objective testing

exams in which scoring does not require interpretation; there is a sought-after, right answer - multiple choice, true-false, matching, etc. - trying to measure whether students know certain content - does not just have to test facts, a question can present new info/a scenario that students must analyze or decipher

expectancy x value theories

explanations of motivation that emphasize individuals' expectations for success combined with their valuing of the goal - motivation is a product of these two forces, because if either factor is zero, then there is no motivation to work toward the goal - social cognitive approach to motivation

extrinsic motivation

motivation created by external factors such as rewards and punishments - when we do something to earn a grade, avoid punishment, please a teacher, etc. - we care only about what an activity will gain us - associated with negative emotions, poor academic achievement and maladaptive learning strategies - however, it also has its benefits when it provides incentives as students try new things, give them an extra push to get started or helps them persist to complete a mundane task

goal orientations

patterns of beliefs about goals related to achievement in school - includes the reasons we pursue goals, and the standards we use to evaluate progress - students can and do pursue several goals at once; they have to coordinate their goals so they can make decisions about what to do and how to act

self-efficacy and attribution theory

people with strong sense of self-efficacy tend to attribute failures to lack of effort, misunderstanding directions, or just not study enough - these are internal, controllable attributions - usually focus on how to succeed next time - often lead to pride and achievement people with low sense of self-efficacy tend to attribute their failures to lack of ability - the biggest motivational problems arise when students attribute failure to stable, uncontrollable causes that are unlikely to change - tendencies are across age levels, cultural groups and academic topics

sociocultural views of motivation

perspectives that emphasize participation, identities, and interpersonal relations within communities of practice - students are motivated to learn if they are members of a classroom or school community that values learning