EEB 2244 FINAL EXAM FULL COMBO

Which interactions are ++, +-, --, and +0?

++: Mutualism +0: Comensalism +-: Predation, Parasitism, and Herbivory --: Competition

What did MAW think about Krakatau?

*Fill in from slides*

What is plant digestibility as a defense? What is the compound present that "prevents herbivory"? How is the moderns state of these compounds indicative of evolution?

"Bite into an oak leaf, its not a pleasant experience" Oak trees are loaded with plant compounds that limit digestibility. Tannins: tannins are produced exclusively to protect against herbivory Tannins used to be used in leather, because they make leather less digestible to organisms and such. If you treat animal skin with tannins you make it invincible. Tannins prevent organisms from breaking down proteins easily. Evolution never stands still, if you look at the oak tree there are still a lot of herbivores.

What does the average curve of a population graph look like

/-\ Positive at first, then you hit the point that resources become limited: then RIP

What is the successional sequence in C-S New England

0 years: Abandoned fields started it 2-5 years: Annual weeds, small grasses Next 10 years: Pitch pine, pasture juniper, gray birch Next 25 years: Scrub oak, white pine, red cedar 100-250 years: Oaks and hickories (on drier warmer sites) Maple Beech hemlock, yellow birch (on cooler moisture sites)

What are the components of anthropogenic CO2 emissions? What is the fate of these anthropogenic CO2 emissions?

1.5 Pg = Deforestation, 8.5 fossil fuels 4.6 atmosphere, 3 land, 2.3 oceans

When did connecticut have the least forest cover?

1850

What were the effects of Karaktau? What did MAW notice?

1883 No species, 1908 a few, 1919-21 it reached extinction, eventually after succession the island reaches a point of equilibrium, as noted by the curves that give the equilibrium number

Where can the sun be directly overhead?

23.5*S-0 (December to March) 23.5*N-0 (June-September)

How many bison were there 200 years ago?

30-60 million

What is the period of a cycle?

4*tau It is NOT dependent on r e.g.) Population with a t of 1 year will reach a peak density approximately once every 4 years

What is the carbon budget of the earth?

45k GT, it's composed of fossil fuels, oceans, terrestrial life, and atmosphere Dead organics legit chill at the bottom of the ocean, and on land, results in a BIG contribution to big CO2

If the carrying capacity is 100k, what level should we keep it at for maximum sustainable? Why?

50k In the logistic model, the derivative is highest when N= K/2 Simple calculus! the rate parabola is another reason but it comes down to derivation and double primes after all

What is the soil pH change along the chain of primary succession?

8.0 pH to 4.8 Because of needle deposition/litter

What is "Der Doctor Schnabel von Rom"? What was the significance of the beaked mask? Why did he carry a sword?

A carving of a plague doctor The stuffed it with herbs and spices to make the air smell better, the idea was that the league was transmitted through the ear. Malaria in latin means bad ear so you can guess the clout source People were not stupid, they were as smart as you are, they just had no science. There was no aggregation of science If any of the infected people came close to the plague doctor they would threaten them with a sword

What is genetic drift?

A change in allele frequencies caused by random events e.g.) For no reason at all, lightning strikes all the blue buffalo, now there's only black buffalo (they should buy lottery tickets)

What is the bottleneck effect?

A change in allele frequency following a dramatic reduction in the size of a population e.g.) A valcano erupts and kills more people with brown eyes than blue eyes by chance, as such people with blue eyes become more common in the population it also sometimes leads to less genetic diversity, as alleles that arent disadvantageous but uncommon can be significantly reduced.

What is a meta-community?

A community of communities, multiple local communities linked by potential dispersal

What is polyploidy?

A condition in which an organism has extra sets of chromosomes, leading to a 3n or 4n number Can lead to new species with the new genetic compositions Examples used in class were new salamanders and new types of wheat

What is evenness?

A measure of how abundant each species is in relation to the other species

What is a stochastic model?

A model that incorporates random variation in population growth rate; assumes that variation in birth and death rates is due to random chance

What is a deterministic model?

A model that is designed to predict a result without accounting for random variation in population growth rate Opposite of stochastic

What is an example of a negative feedback loop with K gone wrong?

A population hits K and keeps growing, it reaches a point where population crashes, if the pop got too high then K is degraded and the species can go extinct. NOT GOOD!

What is a group? What is a group of prarie dogs called?

A purposeful joining of individuals A group of prarie dogs is called a town, and they occupy a HUGE area

What is an ecological pyramid?

A representation of the standing level of biomass in all of the levels of the ecosystem's food web Wide base and narrow tops You give the percent efficiency on the side, that allows you to determine the ending biomass from starting biomass

What is the peak shape determinant of in a cycle?

A rounded edge says that a prey is coming to equilibrium, sharp predator spike drags them down though The rounded edge could be the voles, or it could be the mosses coming to equilibrium

What is the definition of a species? What organisms defy this definition (given in class)?

A species is a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring Salamanders (some) are all female and produce only daughters, and bacteria reproduce through binary fission Ring species: Species of gulls form a ring, species next to eachother can reproduce but at the end of the rings cant. As such different species can interbreed if theyre closely related, an exception.

Which of the following biomes has the greatest concentration of organic material in the soil?

A.) Tundra: Decomposers work slowly!

What is the formula for assimilation efficiency?

A/I It becomes quite important especially in livestock maintenance and stuff like that

When do Adiabatic Heating and Cooling occur?

AH Occurs when cool water gets warmer as it lowers and gets warm/gains water vapor AC Occurs when warm water gets cooler as it rises and loses heat/water vapor

What contributes to sea level rise?

Greenland and antarctica

What are abundance and density?

Abundance: Total number of individuals in a area that exist within a defined area Population density: Number of individuals per unit area or volume, usually highest near enter of geographic range.

What were Rick's findings?

Acorns would peak, then ticks would peak, then lyme disease

What's the difference between adaptation and aclimitization?

Adaptation is a long term genetic response, acclimatization is within the same lifetime.

What is the connection between wolf reintroduction and species

Add from the ppt.

What are two mechanisms of how richness increases? What are the examples given of high and low richness increase potential?

Add species to communities through speciation nd dispersal, Speciation: New species evolve Dispersal: Movement of organisms through space, humans are the biggest culprits in dispersal Generally examined at the regional scale, they happen at the gamma scale then filter down Explaining patterns: Difficult to disperse pole to pole, polar bears can't get thurrrrr. high speciation rates in microbes and viruses: explained because they reproduce and evolve very fast

How does the alder facilitate competition?

Adding nitrogen to the soil

What are the models of measuring gamma diversity?

Additive: y = a + b Multiplicative: y = a * b

What happened to populations of animals after wolves were changed?

After wolves were removed, elk populations went up, so elk was culled by park rangers to keep them down. In 1968 the elk population spiked until wolves came in Plant species went down very low, but now that wolves are back THEY BACK Also beavers came back too fsr

What are the "aggregation in time" organisms? What is aggregation of organisms? What were the three examples given and the details (tree, bug, and mammal)?

Aggregation can happen in time and space Masting in trees: You probably have oaks in your back yard, one year you have a lot, the next you got nothing. Masting is huge variance in the production of seeds within years. It reduces predation by making so many acorns that it overwhelms squirrels and such. More will survive. Another thing is that predators will have a great year, then the acorns wont fall so the population crashes. Magic Cicadas: They overload the predators with emergence African ungulates: They run around away from predators, as such the territorial predators cannot follow them. So when the population of predators declines when theyre gone they can come back. There is seasonality and the selection pressure

What is the Brazil Nut Story? (Creatures, problems occuring)

Agouti plant the nut from the brazil tree, the euglossine bee is the only polinator of the Agouti bee, orchids attract the female bees to pollinate. When we cut down the Brazil Nut tree we mess with the equilibrium of the nature and can kill all the animals/bees that rely on them Ppl cut down around the tree, but nature cant help so the plantations have low productivity, this results in the ending of the Brazil Nut

What are pests? What ecological problems do they cause (indirectly)? What is Economic injury level?

Agricultural pets compete with humans for resources Pest: Purely a human centric point of view, they are competitors with us Insett pests cause economic problems, environmental problems indirectly (increase cultivated area and pesticide use) Eradication is rarely possible. We most likely try to depress the levels of pests for best economic gain Economic injury level: The pest density below which increased control costs more than the value of crop saved.

What is Albedo? What is its significance in regard to the climate of the region?

Albedo is the amount of sunlight deflected off of the surface of the earth, its higher in areas without vegetation (just soil), as the trees absorb/use solar energy. Evapotranspiration also cools the atmosphere as the water lost rises to the atmosphere Areas with higher albedo have warmer drier climates, aka how deforestation leads to drier and hotter climates in the region.

What is the 0-growth isocline?

All combinations of N1 and N2 where species N1 is stable N1 will move toward the line along the x-axis x=N1 y=N2 Just demonstrates all the possible values for N1

What are the scales of biodiversity? What are their characteristics?

Alpha: Local, site diversity. diversity of the individual sites Gamma:The regional diversity of the species Beta diversity: Change in species composition along sites (Eg. two sites in a region only have 3 unique species but the difference between them is larger so they have better beta richness)

What is apparent altruism? What are the two types and what do they mean

Altruism is really apparent altruism, the idea that altruistic acts may actually be cooperative The donor may benefit eventually Reciprocal altruism: Expectation that the other organism will act in a similar manner at a later time Kin selection: Altruistic behavior increased the fitness of a relative and in so doing indirectly increases the fitness of the altruist.

What is the compartment theory of ecosystems? What processes move carbon between the two compartments?

An ecosystem can be viewed as a set of compartments among which elements are cycled at various rates Photosynthesis: Moved carbon from an inorganic compartment (air or water) to an organic compartment (plant) Respiration: Moved carbon from an organic compartment (organism, but also detritus) to an inorganic compartment (air or water)

What is the definition of an ecosystem?

An ecosystem is an interacting system of living organisms and their physical environment (Adds the abiotic parts of the surroundings to the definition) The biosphere is a combination of all ecosystems on earth

What is the definition of symbiosis? What are the examples of symbioses

An intimate long-lived and often obligatory association of two species, even within the tissues of the other species Symbioses include mutualism, parasitism NOT JUST MUTUALISM

What is the definition of an island? What are examples of non island "islands"? What is the pattern seen across all islands?

An island can be any kind of isolated area surrounded by dissimilar habitat (matrix habitat) Habitat fragments such as in the amazon forest can be considered as island All display same patter: Large islands have more species than small islands

What is the process of nitrogen fixing bacteria?

Animals excrete urea, NFB make nitrites out of it, THEN different NFB make nitrates out of the nitrates, allowing it to return to the environment

What is the variation of senescence in plants? (what are the two types)

Annuals vs. Perennials, Annuals complete their life cycles in a year, whereas perennials live for many years without dying.

What are overshoots and die offs?

Approaching to carrying capacity is seldom smooth Die-off occurs when a population overshoots K, then dies immediately after. The greater the overshoot the greater the die off

What is the dominant energy/nutrient fluxes(/fluxers) in different types communities?

Aquatic: Dominated by Herbivores Terrestrial: Dominated by detritivores

What are the types of cycles present in LVM?

Big boy cycles, dampening cycles, huge cycles

What is the rainshadow effect?

Areas on the opposite side of a mountain than the wind is blowing get less precipitation, the wind blows the air over and rain falls on the windward side The wind is forced to cool adiabatically after it blows over the ocean and collects water, releasing its precipitation.

What is the dilution effect? (In disease ecology)

As a community is more diverse, the chance of getting sick drops.

What is industrial melanism?

As the environment gets darker, individuals with a darker phenotype are favored by selection due to camouflage.

What is mutualism? What is fitness? What makes fitness hard to measure, and how do we get around this?

Associations between species that produce benefits to bothL: each has higher fitness in the presence of the other species Fitness: the relative contribution that an individual makes to the gene pool of future generations Fitness if often difficult to determine directly many cases shortcut measures are used to estimate fitness, such as: growth, survivorship, reproductive output, etc.

What are the types of consumers/producers and what to they consume? (A C S D D M)

Autotrophs (producers): Make their own energy from light/chemical resources Consumers (heterotrophs): Consume other organisms for energy Scavengers: Consume dead animals for energy Detritivores: Break down dead organic material into smaller particles Decomposers: break down deritus into smaller elements that can be recycled Mixotrophs: Can switch between being producers and consumers

What is the process of fixing carbon? When does it commonly occur?

Autotrophs form C-C bonds that store energy for later use, they rely on these bonds to store energy made from their processes In plants this process is in the Calvin Cycle, when CO2s are branched together

What are the efficiencies of energy transfer among kinds of organisms (Autotrophs hetereotrophs)? What are the differences in efficiency (Production and assimilation) between HTherms and PTherms?

Autotrophs: Less than 2%: Sometimes less than a % for marine plants Heterotrophs: Net Production efficiency is typically 5-20% Hemothermic (warm blooded animals): High assimilation efficiency but low new production efficiency Poikilothermic animals (cold blooded): Low to moderate assimilation efficiency, medium-high net production efficiency

What are autotrophs and heterotrophs?

Autotrophs: create their own energy through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis (plants, algae) Heterotrophs: consume other organisms for energy Fun facts: Parasites are heterotrophs too!

Lemming populations go through cycles as a result of?

B.) Interaction with food base

What are the implications and real world observations of meta-population

Balancing extinctions and colonizations. Allows you to increase occupancy by increasing colonization and reducing the rates of extinction.

What are semelparitous plants? (2)

Bamboo: reproduces vegetatively over the course of 120 year cycles, not many oppurtunities for pollination Agave: 25 year cycle, requires so much energy to produce seeds and the flowering stalk that it steals energy and nutrients from the rest of the plant killing it?

What happened to beavers and small mammals when wolves were reintroduced? And why?

Beavers feed on willow and aspen, they came back, in 1996 there was one beaver dam and now theres 10, the number of wolves have greatly increased the amount of meat on the ground to benefit other species

What did wolf reintroduction do to beavers? What did their killing of other animals do for animals lower on the food chain

Beavers increased, willows and aspen are their primary food, and they built 10 dams instead of 1 beforehand on the northern range The addition of meat on the ground from the dead elks on the ground resulted in other species able to eat them (scavengers

Which species are "Ecotone engineers"?

Beavers: They make dams changing the surroundings resulting in the establishment of a new ecotone

Why are traits often correlated to life histories? (Birth rate, death rate) What was the example with birds/

Because a life history trait often develops to adjust to the other traits ex: Birds who have high mortality have high fecundity: why not reproduce before they die at a young age.

Why are there no diseases that are highly infectious and highly deadly?

Because they would wipe out all of a population, resulting in their evolutionary die off. Humans adapt not to die so evolutionarily people survive who are immune, passing on good genes for measles survival

Why have fish evolved to be more streamlined?

Because water is viscous, to fight this they evolved streamlined bodies to travel through. Small marine animals have evolved small fibrous appendages to INCREASE drag and slow their movement when needed.

What are adaptations of prey as a collective unit?

Behavioral defenses Predator confusion: If you go to an aquarium, many fish form schools. They all move in unison, Schooling works as predator confusion, if a predator comes close the fish all flee in different directions. Also seen in antelopes and such Group vigilance: 10 pairs of eyes is better than 1 pair of eyes Group defense: Buffalos in the presence of lions, the buffalos line up and face the lions to fight them

Which responses to changing environments are there (how easy are they to reverse)?

Behavioral responses are the easiest to reverse, followed by physiological acclimation, morphology and then life history changes.

What is senescence? What are its properties?

Biological aging, genetically influenced decay. Often caused by accumulation of mutations and breakdown of cellular machinery. The longer an organism is alive the better the machinery is for repair, and the slower the aging

What are the three basic ecosystem components?

Biotic components: Producers or autotrophs (1) Consumers/heterotrophs, including decomposers (2) Abiotic components: Physical environment Inorganic substances/dead organic matter (3) These three components exchange energy and nutrients

What are the causes for the decline of human births after 1960?

Birth control, cost of living going up, etc. The more offspring you have the lower possibility of survival

What other animals were on the plains?

Boac-Footed ferret,, Black tailed prairie dog, greater sage grouse, blue drama grass, and the pronghorn

What adaptations for floating are there among marine animals?

Bony fish: Swim bladders Oil storage in algae (oil droplets) and sharks (fatty livers)

What were the characters in rick's story

Borrelia burgdorferi: bacteria that causes lyme White-footed mouse: Lyme bacteria live in this boi Deer tick: Hold lyme, and they eat the blood of the deer White-tailed deer: Dead end host, kills the lyme but ticks eat the deer and eat his blood Opossum's are also dead-end hosts, they also eat the ticks

What are bottom-up vs. Top-down forces

Bottom-up: Lower trophic levels control the population (not enough food) Top-down: Higher trophic levels control the population (too much predation) Both act simultaneously on individuals

What happened to elk browsing after wolves and before?

Browsing dropped because of reintroduction, elk numbers dropped from 19k to 11k, wolves scared the elk to high ground and away from browsing one very willow shoot by rivers and streams ("fear ecology" Elk avoid the formerly preferred areas allowing trees to regenerate and ish The cascading effect is present

How do Prokaryotic heterotrophs consume food?

By absorbing it directly through their cell membranes

What organisms play the most important role in the N cycle?

C.) BACTERIA

What is an earthworm's function in ecosystems

C.) Detritivore They eat detritus

What is the equation for helping your relative? (Hamilton's hypothesis)

C/B < r C: Cost B: Benefit to sibling r: Degree of relatedness

What are the benefits of C4 and CAM photosynthesis over C3? What are their properties?

C4 and CAM use 4 carbon products instead of 3 carbon products C4 (used the PEP enzyme) compartmentalizes the CO2 into different locuses within the cell, and does photosynthesis inside the the middle of the cell CAM opens its stomata at night, lowering water loss due to heat, and then closes it and preforms the Calvin Cycle at night when CO2 is deeeep inside ;) They are less efficient than C3 but allow plants to adapt to the environment

What are the factors determining the properties of soil?

CLORPT Climate Organisms Relief (local topography) Precipitation Time (Age)

Determining Factors of soil

CLORPT: Climate, Organisms, Relief, Parent material, Time (age)

How do you estimate Respiration in plants?

CO2 measurement in the dark, you add it to NPP to get GPP basically estimating all this energy stuff is a lot of work

What is the C cycle?

Carbon not calvin cycle lol wtf

What is carrying capacity?

Carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals that can be supported in an area Denoted by K, the point where the population levels off K CAN CHANGE if the environment changes

What is the Pied Flycatcher example?

Catepillars hatch two weeks earlier bc warming, flycatcher still hatches same time, as such they get less food and are dying off.

What qualities determine a terrestrial biome?

Climate, soil, fire, and grazing regimes.

What is the difficulty with making multiple food webs?

Connectedness is observation, energy flow is quantification, and functional webs are experimentation. Takes more effort as you go on

What are three techniques used to determine population abundance?

Census: Count all (only small pops) Area/volume based: Sample and extrapolate ~density Capture-mark-recapture

Who is the daddy of evolution/natural selection?

Charles Darwin

What were the people and their contributions to the theories about ecosystems? Elton, Tensely, Lotka, Lindeman

Charles elton (1920s): A system of feeding relationships (food webs) A. G. Tensely (1920s): Ecological systems (ecosystem) Alfred Lotka (1920s): The thermodynamic perspective (energy transforming system) He was a physical chemist and knew a lot about this stuff Raymond Lindeman (1942): Food cycle relationships in a lake

What is the Cheeta example given in class?

Cheetah's were put into sanctuaries to prevent extinction, they are mixed between each population through creating channels between them, and this allows them to mix as an almost normal metapopulation model

What animals cache food from class? How?

Chickadees store nuts and fruit around their home range and remember where it is, good for storage Wolverines store their kills in cold temperatures, they use nature as a refrigerator.

What is the Tansley example of competition in plants? (Soil)

Closely related species grow in different habitats to prevent competition, and as such are superior in their habitat was the hypothesis He planted them separately in acidic and basic soil as well as together. G saxatile grows best in acidic soil, it out competes g. sylvestre, as well as vice versa Competition causes different soil use patterns.

What is clustered dispersion?

Clustered resources, social behavior, limited dispersal They often aggregate around food and other resources. The animals need sociability to survive V/M >1

What was the working method they used for the beetle mark recapture

Coating bark sections with fluorescent dust then putting them under a tarp

Summarize the Tundra Biome

Coldest and one of the driest biomes <5* average temperatue, <600mm rainfall. Diagram has low temperatures and seasonal variation in rainfall, along with a dry portion where temp crosses rainfall Plants grow low to the ground, permafrost, upper layer of soil thaws during brief growing szn Alpine tundras occur at high elevation at tropical latitudes, longer growing szn.

What are community dynamics?

Communities are in a continual state of flux Minor and major disturbances drive changes in community composition, causing mortality and growth of various species present Disturbances can be abrupt, like a natural disaster and such More gradual, continuous changes in climate and other environmental factors also cause changes

What is the importance of competition?

Comp. determines the range and the niches at as such affects the occurrence and position in communities. It also determines community composition Its an important consideration in the maintenance of natural resources.

In a population interaction between two species increased density of each species has a negative effect on the population of the other species

Competition

What are examples of competition?

Competition for mates: Drives sexual selection Intrapsecies competition: For resources WITHIN species (food/water) Interspecies competition: For resources and stuff BETWEEN species (Plants competing in our yard, birds at birdfeeders, mussels in the intertidal zone)

When is competition the worst/most intense

Competition is the worst between related species, natural selection favors difference in habitat use.

What is the competitive exclusion principle?

Complete competitors cannot coexist indefinitely

What is the principle shown by the barnacle example?

Completitive exclusion

What are the laws of thermodynamics?

Conservation of energy: energy is neither created nor destroyed (can be transformed) Entropy is always increasing: The amount of useable energy always decreases

What is taxonomic diversity?

Consideres composition and abundance, asks questions like are there more individuals or are there more species

What is phylogenetic diversity?

Considers evolutionary history, how closely related are the members of the community, how much evolutionary history is represented Look at a phylo tree, how far are the bois from each other

What is functional diversity?

Considers traits, asks questions like are there more functions performed, are there more traits represented? e.g.) Having more herbivores vs carnivores vs aquatic animals: how many different TYPES of animals are there Cow hippo whale is more functionally diverse than cow deer hippo

What was the example given of estimating productivity? What was the formula?

Corn field in illinois (1 acre), growing szn = 100 days (from sprouting to harvest) (Weight - ash content) x glucose conversion factor *energy conversion factor = NPP Go through this process to determine the concentration of energy

Summarize altruism

Cost to donor, benefit to recipient Does not lead to direct fitness, the fitness an individual gains by passing on genes to its offspring We would expect selfishness to prevail over altruism

What happened to cottonwoods after wolf introduction? What other animals benefited from their return? (2)

Cottonwoods are back, aspen stands are back, willows and cottonwoods help trout, and songbirds, they increased where vegetation is

What is the relationship between distance and species diversity?

Distance and species diversity are negatively correlated, island size and degree of geographic isolation act together Near island have the most species, farther islands have the least, makes the most sense

What were the effects of wolf introduction? What animals benefits?

Cottonwoods have bounced back, recently the only tres were 70-100 years old, until the wolves came back Aspen stands are being rejuvenated Where willows and cottonwoods have returned, they stabilize banks and provide shade, which lowers water temp and makes the habitat better for trout, resulting in better and bigger fish Sound birds like the yellow warmer and lincoln sparrow have increased where new vegetations stands are thriving

What are quadrats/line transects?

Count the amount of organisms accross the line, counting small plants along line from two points, Use this to find area and extrapolate density

What was the cut-and-leave experiment?

Cut-and-leave infestations, measure the beetle movememnta and observe new ifnestations appearing in the area, the control was leaving the infestation alone

What are the tactics for suppressing SPB infestations?

Cut-and-remove: Patch is infected with pine beetles, you bulldoze the patch and bring them to the lumber yard. Its the easiest, you cant use the wood for lumber and such but you can use it to make paper Cut-and-leave: Cut the trees and leave em, it doesn't kill the beetles but it disrupts their ability to concentrate their attack Treatments with inhibitory pheromones: Works KINDA for individual trees, not great to do when there's more than a single individual tree

What is population dynamics predicted by LV model?

Cycles of predators and prey, characterized by the same period with a phase shift, and these are neutrally stable

What was the role of urban pigs in egypt?

D.) Detritivores

What is the Roe Deer example?

Deer are born after spring flush vegetation, as such they are less likely to survive as they dont have as much food due to the mismatch

What are induced plant defenses? What was the Induced plant experiment/the results of the experiment? What does this say about plant adaptation to predators/parasites?

Defenses plants may have against herbivores. Mites are from the same phylem as spiders, theyre bad herbivores and often found as pests on crops The plants want to protect themselves, so they can make chemicals, theyre very energy costly however and as such the plants only make them if they NEED to Induced: Plants determine that theyre being eaten so they can make chemical defenses On the experimental group, they put a bunch of mites to eat, then they remove the mites and put a new application on a control and them The total population on the control plants was 3x larger than those previously exposed to the miteykinz. Plants can remember their defensive strategy and needs

What is the water flea cycle given in class

Delayed density dependence can also be caused by energy/nutrient storage Daphnia galeata can store more energy, so they have a larger T and as such have larger oscillations than the other water flea. In essence: More storage = higher tau

What did MAW assume about size and distance?

Distance effects colonization, size effects extinction

What was the research done in the early 20th century in regards to population limitation? (Two Schools of thought about density dependence) What were the organisms studied?

Density Independent: Andrewartha and Birth studied Apple Thirps. They argued that populations didnt have pos. growth sometimes due to issues (SETBACK AND RECOVERY). things like extreme temp and flooding (often but not alway abiotic) Density Dependent: Nicholson studied blowflies in his lab and came to the conclusion that it was usually density dependent factors. Food limitation plays a bigger role populations of blowfly grow bigger when given more food

What is the condition in which r is constant?

Density independent growth

When would individuals choose a worse habitat?

Depends on density, they distruite that allows them to have the benefits. A realized quality means that a population in a poor patch that is smaller may have the same quality of life as a good patch with lots more people.

What is evenly spaced dispersion?

Depleted resources, aggressive social interactions (competition, territoriality) Trees and aggressive animals do this V/M ratio <1

What are the determinant factors of an aquatic biome?

Depth, flow, salinity

What is dispersion? What are the types of dispersion?

Describes the distrivution of oragnisms relative to one another Clustered: Clusters into interspersed colonies Evenly spaces: Pretty even Random: Mixed randomly

How do Desert foxes, desert tortoises, and agave adapt to the heat of their environment?

Desert foxes and desert tortoises hide underground, as ectotherms they cannot stay in the heat for too long Agave plants have waxy cuticles and are light colored, they reflect heat

What is Determinate vs. Indeterminate growth?

Determinate growth: Organisms grow until they reach reproductive age then they stop growing (elephants, us) (mostly birds and mammals) Indeterminate growth: Organisms don't stop growing after they reproduce (Mola mola) (Plants, invertibrates, fish, reptiles, amphibians)

What are the terms of decomposition and their components? Who dominates decomposition of animal matter, and who dominates plant matter? What are microbivores?

Detritus: Litter (leaves, twigs, and other dead organic matter) Detritivore: Consumers of detritus (bacteria fungi) Bacteria dominate decomposition of animal matter, and fungi dominate decomposition of plant matter Microbivores: Consumers of detritivores (protozoa, insects, nematods et.c)

What are the types of dormancy and their characteristics? (DHTA)

Diapause: Partial or complete physiological shutdown, often seen in invertibrates, some form an impermiable layer. Ladybugs do it when it gets cold Hibernation: Shutdown in the winter due to difficulty finding food. Torpor: brief shutdowns to deal with cold, animals do it in response to cold. They shut down their activity and body temperature Aestivation: Snails turtles crocodiles and such do it to avoid drying out

What are diatoms? What is the effect on iron fertilization of diatoms?

Diatoms (phytoplankton) evolved 100 million years ago, today they generate most of the organic matter that serves as food for life in the sea Iron fertilization allows a blocking of phytoplankton of diatoms, iron governs the rate of production

What is selection pressure? What is the genetic result of this pressure?

Differences in survival and/or reproduction of individuals in a population that produces evolutionary change, or permanent changes in the genetic make up of the population Results in a change in gene frequency. It does this by effect the organisms

What are the methods of transmission of parasites, what are differences?

Direct: from host to conspecific host Indirect: With an intermediate species

What are the three types of selection and their characteristics?

Directional selection: One extreme phenotype is favored more than the other. The overall phenotypic composition of the population shifts over (peccaries eat cacti with low spines) Stabilizing selection: Both extreme phenotype aren't favored, pressure from both sides. The intermediate phenotype is selected for as such (peccaries eat cacti with lower spines and parasites colonize cacti with more spines) Disruptive selection: The intermediate phenotype is selected against, the extremes become more favored. Leads to more genetic diversity in the population (tourists pick cacti with intermediate amount of spines)

What are discrete vs. continuous traits?

Discrete: Binary, either one or the other (fur color etc.) Continuous: Traits that change over a spectrum, based on multiple alleles and as such have a graded response

Draw the secondary production diagram

Do it!

What are the issues with the simplification of LVM? What is the other kind of dynamically modeled behavior?

Doesn't even apply to simple lab systems, and it's is characterized by a mathematically pathological behavior Mite equilibrium

What are dominant/indicator species?

Dominant species: The most abundant species present Indicator species: Always found associated with a particular community type

Summarize cooperation

Donor and the recipient both experience increased fitness, cooperation is common. Hunting, feeding by two parents, protection, heat conservation

Summarize Selfishness

Donor experiences increased fitness, recipient experiences decreased fitness intra-specific competition for food, space, avoiding a predator by pushing to the center of a group Ex: barberry plants abort seeds that have parasite infection to prevent the spread of infection

What social behaviors are there in animals?

Donor/Recipient of behavior Altruism: -/+ Spite: -/- Cooperation: +/+ Selfishness: +/-

What is Doubling time? What is the doubling time of people? What is the formula?

Doubling time is the amount of time itll take a population to double. For humans its 40 years The doubling time is calculated as: r growth: t2 = ln(2)/r L growth: t2=ln(2)/ln(L)

What is the maximal net gain for foraging?

Draw a line from 0,0 to the curve until you hit it tangentially, this intersection is the best relationship between searching and eating

What are Clement's and Gleason's models of community? What are their characteristics? Which is correct?

During the 1920s, there were two renowned ecologists, they proposed alternative ways of looking at communities Clement's (Holistic): He thought of communities as wholes, it wouldn't be too much of an exaggeration to say that he thought communities were super organisms Communities are fully integrated, the component species have coevolved, enhancing their interdependent functioning. Communities are discrete entities with recognizable boundaries. He thought that communities were results of co-evolution. Gleason's: Also an extreme, "The truth lies between", the perspective is that communities are random assemblages, there are no forces that organize communities, none that say that particular species cooccur together. It all depends on random luck essentially. Two views that demonstrate both perspectives are presented

What is the net formula for photosynthesis? What can you use to measure the rate of photosynthesis (3)?

E + CO2 + H2O -> Sugar + O2 usually: CO2 uptake, you can estimate the rate just by using this boi Sometimes: O2 produced, and the most important one that ecologists use is Carbohydrates, called the harvest method

How is Bb picked up by ticks? What is the result of diversity on its spread, and how has anthropogenic interference cause this?

Each blood meal = new chance to get Bb Hosts differs in their resistance to Bb Highly diverse community = fewer chances of tick feeding on competent hosts Anthropogenic disturbance filters out species from wildlife communities, few common species dominate. This leads to white footed mice and white tailed deer that allow more ticks in disturbed placed like NE

What are the Successional change terms? (2)

Each of the various stages of succession us a sere The final equilibrium sere is called the "climax community", in most communities because of period disturbances and recovery the climax is a fleeting (transient) stage in the overall dynamics Example: oak-hornbeam forest in poland

What was the debate of tropic control of community structure?

Ecologists debated this a lot Is the earth green: Because carnivores depress the populations of herbivores that would otherwise consume most of the vegetation or because plats resist consumption through digestion inhibitors and toxic substances basically is the world top down or bottom-up

What is an ecological community?

Ecologists have long puzzled over how to define a community, other than simply: The assemblage of species that occur together in the same place, Turchin defines it as draw the boundaries and thats a pop! Theres a different boundaries Ecologists agree that coexisting species interact in a lot of ways It's hard to define what a community is, sometimes the boundary is quite well defined, but sometimes it AINT Clement's discrete unit vs. H.A. gleason's loose assemble of species

Describe ecotones? What are they, what do they represent? What can change the ecotone structure?

Ecotones represent boundaries between communities, ecotones may coincide with sharp changes in the physical environment (Shore to lake etc.) Biotic feedback can reinforce ecotones, conifer forests accumulate acidic litter (dropping their needles) which changes soil condition, fire reinforced ecotones In some communities the boundaries are very fuzzy, forest community types in new England

What are the problems with chemical control?

Effects on non-target organisms (esp. vertebrates) Biomagnification: Increased concentration of pesticide at higher trophic levels Side effects on natural enemies of pests can lead to resurgence of primary pest or appearance of secondary pests Insects evolve resistance to chemical pesticides

What is the lyme disease life cycle? Starting from the eggy bois

Eggs hatch into spirochete free larvae, they're super hungry, they hop on whatever host with blood shows up If this host has lyme, they get it, they molt to a nymph and drop off. They then hop on a second host, and again another chance to contract lyme Then the tick hops on a third host, preferably a deer, or another incidental or dead-end host (you!)

What was the Egypt pig example?

Egypt spotted flaws in wiping out pigs, animals were the primary consumers of trash and such In an attempt to combat swine flu, the government eliminated all pigs The Zabaleen (Egyptian christian community) used to collect garbage; they fed organic waste to the pigs and ate the pigs, but not there's no pigs, and therefore no garbage collection

What was the excretion example?

Elephants are inefficient, they excrete a lot, they're terrible at ingesting. Monkeys will eat the undigested fruit and such

What were the global fluxes of human impact in 2008.

Emissions totaled 10 GT, uptake totaled 7 GT, as such we had a net disposition of 3GT of Carbon There was a controversy, it is a controversial issue, much of the issue is due to politics, but there is also some because of uncertainty

What is Bergmann's rule?

Endotherms in cold regions tend to be larger in body size than those from warmer regions Smaller body = Higher SA/V ratio = easier heat dissipation Mesquites have lots of small leaves for this, and jackrabbits are small and highly vascular

What is the relationship between nutrient and energy fluxes? What are the two examples of their uncoupling?

Energy flow and nutrient cycling are very closely intertwined Mostly, the exchange of energy between organisms also is an exchange of nutrients, the only exceptions being obtaining of nutrients from all organisms by plants and the loss of heat by all organisms

What are the two kinds of fluxes through ecosystems?

Energy flow: Energy of the sun is the driving force, energy flows through the ecosystem and is eventually dissipated Nutrient cycling: Nutrients can ear recycled (unlike energy) Nutrients can also come from the surrounding ecosystems

What is energy how is it measured? What is 1 calorie?

Energy: The ability to do work Energy is measured in Joules (JUULS) (J), calories (cal), and Calories (kcal) 1 calorie is the amount of energy to heat one g of water 1 degree centigrade

What is pinworm?

Enterobius vermicularis Eggs must pass through environment to reinfect host. The pinworm works its magic to get into other hosts.

What are the graph differences between Clem. and Glea. models of communities?

Environmental gradient vs. time: Clem.: Peaks and valleys occur together, "Ecotones" represent places with no species, once you go through the ecotone, you have a different composition of species in a different area. (False heterogeneity) Glee.: Each species has its own individual spot, and species are distributed randomly with no difference with respect to eachother, NO ecotones

What is the basic model of metapopulation?

Equal quality of patches, not equal size, patches are colonized and go extinct, colonization and extinction events. Distance and abundances alone reflect the model. When individuals disperse often ebtween sub-populations, the entire populations functions as a single structure, they increase and decrease in pop synonymously When they arent close they fluctuative independently.

Where are wet and dry szns (equator and tropics)

Equator has two between the solstices, because the ITCZ crosses it twice, tropics only get 1, at the solstices

What is an estuary

Estuaries are where a river meets the ocean, a unique mixing of fresh and salt water

What is evolution? How is it measured?

Evolution is the change in genetic composition over time in a population It is measured in allele frequency

What was the background story involving adaptation between the consumer and the resource (Virus and rabbit)? Why was the virus introduced in the first place? (NOT WHAT HAPPENED)

Example: The myxoma virus and the rabbit Release of a few pairs of rabbits in Australia in 1859 resulted in hundreds of millions and a threat to the country The myxoma virus from south america was introduced and spread by mosquito

What are mechanisms driving vole cycles? (what are examples Exogenous endogenous, etc.)

Exogenous: Climate, sun spots, etc. Endogenous: Specialist predators, food supply, maternal effects, Parasites Exogenous = Abiotic not unique to the system Endo= Part of the interacting system

What is random dispersion?

Expected without any deterministic processes Not common in nature, a null model for the dispersion of organisms, position of each organism is independent of others Dandelions tho! V/M ratio: ~1

How do you predict the outcome of competition?

Extend the logistic model to consider the impact of each species on the other Two species means two equations

What are extrinsic vs. Intrinsic factors

Extrinsic: Environmental factors that affect the life history of the organism Intrinsic: Internal factors that affect the life history, genetic lineage specific restraints (genetic constraints: a mammal aint gonna grow wings)

Who was the pioneer of succession?

F.E. Clements!

What is the Connell-slatyer model? What is facilitation? What is an example?

Facilitation: Certain early pioneer species invade the site and subsequently improve the conditions (facilitate) for later species which in turn may out-compete pioneers Examples include nitrogen fixing species or species that build up soil, Species build up soil which allows better woody species to come, and eventually shade out primary species Nitrogen fixing species create nitrogen that allows species to come and again shade them out and outcompete them. it matches the clements early view of succession

Summarize Competitor Plants

Fast growth, long life history. Do not devote a lot of energy to offspring (different than ruderals). Often reproduce irregularly, they often take over areas that they sprout in Example: White oak trees and goldenrod plants

Extinction and population size

Higher extinction rates exist among smaller pops. But negative density dependence means that small pops shouldnt have this issue, they should have rapid growth (NOT THE CASE!)

What is the main cause of wolf death?

Fighting between packs

Increasing precipitation from 1 (very low) to 8000 mm (very high) per year results in

First increase than decrease

What is the issue with overfishing? Indeterminate growth?

Fish grow their whole life, in a process called indeterminate growth We selectively capture larger fish, this results in eating "down the food chain", we eliminate populations of larger fish and as such hurt the ecosystem

What is the war of the peanuts?

Fishy bois attack other fishy bois, oh no! Fishy bois in this case meaning fishermen off

What are some modern examples of evolution? (Flies, SIV, Bacteria)

Flies: A new type of maggot descended from the hawthorne fly that specifically preys on apples, it is genetically distinct from its ancestor showing evidence of evolution SIV: SIV evolved into HIV some time in the 20th century Bacteria: Bacteria evolved antibiotic resistance over the modern day

What was the Rocky intertidal example? What does the web tell you about them? What about energy flow webs? What about functional web relationships?

Focusing on a guild, herbivores, we can characterize the slice of community by seeing what the herbivores eat and such. If you were to see who the herbivores eat, you'd see a large amount of connectivity All the organisms were generalist, they do not feed on a particular food source in specifics. Their habitat tends to generalist The species eat a lot a certain prey, but some et their main energy source intake from certain prey. As such eliminating arrows from species that rarely eat certain others is good Functional webs demonstrate which species will push down the populations of other species by over-predation, as such it tells you which species would cause a disturbance in the biome if populations change

What is the summary of food chains and food webs? What are the two major food chain pathways?

Food chains describe how energy stored by plants is spasssed through the ecosystem in a series of steps of eating ad being eaten Two major pathways: Grazing food chain, and detrital food chain Food webs: all interlinked food chains in an ecosystem One food web for each ecosystem Theres lots of food webs, lots of things are errywhere

What is the human food pyramid example?

Food energy available to the human population depends on their trophic level. herbivorous humans eat less to get the same energy

What is the intrinsic growth rate (r)?

Highest possible per capita growth rate for a population The "instantaneous growth rate" r=Births-deaths+immigration-emigration (for now b-d) All of these are per capita rates

What is Food web structure?

Food webs: Describe feeding (trophic) relationships in a community Connectedness webs emphasize feedings relationships as links in a food web Energy flow webs represent an ecosystem viewpoint, in which connections between species are quantified by flux of energy Functional webs emphasize the importance of each population through its influence on growth rates of other populations

What is the alpha and beta case study presented (elk and deer)? (Food would support 100 elk, or 200 deer) Species 1 = elk species two = deer

Food would support 100 elk or 200 deer, as such elk need twice as much food as the deer? Convert deer into elk equibalents, find .5 for alpha and 2 for beta

What is the mouthpiece adaptation of a Hawkmoth?

Foot long probiscous to better reach into trees and such

Which of the following is an example of secondary succession?

Forest fire

What was the climax state example given in class?

Forest was cleared, then you get more trees and eventually you get quite large trees errywhere

What is speciation?

Formation of new species from a single common ancestor

What is the butterfly example of mullerian mimicry?

Four different species, two unpalatable and two VERY unpalatable. Evolution pressure pushes them to all look similar. They may converge on the same scheme as well So the predator is very unlikely to eat any of them, because they cant tell what they can/can't eat Selection pressures need to be strong to create these similar color patterns

What other indirect effects resulted from the wolf introduction (on foxes, coyote's prey, raptors)

Foxes raptors and coyote's prey all increased, the death of coyotes increased the numbers of coyote's prey, so the other animals that eat the increased as well as them increasing as well Raptors are predatory terns that eat rodents

What are the two types of responses of predator populations to variations in prey density? (Long-term and short term)

Functional response: Behavioral, so fast time scale Nu(t)merical response: reproduction, involved a time lag (what happens on the next generation based upon prey density) Nutmerical because reproduction

What is the coevolution example of plant-seeds dispersers? (Mammals)

Functions: transpor seeds away from parent to a favorable site, reduce density dependent competition. Adaptations: attract animals with a food resource or attachment mechanisms Plants grow fruit so their seeds can be transported, most fruitivores consume the fruit and the seeds pass undigested through their ducts. When the animal defecates you have the seeds, which require enzymes to be activated and they have a good environment

What were the three examples of DVores

Fungi, mostly underground Woodlice: Eat things on the floor of the forest Earthworms: wormies!!!!

What is the efficiency of photosynthesis?

GPP: 32*10^6 Solar energy input: 2,043*10^6 Efficiency: 1.6%

Summarize top-down control

Highest trophic levels influences those below Green world hypothesis: If the world is green how can there be a shortage of food

What are the intercepts of the isocline? (For N2)

N1=0 N2=K2 N2=0 N1=K2/b N2 moves towards the line along the Y axis

What are the definitions of GPP, NPP, and R? What is the formula relating the three? What is SCB?

GPP: The rate at which the sun's energy is assimilated NPP: The rate of accumulation of organic matter Respiration (R): Use of energy to maintain life processes Formal def: use of oxygen to break down organic compounds metabolically to release chemical energy GPP = NPP + R Standing crop biomass: Accumulated live organic matter

Biomes

Geographical regions that contain organisms with similar adaptations

Why do we have stone walls in NE a lot?

Glaciers deposited a lot of boulders after the ice age, this resulted in stone wall son

What was the glacier example of primary succession?

Glaciers were retreating in Alaska and elsewhere in the arctic region, high mountains elsewhere in the world, Also events following the end of the last ice age (15,000 years ago)

How do Glia monsters and Succulent plants store water?

Glia Monsters store water in their bladder as a canteen (ew), succulent plants store water in the stems and leaves

What is the spatial structure of populations?

Global range, metapopulation in a region (group of populations that are separated by space or consist of the same species), population (like the city), social groups (living spaces, work spaces etc.), individual There are things that are important and there are things that are not Populations do not exist within every region on the global range

What gases are greenhouse gasses? What radiation is emitted and absorbed? What is the result of these greenhouse gasses? What is the temperature greenhouse gasses raise earth's temperature by?

Greenhouse gases (Co2 and CH4) allow uncoing shortwave radiation (sunlight) to penetrate the atmosphere Earth emits longwave radiation (infrared) Greenhouse gases reflect most of longwave radiation back to earth As a result, heat is trapped near earth's surface, Additional points: CH4 is more efficient, but there is more CO2, and greenhouse gases increase earth's temperature by 33*C

What was the significance of the wolf killing of elks? What species benefitted? What species benefitted (but not rly lmao)?

Grizzlies and coyotes rarely kill adult elk, but each pack of wolves kills an elk every two or three days After they are full, other carnivores take over the carcass Opportunistic scavengers like magpies and ravens make a living off of the caracassses, resulting in an increase of their population Coyotes enjoyed this carrion, but it was insignificant

What is the Guild structure of a community? What are examples of guilds? What is another way to group them?

Grouping communities by the groups of species with similar ecological functions in the community e.g.) Leaf eating herbivores, epiphytes, insect eating birds, filter feeders Trophic or food web structure: Trophic interactions as have been argued are very important interactions

Summarize the guppy example given in class

Guppies downstream have to deal with predators, guppies upstream do not, as such it makes sense that the ones downstream mature earlier. The guppies adjust their life history based upon their conditions (guppies moved downstream begin reproducing and maturing earlier) The offspring are more numerous and smaller too, again following the trend

Where is productivity in the ocean the highest?

Gyres prevent the open ocean from being that productive (90% of the ocean is essentially a deser) Areas near the coasts have the highest productivity because of upwelling

What is the significance in the difference between Ptherms and HTherms in terms of energy efficiency (Enzymes and such)? What variables are effected in what way (A and R)?

HTHerms have much higher assimilation efficiency, because they stay at a constant temperature the enzymes are more specific, leading to more efficiency catalysis and higher assimilation efficiency Although, HTHerms have to keep their temperature constant, this requires energy so their R is very large, which makes up to an extent for their higher A than PKTherms Keep in mind that it's a summary, a lot of variation

What was the lynx and hare cycle?

Hares were hunted by lynxes, and as such their populations would fluctuate together

Summarize Stress Tolerant Plants

Have really slow growth, long life histories. Have long lived leaves and are really good at conserving resources. They also have high rates of nutrient retention (also rely on vegetative reproduction) Found in areas such as alpine or arid habitats, snowy areas, dry areas, anything not good for plants normally Example: Woolly Lousewart

What does a long RAD tail mean?

Having a few species that dominate the community

Why do bird's sometimes lay more eggs than the optimal survival number?

Having an extra egg makes it easy to discard if things go bad, as compared to making an extra egg on the spot.

What did Rickikinz do???

He was a dude trying to figure out why people get sick, then one day he was looking' at some trees, and discovered a cool pattern that would bring him to his knees! he was like why do people get more sick when thurr be more acorns

What was Elton's high altitude adventure? Where did he go and what did he do?

He went to Bear Island in 1923, and made a good web, but even in a low species environment he needed make a big boi food web, it took him a lot. Shows the complexity of even simple ecosystems

What did elton's job result in?

He went to Hudson bay company and Elton checked to see the amount of pelts brought in every year, on a logarithmic stale every time, and the 10 year cycle was apparent

Summarize the Tropical Rainforest biome

High rain and temperature >20*C temp Rainfall is usually at least 2000mm annually, can be a little less Very little seasonality of temperature, youd think it was a desert but its RAINY AF. Trees grow very tall, lots of biological diversity

Summarize the Temperate Shrubland and Woodlands (Mediteranian type climate)

High rainfall except the dry szn, warmer temps 5-20*C average temperatue (higher end) ~747 mm rainfall Diagram shows Wet (Jan-May and August-Dec) with a dry season in between (May-August). Two spikes of rainfall on either side of the temperature, with temperature maintaining small seasonal variation FIre is an important part of the climate, agriculture fails because the infertle soils

Summarize the Tropical Seasonal Forest biome

High temp high rain, not as high as rainforests bc seasonality but STILL >20*C average temp ~1500mm rainfall Climate diagram has a single dry szn mid winter, but beyond that its supe rainy. Temperature isnt very seasonal however Lots of grazing and fire occur on this biome

What are the differences at different altitudes in regards to the effects of global warming? What about the changes in precipitation?

Higher effect at higher latitudes, lots of heat in the upper ones Higher rain increases in the open ocean, with a decrease in rain in the Mediterranean region

Summarize the Temperate Evergreen forests

Highish temperature, mediumish rainfall 5-20*C average temp (higher end) ~675 mm rainfall Diagram shows seasonality of rain and temperature, matching perfectly except in the late winter, where there is a spike in rainfall. RAINFALL SPIKE SZN Lots of evergreen trees in this biome, fires are important and often in this biome

Define the exponential growth model What is the formula for instantaneous growth rate? N(t) = N(0)e^rt: Define all the variables

How a population will grow under ideal conditions When the relative growth rate is constant. Growth rate is small as the population is small and eventually growth is rapid r=Maximum growth rate N(t) = N(0)e^rt Instantaneous growth rate (dN/dt) = rN

What reasons to plants vary their root size?

How deep the nutrients are, and how much they rely on them for anchoring

What was the question about dispersion for SPB? What methods did they use that didn't work?

How far do the beetles move when theyre forced to disperse Approach was mark-recapture, they used fluorescent dust to mark the beetles. They covered infected trees with fluorescent dust and when the beetles emerged they were coated (DIDNT WORK BC RAIN)

Whats glucose conversion factor?

How much glucose will have exactly the same energy as this matter when burned, basically converting all the organic matter to glucose in terms of energy There will likely be a question about using this system so know it!

What is the early anthropogenic hypothesis? What increased CO2 and CH4? What did the romans do?

Human activities emit greenhouse gasses, they invited agriculture and made pots etc. Industries came and increased CO2 Romans used a lot of silver to make coins, the smelted lead and resulted in lots of CO2. Animal husbandry also became a thing, once husbandry became common, and wet rice did too, methane began to rise after CO2. Its quite controversial but the implications are quite huge

What genus generally shows eusociality?

Hymenoptera, have a few egg laying females on top of the hierarchy, Below that are non-reproductive workers who care for the nest and find food Male offspring become drones that go to impregnant new queens to make new colonies

What are the equations and variables of Secondary production? (IEARP) What are the two equations for I and A?

I = injestion E= egestion and excretion A = assimilation R = respiration (including nitrogenous wastes from metabolizing proteins) P = Secondary production I = A + E A= P + R

What was the soil community example?

In calif. there's serpentine and non-serp. soil. As a result, different plants grow in the nonserp and serp soils. So as a result theres a clear break between the two for certain plants. The ecotone is between the two, some thrive in the ecotone

What is the significance of Density independent limitation on carrying capacity?

If DIL doesn't kill off the species before it reaches K K will limit, but some species dont get to reach K because DIL kills em off. Its a constantly acting force on a population

What is the tradeoff between delaying reproductive age and fecundity/survival?

If an organism puts off reproduction until it grows larger, it can have more offspring and its chance of survival increases Its a tradeoff: longer to make offspring but longer time to survive and make more offspring

How to animals determine when it's okay to forage in predator infested water?

If there's a lot more food, at a certain threshold the fish will forage around predators

What is the "food web complexity in Nepenthes pitcher plant communities" example? What is shown about the micro ecosystems? How can you tell what kind of food web it is? What does Links per species show?

If you check in all the locations, ecological communities with pitcher plants are all different, and vary in a variety of ways. The other difference is the varying number of links. There are prey, predators, and differing number of links It is all just connectedness food webs though, you can tell because there is no differing thickness in arrows Lots more species, but the same links, shows same complexity

What was the meaning of the Bottom-up vs. Top-down control arrow diagram

If you increase certain parts of the amount of consumers/autotrophs, you can determine what will happen to the other populations 3 level trophic control: Increase plants -> C1 increase, C2 increase C1 decreases -> C2 decreases -> C4 added C3 decreases ETC.

What did McArthur and Wilson predict about the birds in their experiment? What were the results?

Immigration nd extinction ages of bird species were calculated and not was determined that they should stay around 30 species, within 40 years they reached 30 and it stayed there, proving their theory

What is apparent competition?

Impacts resembling competition but not due to shared resources, mediated by a shared predator or parasite One species negatively affects the other because of the positive effect on a predator/parasite E.g.) Two birds can get a parasite, one gets killed one doesnt, one that doesnt boosts population of parasite killing weak birdies

What is the fourth mechanism of species abundance? (Beyonce mechanism)

In certain environments species' fitness increase Filters out incompatible species Includes biotic interactions, niches, influences abundance of species, beyonce mechanism The most important one to most people, lots of natural selection bois

What is the Plan for refuge?

In 2005 APF owned or leased 31k acres In 2009 they got 89k acres, + 45k previously used for livestock that was waived back Adding to 1.1 million charles M russel 700k Missouri section too

What is the current state of the bison study?

In 2013 73 calves imported from alberta In 2014 the herd has 240 bison, 93 born last spring They want to have close to 1000 by 2018 In 2017 they are at 864, they want to regrow them back to their point.

How to plants tolerate air embolisms in low water environments?

In air embolisms, water is pulled way too hard, and an air bubble is pulled through blocking the flow of water Plants compensate by making tons of small vessels densely, similar to anastimosis in the brain, allows alternate pathways for water to flow through

What is the tiger salamander example given in class?

In areas with low food density, and lots of larvae Tiger Salamanders become cannibals and eat each other, this solves the resource crisis while helping the cannibals survive

What is the basic reproductive number?

In epidemiology, the contagiousness is known as The Basic reproductive number. R0 = the number of cases one case generates on average over the course of its infectious period in an otherwise uninfected population Basically: How many other hosts does the disease jump to from one host Starts as exponential growth, but declines and reaches 0 as the proportion of uninfected individuals declines

What are the assumptions of the Lotka volterra model? (4)

In the absence of predators, prey grows exponentially In the absence of prey, predators decline exponentially The functional response of predators is Type I (Not very realistic because it implies there's no limit to prey eating and capture) The efficiency predators in converting prey biomass into new predators (b) is a constant (This isn't necessary true, e.g.) the voles and weasels are very bad at converting, bc they use a lot of energy to convert biomass) The Lotka volterra model isn't a very realistic model, but its a very useful model.

What is the Landscape model of metapop?

Incorporates variation in matrix quality and habitat conductivity Most realistic The likelihood that an organism would make a trek is incorporated, it also takes into account landscape.

What are the benefits/detriments of being in a group?

Increased chances of surviving, feeding, and finding a mate Increased rate of resource depletion The optimal grouping behavior of organisms balance these factors

How can you help decrease the amount of Lyme disease present in your surroundings? What was the final conclusion of dilution of disease?

Increasing species in your yard Lyme disease, west nile virus, and hanta virus are examples of other pathogens that have the dilution effect It's also pathogen specific

What are the two ways that organisms create genetic variation through meiosis?

Independent assortment: Randomly assigning a chromosome from the HP to form a gamete. Leads to genetic diversity between gametes Crossing over: At the chiasmata, chromosomes swap sections, results in unique chromosomes again promoting genetic diversity

What is indirect and direct fitness?

Indirect fitness is the fitness gained by a relative passing on genes, direct is you passing on your

What is the overall summary of natural selection?

Individuals are born with genetic variation, then selection pressures act and individuals expressing a certain phenotype are more well suited to their environment. Then the next generation is more primarily composed of these individuals, and across generations it becomes the dominant phenotype

What is Ideal free distribution?

Individuals distribute themselves among different habitats in a way that allows them to have the same per capita benefit Its in proportion to resources,

Formula for population growth?

Individuals produced - Numbers dead

What are the interactions between fluxes into/out of systems? What determines nutrient cycling speed?

Inflows into one system become outflows into another Nutrient cycling speed is determined by the consumers because in order for the process of flux to occur, consumers need to be the ones that handle the energy transformations

What is Inhibition in the Connel-slatyer model?

Inhibition: Any opportunistic species may colonize the site and prevent (inhibit) other species from establishing until the earlier species die out Examples: In rocky intertidal marine systems many different species may establish and dominate a site, depending on the availability of recruits That is, competition outcome may depend on initial conditions as in LV competition model

What is the insect evolution to pesticides example?

Insects evolve resistance at an accelerating rate: From arsenic being effective 60 years, to permethrin being effective 2 and oxamyl being effective 1

Summarize the Ocean Biomes

Intertidal Zones: Rocky/mudflats, rapidally changing conditions Coral reefs: Found in warm shallow waters, 20*C year round, Corals exoskeletons form areas for fish and such to live, high productivity Open ocean: Low productivity except near costs. Have photic and aphotic zones (photic shallow enough for photosynthesis etc.)

What are the examples of biological control? How successful are these methods? What was the big boi example? What was the C:B ratio? What are the downsides?

Introduce (Predators, Parasitoids, pathogens, and herbivores) Initially resulted in some spectacular successes, example: control of cottony cushion scale by vedalia beetles Was followed by steady rate of successful introductions (30-40%) of attempts were successful Has a very high cost-benefit ratio 30:1 Requires a lengthy research period, and often fails

What are the possible outcomes for a Phase-plane diagram?

Isocline of species 1 is farther out -> Species 2 goes extinct Isocline of species two is farther out -> Species 2 goes extinct Unstable equilibrium: b and a are both high, two possible solutions. Upper = species 1 goes extinct and species two reaches K2, in the lower section species 2 goes extinct and species 1 reaches K1 (K1 and K2 are outer points) Stable equilibrium: K1 and K2 are INNERMOST, most likely when interspecific competition is weaker than intraspecific competition B<1 and a<1. Results in coexistence of the two species

What is the Shannon index?

It is a measure of the entropy of a community, determines if you came across a species in the wild, what would be the uncertainty of the species you encounter Moderate penalty for species evenness

What is the ebola virus? What are its characteristics? What are the steps of transmission? Is it direct or indirectly transmitted?

It is a virus carried by fruit bats, it killed almost 1k people out of 1.8k infected. Steps of transmission of ebola: Someone kills an animal that has ebola, they get ebola. Once it jumps to the 1st human it becomes direct transmission from human to human. From funeral practices, healthcare workers, or body fluid contact It is directly transmitted

What is the bottom line of the potential effects of Global warming?

It is agreed that global warming is occurring, but not as fast as initially feared, nor uniformly everywhere We really do not know what the environmental and societal effects will be, there will be losers and winners of it A troubling recent observation is that global change may be accelerating

How does the forest look in the presence of Southern Pine beetles?

It looks like a wildfire, you get chunks eaten out of the forest, as the pine beetles spread

What are the details of pest control by chemicals? What diseases were controlled? What was the main chemical used? What was the cost:benefit? What was the main reason it was/is used so often?

It obtained great success (at least initially) It was super useful for controlling medically important insects -Typhus (fleas): Soldiers would shower in it to kill fleas and prevent typhus spread during world wars. -Malaria (mosquitos): Kills millions of people every year Reasonable favorable cost/benefit ratio: $3-5 per $1 spent DDT: One of the great success stories because it is characterized by high insect toxicity and relatively low vertebrate toxicity Chemical control is often the only remedy that is immediately available

Summarize Spitefulness

It reduces the fitness of both donor and recipient -> maladaptive Not observed in natural populations

What is the enclosure desert experiment example?

It was an experiment to determine rodent population differences. Kangaroo rat and the pocket mouse are both granivores, the hypothesis is that the larger kangaroo rat is a better competitor. If they exclude the kangaroo rat then the pocket mouse will increase whereas the insectivorous mouse will not see a change It was shown that removing a competing species boosts the population of the competitor while leaving unrelated species unaffected

What is Chlorophyll f?

Its a Chlorophyll that is used in cyanobacteria, it gets the light near the infrared spectrum not used by other photosynthetic organisms.

Why do we use the LVM?

Its simple, to can be understood intuitively, its not too realistic but it can be made more realistic.

Who discovered greenhouse effect?

Joseph Fourier

What are the solstices, and what lattitude are they associated with?

June solstice Tropic of Cancer (23.5*N) December Topic of Capricon (23.5*S) March and September Equinoxes (Equator 0*)

What is the effect of nitrogen input on productivity?

K curve kinda, too little nitrogen messes with productivity, but too much levels off, if theres extra nitrogen then other factors will limit productivity

What's significant about King clone?

King clone is a plant that is 11.7k years old, some plants don't age: they live forever

What was the major disturbance example given in class? What happened after?

Krakatau killed many organisms, only small creatures and bacteria were left, the island was recolonized by other species

What is the formula for Lambda

L= Nt/N(t-1)

What are the formulas linking Lambda and exponential growth?

L=e^r ln(L)=r

What is the light saturation point and light compensation point?

LCP: Light level where the energy gained from photosynthesis balances the energy lost from photorespiration LSP: The point where photosynthesis can't happen at a faster rate regardless of the light intensity.

Where are the productive waters @?

Lakes, and coastline, open ocean has VERY little plankton concentration. Coastline antarctic areas are even more productive than the open ocean In reality its only because of nutrients as said before, nutrients gate what is productive, because of run off from land and such

What can fragmentation cause?

Large distance between patches, smaller patches, lower quality matrix between populations Fragmented Sub-populations fluctuate independently, populations changing on their own Without fragmentation higher exchange happens and sub-populations act as a single population.

What are the benefits of mating in a group? What is a Lek?

Large groups attract the attention of females Lek: Place animals aggregate, display and attract the opposite sex When there's more males in a Lek, more females per male are attracted Satellite males try to mate with females approaching other males In areas with wide spread females need to attract them somehow.

What is the overall trend of species/size of island? What were the non-island examples of "islands" given?

Larger island = more species, reptiles on islands, mammals on mountain tops, fishes in desert springs

What was the class example given with seed structure?

Larger seeds have fewer made of them, but have the highest chance of survival, smaller seeds on the other hand are easier to make en masse.

What is the Golden Banner?

Leaves are thicker and have more chloroplasts when under higher intensity light.

What is the specifics of lemming cycles?

Lemmings lack specialist predators, they have predators like polar owls and polar foxes, generalist predators. During peak years lemmings destroy most of their winter food supply, mosses. You can deplete moss unlike grass, it's entirely exposed and as such can be depleted Lemming population cycles are driven by their interactions with food resources

What are the differences in shapes between vole and lemming peaks? What the is the reason for this difference in peaks?

Lemmings spike interspersed, and voles spike for a 2-3 year period. Lemmings eat all the moss in a year whereas the voles require the weasel gestation period to experience a difference

What is a photoperiod? What organism responds to it (class example)?

Length of daylight and darkness, some animals use it to time events Daphnia use photoperiod to guess when winter is coming, and as such enter a period of hibernation. They use it as a tool to acclimate.

Where on Earth is most of the carbon stored? Where in the biosphere?

Limestone/dolomite in the lithosphere of the earth! (its limestone szn bby!) In the biosphere: In the ocean!

What was the 1942 chart example?

Lindeman represents the ecosystem as a total connected system in a lake, the chart isn't that effective, he called bacteria and detrivores OOZE, not that effective tbh The key is: An ecosystem requires elements that interact with each other

What was the late boi history of ecology? (After Lindeman 1942) Lindeman, Odum. Systems approach

Lindeman: Trophic interactions (from greek trophies, food) Eugene Odum (1953): An influential textbook (ecosystem ecology) Systems approach (1970s): Quantitation of ecology through computers allowed a systems approach (computer models)

What is the mathematical modeling of competition considering the effect of one species on another? Whats the model called?

Lotka-volterra model r1N1(1-(1-(N1+aN2) r2N2(1-(N2+bN1/K) Competition coefficients represent the effect of a member of one species on another one.

What is the trade off of having smaller and more numerous offspring?

Lower survival rates, gotta find the optimum ratio

What was the Mangrove experiment?

MA died (RIP) So W took over, his boi (Simberloff) and him went to Mangrove islands off the coast of florida. They went to the islands and killed off all of the insects using fumigation Then they removed the tent and they wanted to see the amount of species before the disturbance, they then waited a while and saw species after island

What is the difference between microevolution and macroevolution?

Macroevolution is species level or higher evolution, organisms of a species changing Microevolution is population level, a localized change in allele frequency

How do you make a compartment diagram boi

Make an organic section and an inorganic section, You can do arrows and wish demonstrating the movement of carbons around and stuff

What is the diploid/haploid scheme of bee eusociality?

Males are haploid, females are diploid Females born are .75 related, whereas males are .25 to them. As such the broods favor females 3:1 Males give 100% of their DNA to their young

Which type of animal has the Lowest production efficiency?

Mammals bc they HOMEOTHERMS

How do mangrove trees deal with high salt in their environments?

Mangrove trees secrete salt out of their leaves to deal with high salt concentrations in the surrounding water

What is the benefit of foraging in groups?

Many individuals searching for food may be able to find rare food more easily (Vultures following other vultures) (Bees doing the waggle dance) The probability of prey capture may increase in a group, a pack or pride can better kill prey Groups are more successful at defending food.

What is Geographic range? What are its limiting factors (AHSDS)? What is a climate envelope?

Measure of the total area covered by a species, reflects its realized niche Abiotic conditions: Climatic conditions constrain the geographic distribution of species, suitable conditions are called a climate envelope Habitat availability: Smaller scale variation limits populations to suitable habitat patches within that range. (e.g.) Fremont's leather flower is only found in three counties in Missouri (endemic) Species interactions: e.g.) The black rhino is endangered, the rhino botfly is a parasite that enters the black rhino. The don't feed, they just parasite rhino. One dies the other does too Dispersal, Source-sink dynamics

What are the potential effects of global warming?

Melting of glaciers, and rise in the sea level,Increasingly erratic climate, Greater frequency of sever hurricanes, a northward Shift in the agricultural production Shift in the distribution of species

What types of predators are mice?

Mice are generalists, they eat a LOT of stuff

What are the two types of parasites (MM) and examples? What is parasite load?

Microparasites: Reproduce in the host: (Viruses, bacteria, protozoa) Study units: host There is a correlation between life cycle and size. You see which hosts are infected and which aren't and compare with time Macroparasites: Grow in the host, reproduce by infecting other hosts flat and round worms, fungi (on plants) Flat worms: Live in the digestive tract, eggs are laid in the feces and have to reach other hosts, fungi are macroparasites on hosts. Study units: parasites Amount of parasites in the person

Summarize the Temperate Grassland/Cold Desert

Moderate rainfall and temperature 5-20* average temperatue ~375 mm rainfall Diagram shows seasonailty, with a dry season later in the summer growing season Lots of animals with rumens aka lots of grazing, also called praries.

Summarize the Temperate Deciduous Forest

Moderate rainfall and temperature 5-20* average temperature (tends to fall on the lower end) ~850mm rainfall Diagram shows seasonality in both pecipitation and temperatue, two parabolic curves stretching accross NO DRY SZN THOUGH!

Summarize the Temperate Seasonal Forest Biome

Moderate temperatue and rainfall 5-20* average temperature ~600 mm rainfall Diagram represents seasonality with little sharp changes in conditions. No dry season and a long growing season Large annual fluctuation in condition, not common in the southern hemisphere. Found in the eastern US, Europe, and eastern asia

What is the Monarch Butterfly example of predator avoidance? (Numbers not mim)

Monarch butterflies aggregate during the winter, to create predator dilution effect. Monarch butterflies are all over canada, they migrate south to California and stuff. They aggregate in trees and such. They aggregate just for predator dillution. You wanna be in the herd that has the least fraction predated a week

What is the monkey example? (indirect fitness)

Monkeys will often help teach youngsters that they're related to. This helps them by helping them pass on genes. Alpha males do this the most (they mate the most)

What was the moose and wolf story?

Mooses ate their food supply and collapsed, and wolves walked across a frozen lake and got to the island, they went through cycles with the predators Eventually the wolves became very inbred and couldn't drive the cycle anymore

Where is the majority of Nitrogen found? What do bacteria do to make it available? What are the two cycles and what to they contain?

Most N is found in the atmosphere, unavailable to majority of organisms Bacteria are the most important payers, they can break down N2 which is a very tough molecule normally to break. They also break down nitrogen compounds to make them available Two cycles: Inner cycle involving plants consumers and detritivores, Outer cycle, through the atmosphere (N2)

What are motile vs. sessile heterotrophs

Motile moves to food, sessile moves food towards them

What is DisperSALLLL? What is Natal dispersal? What does dispersal avoid that helps survival?

Movements of individuals from one area to another Natal dispersal: Displacement of offspring from parents How you avoid predation, competition, and inbreeding Not the same as seasonal migration, can colonize new areas, and dispersal limits constrain geographic ranges.

How is Hamilton's rule seen in nature?

Multigenerational Meerkat families: Distant relatives are often treated selfishly, whereas close relatives are often treated with altruism

What is the multiplicative model? the additive model?

Multiplicative model: How many local patches would exist if diversity per local patch was identical, and patches shared no species Additive model: How much more diversity exists in a region over the average site SPECIES TURNOVER

What are other defensive mutualisms (cleaning)?

Mutualism that deal with parasites. Smaller creatures clean bigger creatures, protect them from external parasites (flies for a rhino). big fish get their teeth cleaned of rotting food by little fish

Examples of Coevolution are:? What are the two types of coevolutionary relationships?

Mutualism, predation, parasitism, competition etc. Coevolutionary relationships may be tight (obligatory) or diffuse (involving several species co-occuring in a community)

What are Pollination mutualism

Mutualism: Plants gain sexual reproduction facilitated by transfer of pollen, animal pollinator gains resources Adaptations: Plants: nectar, pollen, sexual attractants, showy flowers, morphological adaptations (landing platforms odor color). Some are adapted to generalists some are adapted to specialists Animals: Pollen and nectar collection mechanisms, behavioral adjustments

What is the equilibrium formula of population? (rearranged equation that forms a line) What are the other formulas?

N1 = K1 - aN2 N2= K2 - bN2 Equation of a line for all combinations of n1 and N2 when species 1 is at equlibrium N1=0 N2=K1/a N2=0 N1=K1

What is the formula for the inflection point of the curve? What is its significance?

N=K/2, the middle. The peak of the derivative It is the point of fastest growth of the population If youre hunting/harvesting a population you want to keep the population at 1/2K at lowest to bring it back up

What are examples of learned and not learned behaviors of animals using tools?

NC Crows: Genetically know to use sticks to get larvae out of trees, its a good food source and theyre born knowing how to do it Bottlenose dolphins: Learn from mother how to put sponges on nose to protect from sharp objects and stinging animals, only females from a certain line know how to do it

What are the two types of fragmentation? What does each type entail?

Natural fragmentation: Glaciation, volcanic erruptions, tectonic movement etc. Human driven fragmentation: Agriculture, urbanization, pollution, Deforestation, introduction of alien species

What is the steepness difference between small, large, near and far?

Near islands have steep immigration, higher than far which has shallower and a lower curve (near moved the curve to the right) Small islands have a farther left and steeper curve for extinction (small moves extinction curve to the left)

What was the Larch Bud moth example?

Needle trees drop their needle bois, the Larch budmoth eats the needles from the trees, their predator prey dynamics result in cycles that last about 10 years. The graph is logarithmic, as such straight lines mean exponential growth and decay. There are only so many needles, and as such when the moths eat them all its OVER for em. Its an example of stable limit cycle, the population is kicked constantly but it always returns to the same cycle, because of the factors present Wasps also drive this cycle low, damn devil and blue sea

What is the definition of Competition?

Negative interaction of two organisms for the same limiting resource It impacts the realized niche of species and is hard to observe in progress

What are the Neritic zones and oceanic zone?

Neritic zone: Lowest tidal zone to 200m deep, areas of higher productivity Oceanic zone: Deeper, productivity is limited Shallow oceans are more productive because sediments are near the surface

What is the formula for the gross uptake (GPP) using a plant throughout the day?

Net uptake in light + production in dark (respiration) = Gross uptake (GPP) You add the ammt that it takes up in light vs the amount that it uses in the dark, then you add em up and you get GPP

What are the two important processes in the N cycle

Nitrogen fixation: Microorganisms convert inorganic N into organic compounds, main pathway for making N available to biosphere processes Denitriciaction: A process by which MOOs break down nitrogen containing organic matter, the main pathway of losing biological N Nitrogen fiction balanced denitrification on a global bases, The fluxes amount to 2% of total cycling of nitrogen through ecosystems

What is the overall chemical transformation of the N cycle?

Nitrogen to ammonia (ammonification) then to nitrate to NO to N2O back to N2

What are examples of the consumer resource examples? (Parasite, parasitoid, predator, grazer)?

Parasite: Virus causing the flu Parasitoid: Parasitic wasps, kill the host Predator: Shark, always kills the prey Grazer: Cows, or mosquitos

How do eusocial colonies without haplodiploidy fare?

Not well, naked mole rats and termites struggle to make new colonies, as such theyre more likely to stay in their old colonies as forgoing reproduction isnt a bad idea in their case

What is the Geometric growth model?

Nt = N0L^t Lambda= Discrete population Growth rate Its like the exponential growth rate but discrete Compares population size at regular time intervals It's important in ecology because it accoutns for seasonal births, breeding periods are common in nature after all. (e.g.) Deer only breed once a year so testing every instant would be a bad idea for graphing)

What are the layers of soil (top to bottom)

O (decaying organic matter) A (broken down organic material and finely broken rock) E (leached inorganic material) B (weathered rock, rich in inorganic material) C (less weathered, chunks of parent material) R (Parent material)

Layers of Soil

OAEBCR (Organisms, Broken down organic material, leeched organic material, Weathered parent material, less weathered parent material, parent material.

What are the pros and cons of field experiments and mathematical models?

Observational studies are more realistic and more confuding Manipulative studies are less realistic and less confunding Basically the more realistic an experiment is, the more confuding it is

What are the gyres?

Ocean Gyres are large patterns of ocean circulation caused by uneven heating of the earth's surface? They cause Upwelling, which brings nutrients to the surface yadda yadda productivity BS

What is the Scientific uncertainty/conflicting results on global warming? What were the explanations?

Old climate models predicted greater increase in temperatures than is observed, however taking pollutant hazes into account explains this difference Surface temperature is certainly increasing, but temperature in the atmosphere may not, which could be an effect of ozone depletion (it is an effect of ozone depletion) Global climate change is a complex system taking many inputs and with many feedback loops (e.g. solar variation)

What are omnivores? Whats an example given in class?

Omnivores can adjust the digestive response to consume both plant and animal matter Warblers migrate seasonally, and as such switch between eating nuts and seeds and eating fruit and nectar

What was the start of the buffalo study?

On Nov. 17th 2005, 16 bison were released from the pen into the area managed by the APF Two other reintroduction in 2006 and 2007, in 2009 the herd totaled 76 bison You start reducing food in the pen and the bison leave to go find food

What is eusociality? How does fitness fit into it?

One colony working towards the common goal of survival and reproduction The highest form of social behavior exhibited by animals Organisms stop trying to reproduce themselves and help their siblings, results in no direct fitness: only indirect fitness

What is interference competition?

One species prevents the other by behavioral or chemical interference from exploiting the resource (when an organism defends a resource) e.g) Pinching the person's straw

What is the Orangutan Peter Pan morph example?

Only dominant male Orangutans develop secondary sex characteristics (size cheeks etc.) whereas subordinate males don't develop any of these

What are the limitations of dispersal?

Organism's cannot disperse to areas where it isn't suitable, or to areas that they cannot disperse to The double coconut is endemic to the Seychelles, they weight 50 pounds and are spicy. Animals cannot carry the coconuts so their dispersal is limited Dandelions are found on every continent except Antarctica

What is shared defense?

Organisms can attack a predator as a group, or do coordinated distraction and evasion Muskoxes form circles around the young. primates/birds often attack as a group

Convergent Evolution

Organisms evolve similarities because the organisms adapt to similar environments

What are allelopathic zones (allelopathy)

Organisms produce one or more biochemicals that affect the reproduction and growth of other organisms A form of interference competition Allelopathic sage shrubs secrete chemicals that interfere with organisms growing.

What is shared vigilance? What is the eaxmple?

Organisms that live in a group have more eyes to watch, so they can spend more time feeding and less time watching European goldfinches: Flock size increases, birds spend less individual time raising head to look for predators. Aka big flocks allow the birds to be safer

What makes Southern Pine Beetles unique? What about this makes them a bad pest?

Other pine beetles only attack sick trees, Southern Pine Beetles attack healthy trees too, resulting in a much larger effect on the trees necessary for harvesting.

Who was the father of animal ecology and why did he care sm about lemmings?

Our savior Charles Elton noticed that lemming outbreaks in Norway occur at somewhat regular intervals (3-5 years) Number of foxes also oscillated with the same period. Elton bought a book and noticed that lemmings fluctuated that way There was a varmint bounty for fox, so the TRAPPERs had to kill the foxes and ish. the fox deaths went from the same cycles

What is the purpose of cicada's synchronous emergence?

Overwhelming predators, when 400+ emerge at once it overwhelms the predators.

What is the significance of numerical response and predation risk?

POSSIBLY ON THE EXAM: The rapid increase in number of predators means that the predation risk may spike right after

What are the Phanerozoic eras from earliest to latest?

Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic

Parasite adaptations to ensure dispersal

Parasites are usually much smaller than their hosts, internal parasites exist in a benign environment, both food and stable conditions are provided by the host

What are the classifications of consumer resource interactions (Lethality and Intimacy)

Parasitoid: Eats all of prey and one/a few in a lifetime Parasite: Eats part of prey and one/a few in a lifetime Predator Eats all of prey and many in a lifetime Grazer: Eats part of prey and many in a lifetime

What were the results of the Cut and Leave experiment?

Patches in which Cut and Leave was used had a higher proportion of beetles on the trap trees 40% of beetles from cut-and-leave successfully colonized new infestations, while only 10% did so from the no cut-and-leave

What is more/less confounded, pattern or mechanism?

Pattern is more confounded, whereas the mechanism is less confounded

What is pattern vs. mechanism?

Pattern is the who what when where of the habitat, it is the effect of variables and such (Synonyms: Correlation, effect) Mechanism: Causation, the cause and the process of what causes the pattern

What is phenotypic tradeoff? What is phenotypic plasticity?

Phenotypic tradeoff is the fact that certain phenotypes favor certain environments Phenotypic plasticity: A tadpole responds to "honest cues" (chemical messages from predators). This results in a larger tail (metabolically expensive) if there are predators, or short tail if there isn't. It relies on these traits to stay alive. If the environment is unpredictable plasticity is the best

What molecules depend the phosphorus cycle? What does it limit?

Phosphorus is an essential element, constituent of nucleic acids, cell membranes, energy transfer systems, bones, and teeth Phosphorus is a very important element, for DNA and otherwise Phosphorus may limit productivity, in aquatic systems sediments act as a phosphorus sink unless oxygen depleted, in soils, phosphorus is only readily available between pH 6 and 7

What are the phosphorus transformations? What doesn't phosphorus do?

Phosphorus undergoes relatively few transformations Plants assimilate P as phosphate, and incorporate this into organic compounds. Animals and phosphatizing bacteria break down organic forms of phosphorus and release it as phosphate Phosphorus does NOT: undergo redox or circulate in the atmosphere except as dust. It is not important in energy flows, that's carbon or to a lesser extent nitrogen

Why are coral colored? What causes coral bleaching?

Photosynthetic algae (zooxanthallae) have a symbiotic relationship where they consume CO2 produced by coral and produce O2 and sugars in response. They give coral its color. When temperature rises (at least 1*C), the coral expels the algae, and if they dont come back in time the coral dies

What part of the trees do the pine beetles eat?

Pine beetles eat the Phloem, not the xylem, so the tree cannot transport nutrients and dies

How have pine beetles evolved to defend against tree defenses against them?

Pine beetles evolved a group hunting strategy, the 1st beetle tries attacking the tree (usually a female). The beetle releases pheromones, triggering more beetles to attack/release more pheromones 2-3 thousand beetles overcome the defenses and can enter the tree.

What is spatial scaling? What are the components?

Place where an organism lives Global (daylight hours, rainfall and dispersal), continental, biome (soil and the climate), region (human influences and topography, fires earthquakes and stuff), landscape (resource availibility), local community (local nutrients, organisms, shade sunlight, presence of organisms))

Which disease is transmitted indirectly?

Plague is transmitted indirectly, it requires fleas and rodents as intermediate reservoirs.

What is the arms race with herbivory and plants? What is the monarch butterfly example?

Plants evolve, other consumers evolve to detoxify defenses, it results in an arms race Monarch Butterflies can eat milkweed

What is a plant or bacteria example of social behavior?

Plants release chemicals when they are damaged, and bacteria also communicate

What is Rank abundance distribution (RAD)? What properties of the graph tell you what?

Plot relative abundance of species in order from most to least abundant Steep slope = low evenness, short line = low richness, gives no information regarding composition

What is a Phase-plane diagram?

Plotting species 1 and species 2 isoclines on one graph, consider the starting point of the initial population sizes Four possible outcomes of this plot

What is the formula for Ecological efficiency?

Pn/Pn-1 Based on the net production, also known as food chain efficiency n= nth level of consumer It integrates the different efficiencies

How do organisms adapt to cold through insulation?

Polar bears: Lots of blubber Emporer penguins: Lots of blubber

What are the costs of groups?

Predation, disease, resource sharing Large groups attract predator attention, and alarm-calling attracts attention Pathogens and parasites spread faster Individuals may need to share food, mates, etc.

What is the hypothesis involving greenhouse gasses in the holocene?

Population goes up, CO2 is supposed to go down and methane is supposed to go down. But around 7k BC methane and CO2 started going up, resulting in us NOT going into an ice age weirdly

What is Leibig's law of the minimum?

Population increases until the supply of the most limiting resource prevents it from increasing further The most limited resource is the one farthest from its optimal value. Examples: Food, water, inorganic nutrients, space (sessile organisms), hiding/nesting sites

What is population fluctuation? What factors affect it?

Populations all fluctuate Due to resources, predation, parasites, etc. There are cyclic and random fluctuations In Scotland Rum Red Deer kept the same concentration/population over the course of 30 years!

What is "inherent periodicity"

Populations have an inherent periodicity. The length of the cycle varies among species Pendulum at their center when they're at K, when the population gains momentum it swings back and DIES E.g.) Species eat a lot in the fall, grow, but then less food in the spring but they're already pregnant, they give birth and the new offspring die off

What are the two forms of density dependence? What are their characteristics?

Positive and negative Positive: Social animals do better in packs. High density helps population growth (dogs wolves etc.) Negative: Density hurts the rate of population populations compete for food and stuff, caused by intraspecific competition for food and disease (Sparrows have less young and more die as density increases) intraspecific competition Population regulation often contains both of these

What interactions happen in communities and what are their significance?

Predators can drive prey to extinction and drive themselves Mutualism can allow species to live in areas that they normally wouldn't be able to Consumer-resource/competitive interactions CAN have an effect, but the interactions are more diffuse

What is game theory?

Predicts the optimal behavioral strategy when each individual maximizes its fitness Pay-off grid

Summarize bottom-up control

Primary production limits 1st order consumers who limit 2nd order consumers, etc. +Plants = +errybody

What was the Glacier Bay example? (succession)

Primary succession triggered by glacial retreating, you go from moss and fireweed all the way to hemlock-spruce in 200 years after the retreat As time goes on the short bois get shaded out by the tall bois, eventually you get to the ultimate big boy forests

What are the categories of succession?

Primary succession: Community establishment and dynamics that occur on newly formed habitats lacking plants of animals ex: (Sand dunes kava flow and new volcanoes, landslides, receding glaciers) Secondary succession: Changes in community composition and structure following a disturbance (Fire, wind storms, floods, agriculture abandonment)

What are the two essential ecosystem processes by producers and detrivores?

Producers: Photosynthesis Detritivores: Decomposition Photosynthesis: CO2 + H2O -> Sugars + O2

Mutualism generally involve one species gaining access to resources the other is provided with:

Protection from enemies Provision of a favorable environment Or a service Mutualism can be obligate, or facultative

What mutualisms exist in plants to help them get nutrients? (fungal and bacterial)

R bacteria: Form nodules in the roots of legume plants, capture nitrogen from the atmosphere and the plant gives it carbon Arbuscular M: Invade the root, the plant has an immune response, plant creates arbuscle where which the fungus lives in. Hyphae the Fine thread-like root network allows the fungus to get nutrients from the soil. Carbon goes to the fungus and the fungus transfers nitrogen and phosphorus to the plant

In a predator prey system obeying the dynamic of the Lotka-volterra model, the equilibrium point is at R = 50 and P = 20. Assuming the initial conditions of R=100 and P=5, what will happen?

R will increase, P will increase DRAW THE MODEL DO NOT ASSUME IT TENDS TOWARDS EQUILIBRIUM

How do rainforests maintain life with such bad soil?

Rain and ish wore away most of the top layer of soil, as such they rely on rapid nutrient cycling (dead materials quickly broken down and taken up by trees) to maintain high biodiversity

What is the relationship of NPP vs. temperature/rainfall

Rainfall: parabolic, too much rain fux with everything and makes it hard to function. Not enough sunlight and terrestrial plants can drown Temperature: Linear positive correlation, hotter is better! best cases: Intermediate rainfall and high temp

What is the driving force behind natural selection?

Random mutations

What is a realized niche?

Range of abiotic and biotic factors, smaller than the fundamental niche Actually occupied niche: taking into account competition

What is the Fundamental Niche

Range of abiotic conditions under which a species can exist

What is the Mountain boomer lizard example?

Ranges from Arizona to Oklahoma, they usually like dry biomes. They also bool in grassy mountains, how? There are suitable patches in the forest called glades that have hot dry rocks for them to bool on.

Who invented the logistic model? What is the formula for the instantaneous change in population?

Raymond Pearl, the formula for the growth of the population is rN, substitute r for a CC dependent one and you get the logistic growth formula

What is the red eyed tree frog example given in class?

Red Eyed tree frogs lay their eggs on leaves above water, this means that ground predators can eat em. When they sense a predator they hatch earlier, making them more vulnerable to water predators. But they dont die to the ground predator

What was the squirel example given in class?

Red and Grey squirells are complete competitors, so they fight over resources. Grey squirrels are better competitiors and as such limited the range of the red squirrel.

What is the numerical dilution effect?

Reduced probability of predation for an indidividual during an attack on a group e.g.: Having more prey means that the predator is less likely to have a successful attack

What is island biogeography?

Regional differences in species diversity are influenced by area and distance which dominate the balance between immigration and extinction rates

What are cyclic fluctuations?

Regular cycles of overshoots and die offs of a species over a time period. Can occur in multiple species simultaneously Examples: Gyrfalcons were sought by nobility and records show a 10 year cycle Roe deer, boars, and grouses show a cycle too

What are some ungulate population dynamics?

Reindeer and Moose

What is the moose model?

Reindeer model with predators! Reindeer escape wolves during the summer by migrating, moose however are predated by the mooses. Wolf packs take down mooses, affecting their population in the presence of predators you get a regular predator prey cycle.

What are the conservation applications of meta-populations

Reintroduce species to multiple locations Enable the exchange of individuals between isolated populations, then construct corridors or transplant individuals E.g.) Butterflies were introduced to 10 of 20 subpops, they stayed alive but every subpop went extinct at least once Look at the cheetabois

What is the rescue effect?

Rescue effect: Dispersers supplement a declining subpopulation and prevent local extinction. More likely the less isolated the patch is.

Why cant density independent growth continue indefinitely?

Resource limitation, predation, etc.

What is the principle of allocation?

Resources devoted to one biological aspect cannot be devoted to another Natural selection will just favor the one best suited to the environment i.e.: An organism can't be the best at everything

What is species richness/diversity?

Richness: The number of species present in a sample of a community Diversity: Richness and the relative abundances of each species considered together

What should be the effect of wolf reintroduction in the YNP on rodent numbers

Rodents increased!

What is the FAMOUS enzyme of the calvin cycle? What does it do?

Rubisco, converts CO2 to PGA (3 carbon) and then to glucose

What are two examples semelparitous animals? (fishies and bugs)

Salmon: many salmons do dis Cicadas: Spend 13-17 years underground feeding on plant matter, before reproducing and emerging. Allows the offspring to survive on low nutritional quality Synchronous emergence

Contrast the saltwater wetland biomes (marshes and mangrove swamps)

Salt marshes: Non woody vegetation Mangrove swamps: Woody vegetation, salt resistance trees and roots protect the coast from erosion. Small animals make their habitats in the roots

How do saltwater fish conserve water?

Saltwater fish have specialized kidneys that concentrate solute to keep water in.

what is the bottom line of global warming?

Scientific evidence for global warming is overwhelming, warming has not been as fast as feared, nor uniformly everywhere Scientific understanding of the causes of global change is very solid and getting better every year But we really do not yet know the overall effects and such, just that it'll be BAD and russia will gain

Summarize steps of the greenhouse effect. What causes the warming of the earth?

Scientific theories arent perfect, but theyre established Solar energy passes through the atmosphere to hit the ground. some of it is reflected off the top of the atmosphere and some is reflected off of the bottom of it/ground Most of it stays to heat the earth, where it is converted to longwave radiation as it warms the earth's surface. Eventually outflow between the inflow and outflow happens when the surface is hot enough to emit radiation The reemitted infrared energy is absorbed and sent back by greenhouse has molecules, this direct effect warms the earth's surface and troposphere. Resulting in the warming of the earth (GLOBAL WARMING)

What is old field succession? (secondary succession), 1700s, 1800s, late 1800s, Early 1900s)

Secondary succession, before european contact NE was very foresty and cool In the early-mid 1700s: Agriculturists moved in and cleared fields, resulting in livestock grazing, death of all the tree bois In the early mid 1800s: Agriculturists fully developed the land, we had the highest population growth at this point, we ate well, were the tallest nation in the world. There was a malthusian event and we declined late 1800s: After the civil war, there was a lot of space for the european children/grandchildren and etc. to move west. The population of the rural areas crashed, The midwest allowed people to snag food and stuff so they didn't need NE anymore. Early 1900s/1920s-1930s: Taller trees and such took over.

What is Lack's hypothesis?

Selection should favor clutch size that produces the most surviving offspring

What is artificial selection? What's an example with plants and animals?

Selective breeding of plants and animals to promote the occurrence of desirable traits in offspring We naturally selected for yummy corn and dog breeds that look cool, making them look very different then the OG species We also artificially selected for certain pigeons that look cute, rock pigeons are ugly though.

What are some ways you can make the LVM more realistic? (2) What is the resulting model called?

Self limitation in prey or predator Has a stabilizing effect on the system Type II functional response by predators, it has a destabilizing effect on the system Adding both features to the LV model leads to RMAM which has two possible dynamical behaviors, stable equilibrium and stable limit cycle

What is the variation within the species of yuccas with respect to semelparity?

Semelparitous yuccas live in areas with many fires, they make many more fruit and flowers, they reproduce once in a burst then die. Iterparitous yuccas live in areas with less fire, and have less fruit and flowers but dont die when they reproduce.

What is semelparity vs. iteroparity?

Semelparity: Reproduce once and then die, not common in mammals except Antechinus and a few others, they reproduce once for like 18 hours then die Iteroparity: Organisms that reproduce multiple times

What is Sensible heat loss?

Sensible heat loss is heat lost by the ground through convection (wind), deforestation increases sensible heat loss by decreasing resistance to turbulence and leading to a smoother surface.

What is metapopulation?

Set of populations or sub-populations of a species, linked by dispersal e.g.) Squirrels in a water shed, or fish in a river Individuals in subpopulations can breed within them, but they usually travel Know a conceptual level, not a mathimatical level

What are the characteristics of eusocial animals?

Several adults living together in a group Overlapping generations of parents and siblings living in the same group Cooperation in nest building and brood care, not altruism though because its for indirect fitness Reproductive dominance by one or a few animals, and the presence of sterile individuals

Does a short life span favor indeterminate or determine growth?

Short Life Span->Indeterminate

What is acclimatization?

Short term "getting used to" a new environment, allows organisms to survive outside their normal range of physiological conditions They adjust their physiology, morphology, and behavior to lessen the impact of their environment

What is the determinant factor of convergent evolution?

Similar climates at different places (e.g. Euphorbs and cacti aren't related but because they had the same selection pressures the individually evolved to be similar

How do you measure omnivory? How can a parasitoid be an omnivore?

Simple: Some communities only have one omnivorous species or 0, results in a simple food web (mudflat example) Complex: Presence of many omnivores (Baccharis) Preying on the prey and predator of a cycle

What was the result of global temperature increase? What are the properties of the increase?

Since 1800, temperature has been increasing a lot. It occurs at an uneven pace, periods of stasis interspersed with periods of rapid rise There is a lot of year-to-year variability. also variability among different regions Almost every year seems to bring new temperature records However, our planet has periodically experienced even warmer temperatures than today

What factors determine the probability of a patch being occupied?

Size and isolation: Small and isolated patches are less likely to be occupied Not considered in the basic model but distant and small patches of are lower quality

What are the components of life history?

Size of offspring, care given to each offspring, number of times they reproduce, how quickly the offspring grow, and life expectancy

What types of populations do stochasticities act on? What other problems do small populations face?

Small populations, their population size means that a random event can wipe em out and end the species. Larger populations are close to 0 Other small population problems contain Positive density dependence, low genetic diversity (bottleneck and founder effect)

What is the dif between smaller and larger organisms (reproduction rate, SA:V ratio, pop size etc.)

Smaller organisms: Faster reproduction, higher SA:V ratio, faster response to environmental conditions, wilder fluctuations in pop size Larger organisms: The opposite Example: Algae have dramatic fluctuations, kill fishies when they all die

Water stress: role of soils

Soil holds water, smaller grained soil holds more water

What factors allow you to mathematically model a basic metapopulation? What is the basic meta-population equation? What are the assumptions of the model

Some patches are occupied some are not, each occupied patch may go extinct, each uncoccupied can be colonized (FINISH THIS PART) Equation: p=1-(e/c) p=Fraction occupied e=probability of extinction in a patch c=probability of colonization of a patch Assumptions: Equal patch quality, and the same number of dispersers

What are some weird examples of heterotrophs/autotrophs? (Slug boi and missletoe)

Some plants are heterotrophs, they've evolved to become parasites and use their modified roots to consume the energy of other animals Some animals exhibit some photosynthesis. Sea slugs learned to eat algae and incorporate the chloroplasts into their own tissue to undergo photosynthesis

What are the factors of production of the ocean?

Somewhat temperature, mostly nutrients and sunlight

What is the source-sink model?

Souce: High quality habitat and +pop grouth without emigration, provides dispersers Sinks: Poor quality habitat, and - pop growth, rely on dispersers to populate them Movement relates to the distance and abundance, and patch quality/distance Not all areas have poss pop growth, because an oragnism is in an area doesnt mean its doing well. Some occupid habitats may not be that suitable.

What was the soybean nodules and nitrogen fixing bacteria example?

Soybeans use them bacteria to obtain nitrogen from N2, bacteria get sugars from them

What is scaling?

Spatial extent of ecological processes and spatial interpretation of the data Response of an organism to the environment is particular to a specific scale. It may respond diff on a larger or smaller scale, choosing a correct scale is important for finding a correct hypothesis Patterns look different when zoomed in

What was the RAD example given in class?

Species A, B, C, D, 1, 1, 2, 6, respectively Species A = 1/10 total etc. those are your relative abundances

What is exploitation competition?

Species compete indirectly; individuals reduce the availability of a resource as they use it e.g.) The efficient consumer has the advantage (sipping faster on milkshale)

What are trophic mutualism?

Species complement each other in obtaining energy and nutrients Examples: lichens, mycorrhizae, rhizobium plants, bacteria-cows, leaf cutting ants

What are the attributes of communities? How are they named?

Species composition and species abundances Many communities are named by the dominant or most visible species present e.g. Oak-Hickory forest, northern hardwood forest, prairie grassland, chaparral shrubland

What is the example given in class of the coexisting of species regulated by different resources?

Species regulated by two resources can coexist if levels of both are high enough to support them. If not then the species that can better use the limiting resource wins e.g.( A vs C, A uses Si, C used P At high Si, A beats C and vice versa, but at intermediate ratios the two species can coexist

What is diversity?

Species richness weighted by evenness, measured using various diversity indices

What is the competitive exclusion principle? *

Species with the same niche cannot coexist indefinitely (competitive exclusion) Either niche changes or a species goes extinct. Complete competitors cannot coexist If there are two species that hold a same niche territory, the better competitor will take over the area, only the unique niche of the lesser competitor will be occupied by them.

What is the Synthetic perspective of community?

Specific ecological communities may have both components of Glea. and Clem.'s perspectives, in some communities the boundaries are easy to distinguish resulting in clear ecotones. Some communities are each, there's not many examples of extremes of each

What control method made the beetle problem worse? What is the predator of the Southern Pine Beetle?

Spraying the beetles created a plateau population for the bark beetles. It killed the checkered beetle but not the SPB

What are the four types of fluctuations/population cycles?

Stable (often found in rainforest populations) Irregular: Chaotic behavior (gypsy moths, usually found in labs) Cyclic: Regular oscilations (lynx grousse hares) Irruptive: Stable with occasional peaks and crashes (raccoons, feral mice)

What is the Stochastic mechanism of species abundance? What type of communities are most affected by this?

Stochastic changes in species abundance, influences abundance of species present. Individuals of different species are demographically identical Explains patterns: Stronger impact on less diverse communities

Summarize the stream AND River biomes. What does allochthonous mean? What is the riparian zone?

Streams are often shaded, less photosynthesis than rivers and as such less biodiverse Rivers are large enough to support aquatic plants and photosynthetic algae. Downstream, streams (ha!) become more productive as they accumulate nutrients AlloT (long word) means that the stream needs the outside input of organic material (leaves falling) AutoT is the opposite Riparian zone is the layer of vegetation outside the stream (and some rivers) with elevated water tables and

What are the adaptations of prey to predation (5)? What were the examples given in class?

Structural defenses: Porcupine spines and snails Chemical defenses: Monarch butterflies and milkweed Crypsis: allows animals to avoid detection by camouflage/other methods (stick bug) Warning coloration/mimicry: Batesian and mullerian mimicry Behavioral defenses (on individual basis): Fleeing, playing dead (possum), threat displays (lizard boi)

What is population structure?

Subdivisions of organisms into sub-populations living in suitable patches of habitat surrounded by matrix.

When does stratification occur?

Summer and winter, when the thermocline seperates the two layers of the cooler and warmer waters Epolim and Hypolim (Epolim on time)

What was the Great Plains restoration project by the American Prairie Foundation?

Supported by The Nature Conservancy, The World Wildlife Fund, and Ted Turner They tryna restore the Great Plains with some bison bois

Contrast the freshwater wetland biomes (Swamps, marshes, and bogs)

Swamps: emergent trees Marshes: Emergent non-woody vegetation Bogs: Low nutrient acidic water

What is Nile Perch population growth? What happened to it?

THe Nile perch wqs introduced to Lake Victoria in the 1950s, they weigh up to 200kg. 9 million eggs per patch, and hatch-time was 20 hours. There was a period of exponential growth. Exponential growth is a characteristic J shaped curve. Slow growth occurs when pop is small, but then it increases at a very fast rate. The Nile Perch is almost extinct due to overfishing,so the fishermen left and the populatuion is returning

What is gestation delay?

TIme between mating and birth. E.g.) Elephants get a 600+ day delay between mating and birth. As such they can mate when its all good but birth during a drout

What are the three biggest environmental stresses?

Temperature, energy, water availibility

What is element cycling? What are the tenets?

Tenets: Cycling of elements and flux of energy in ecosystems are fundamentally different Chemical elements are reused, and energy flows through the system in one direction However many aspects of elemental cycling make sense only when we understand that chemical transformations are linked to energy transformation This is particularly true for the C cycle.

What are the extremeties of eusociality? what is the superorganism ?

Termites and ants will die for their colony, the sacrifice themselves to help their siblings The superorganism is the fact that a lot of stupid organisms make a smart organism. Theres no central control, the organisms make their own decisions as a group.

What are the primary productivity patterns (variables) in terrestrial/land life?

Terrestrial productivity: Temperature/sunlight/growing szn/rainfall Aquatic productivity: Nutrients

What was the barnacle example from class?

The BB and CS barnacles compete, BB is a better competitor. but has a smaller niche. So CS takes up the desiccated niche whereas the BB takes the lower shore. BB has heavier shells and grows faster

What are the rodent examples given by Turchikinz?

The Lemmings and Vole family rodents

What were the quantitiative results of the SPB study? (median dispersion distance)

The Median Dispersal distance (an area enclosing 50% of dispersers, was .7 km)

What are the environmental effects of there being more water in the Southern Hemipshere? What differences in temperatue occur in coastal regions?

The Southern Hemisphere has less variable weather due to the high amount of water, as well as higher frequency of rain.. Similarly, the high water present on the Coast Lines results in less variable weather

What was the St. Paul island reindeer example?

The US put Reindeer on Alaskan island to give people food. They overshot like crazy and had a massive die off

What is the relation of natural selection and behavioral ecology?

The behavior of an animal is often related to what makes the most sense for its survival

What is Hamilton's rule?

The benefit to the kin must be greater than the cost times the coefficient of relatedness E.g.) I would lay down my life for (more than) two brothers or eight cousins

What is a poikilotherm?

The body temperature varies with the environment ex: Antelope squire can withstand body temps of 104*C! Not all pokilotherms are ectotherms, but a lot of em sure are

Summarize the Desert Biome

The book is annoyingly different than her slides but **** it. >20*C Temperatue Rainfall ~0mm, usually <100mm Climate diagram is conflicting, but either ALWAYS almost no rain, temp can be seasonal or not seasonal tbh Very little lives in deserts. entire year is a growing season. Small trees and cacti live here, and soil is devoid of life and neutral pH

What is a defensive mutualism example given (ants and stuff)? What does each species gain in return?

The bull-horn acacia and pseudomyrmex ants, the holes and thorns in the trees provide protection for the ants by providing nesting sites. It also provides food for the ants as well. Carbohydrate producing nectaries are at the bases of the leaves, and oil and protein rich beltian bodies are at the tips of the leaves If you touch an acacia tree, the ants come out and it becomes covered in ants, so touching one would be equal. Insect herbivores are eaten by the ants that are on the plant

What are the components of the death rate of the prey?

The functional and the numerical rates.

What is the linkage of the C Cycle to global energy flux? What are the assimilatory and dissimilatory processes?

The carbon cycle is the focal point of energy transformations Principal classes of carbon-cycling processes Assimilatory/dissimalatory processes: photosynthesis and respiration Exchange of CO2 between atmosphere and oceans Sedimentation of carbonates

What is community succession?

The change (often predictable() that occurs in the structure and composition of the community following disturbance which may lead back to pre-disturbance conditions Disturbances are events that remove organisms from a community (via mortality) and open up space for new individuals Sometimes new species will come, sometimes old species will return instead

What was Gleason's perspective?

The community is the chance association of species whose adaptations and ecological requirements are similar, coexistence is requirement based, not evolution based. divergent evolution, not coevolution, there is no boundary between communities it's all random

What is inbreeding depression?

The decline in average fitness that takes place when homozygosity increases and heterozygosity decreases in a population Simply: Smaller populations lead to inbreeding and less genetic diversity

What is the coefficient of relatedness?

The degree at which someone is related to you Sibling: .5 Cousin: .125

Summarize Primary production/productivity, what is GPP? What is the difference between productivity and production?

The energy accumulated by autotrophs (green plants) Energy is stored in chemical bonds of organic molecules Primary productivity: The rate of primary production units: kcal/m^2y Note the difference in total production vs productivity (the derivative) GPP: The rate at which the sun's energy is assimilated

Where has the least seasonable variation?

The equator/tropic region, sun is always hitting them relatively directly

What can you determine using a colonization extinction curve?

The equilibrium number of species present on the island The equilibrium number is the number of species that should theoretically "fit" on the island, irrespective of the turnover rate of the species

What theory was discovered by MA and W

The equilibrium theory of island biogeography The number ion species on an island depends on a balance between immigration rates and extinction rates

What are ectomycorrhizae?

The etomycorrhizae is formed by a close association between certain fungi and the roots of plants. The fungi facilitate the uptake of minerals and water by the plant and the plant supplies carbohydrates to the fungus for growth.

What is allopatric speciation?

The formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another. e.g.) A river forms, seperating two species of buffalo, over time they begin to differentiate, and when the river dries they can no longer reproduce (new species!)

What is the definition of Functional response? What is the chemical reaction analogy? What is the relationshhip between Prey density and Prey killed by a predator?

The functional relationship between the killing of prey by an individual predator and prey density In terms of a "reaction" the rate of reaction (prey being eaten) is proportional to the amount of prey per predator They are linear related

What is the effect of mycorrhizal fungus on the growth of tomato plants? (In low and high nutrient conditions)

The fungus being present results in further growth of the plant, in high nutrient condition it isn't a big difference but in low nutrient environments the difference is quite pronounced

Summarize Ruderal plants

The have a fast life history and often devote a lot of their energy to reproduction They deal with HIGH DISTURBANCE, theyre well dispersed and have long lived seeds Examples: Dandelions, Canadian Thistle Vulnerabilities: Competition and Stress

What is the Simpson's index?

The index that has a 0-S number Has a larger penalty for unevenness

What determines the cyclic amplitude of the LVPPM? What is neutral stability?

The initial conditions/populations of the population There is one very interesting feature of the LVM, that is as you go on a cycle, if you never diverge from it its called neutral stability The closer you start to the middle point the lower the amplitude of your cycles. It is known as neutral stability because the projector ends up being a small circle barely cycling between phases.

Why is measles almost extinct? What was the length of the traditional measles cycle?

The invention of the MMR vaccine. Herd immunity means you were blocking the spread of measles even if not 100% of people are vaccinated The traditional measles cycle was two years, resulting from it sweeping through crowded locations

What is the Florida Scrub Jay example?

The jays feed their kiddos and such and when their kids grow they help the parents raise further kids. This makes sense as it helps them pass on kids

What is coevolution?

The joint evolution of two or more species in close ecological interaction over time each species exerts selection pressure on the other This is why the growth rates are very important, they are closely related to selection pressure

What allows the cycles of voles to occur?

The lagged/delayed response of weasel gestation drives the cycle (4tau). When weasels are in high abundance they can drive prey density to very low numbers essentially you have many extinctions of vole populations in repeat. Also weasels reproduce a lot less often than voles do!

What is Maximum sustainable yield?

The largest yield (or catch) that can be taken from a species' stock over an indefinite period Under the assumptions of the logistic growth model, MSY is obtained when the population is maintained at half the carrying capacity More generally yield is maximized neither at very low, nor high (near K) values. An attempt to harvest at a greater rate leads to collapse of the colony

What is the solar equator?

The latitude receiving the most direct rays of the sun

How do we know that the weasel vole theory was correct?

The model and the actually data are very close

How good was the comparison between data and model predicted dynamics of competition?

The model captured a LOT of the data's trends

What is the trend with carbon dioxide?

The monthly mean carbon dioxide has been increasing at an almost exponential rate. Carbon flux and carbon dioxide concentrations have also been increasing

What is diversity stability?

The more species that are in a community, the more stable it is

What were the results of the Mangrove experiment?

The near islands very rapidly adjusted back to where they were, around 180 days. They're closer which allows more colonization The far islands haven't even approached the predafunation numbers, even at a year Overall it was a good experimental confirmation of the model. In summary: SW manipulated mangrove islands in Florida by killing all the insects and spiders, after a year species numbers were similar to numbers found before the experiment and islands closest to a source of colonizers had the most species

What is richness? What is abundance?

The number of species (S)? Number of individuals (N)

What is the fittest individual in a Life History? What is an optimized life history?

The one with the most surviving offspring An optimized life history is one that accounts for the demands of both survival and reproduction

Why do lions and tigers exhibit different social behaviors?

The open plains makes group hunting a better idea for lions. Tigers rely on stealth and as such can be alone in the jungle without needing to share, a group may even be a detriment

What determines the degree of competition?

The overlap of their niches

What is the interglacial period?

The period between ice Ages

What are the two factors for an organism's survival?

The physical environment of the organism, and extreme environmental conditions

What is the special case of Pollination of the orchid Stanhope grandiflora by the bee eulaema merino

The plant evolved elaborate arrangements that evolved to ensure cross-pollination. The plants use specialists to make sure that they cross pollinate among the same species The bee enters though a specific way, it falls and picks up some pollen then leaves through a specific way. This ensures that the bee only can pollinate, making sure that it's a specialist pollinator and allows cross-pollination

What is the population trend in Montana? How does the USDA play into the population?

The population of phillips County peaked at 9.3k, it was 4600 in 2000, and most residents are retirees. USDA pays subsidies of $11 million per year to 1,000 farmers and ranchers in Phillips county

How is the location of the ITCZ determined?

The position that the Hadley cells meet

What is the reason that vole populations go through cycles? What type of equilibrium would happen if you exterminated weasels?

The predation by weasels, grass population and voles would enter a stable equilibrium, not cycles bc you can't hunt grass to extinction

What is the logic of specialist predation hypotheses for vole cycles? What was the behavior of the prey, the weasels? How would you modal this?

The prey self limited by social inhibition of breeding, reduced food, and reduced emigration The weasels had a lagged numerical response, and drove the prey density to very low numbers (this is the result of winter predation and no defenses) To model this you should use the RMAM instead of LVM, you do this by including type II response into LVM.

What is sympatric speciation?

The process through which new species evolve from a single ancestral species while inhabiting the same geographic region e.g.) One genetic mutation causes buffalo to eat other buffalo (gasp!) over time, these buffalo occupy a different niche than the other buffalo, and eventually become their own species without a geographic barrier. It can ALSO be caused by polyploidy, and the example in class involved cichids in a lake :o

What was the rabbit coevolution example?

The rabbit mortality was high initially, but resistant alleles in rabbits increased in frequency, less virulent strains of the virus spread more easily and became predominant. Eventually species that survive ONE outbreak will survive more until there are less virulent strains the parasite and the host both evolved

What is a Niche?

The range of abiotic and biotic conditions an organism can tolerate

What is the founder effect?

The reduced genetic diversity that results when a population is descended from a small number of colonizing ancestors. e.g.) 3-4 buffalo leave a large herd to colonize a new plain, this results in the new population being less genetically diverse, and more similar to the original 3-4 buffalo.

What are the population dynamics of reindeer?

The reindeer have boosts and busts, their populations erupt than collapse They were introduced in case the soldiers need to hunt reindeers if the supply lines are collapsed The reindeer populations were introduced to a virgin environment, when they were introduced there was very thick mosses, that took years to grow. Then when they ate it all they died :(

How do you find the risk of predation from the type graph?

The risk of predation is functionally the derivative of the function

What was the soybean nodule example given in class?

The roots give a chemical signal that attract rhizobium bacteria, they use the growth of the root hairs to enter. The root nodule results in the formation of a channel between the outside of the root and the inside

Where is phosphorus found most?

The sediments, 840 million tons, 19,000 in mineable rock, etc. Sediments are the main sinks of phosphorus Phosphorus is lost from terrestrial ecosystems and the only way for it to come back are events like uplifts of phosphorus rocks or volcanic eruptions.

What is life history?

The series of changes undergone by an organism during its lifetime

What is the relationship between patch size and extinction

The smaller the size of the patch the higher the rate of extinction

Why are the poles colder than the rest of the earth?

The solar radiation travels a longer distance and is spread out over a larger area

How do plants conserve water?

The stomata opens and closes based upon water coming in or out When the stomata opens to allow CO2 to enter for transpiration, it can let water out.

What is Phenology?

The study of cyclic and seasonal natural phenomena, especially in relation to climate and plant and animal life.

What is inclusive fitness?

The sum of direct and indirect fitness

What affects food web complexity? (3)

The total number of species: Increasing species richness is associated with the increased food web complexity and the number of trophic levels The number of links per species Presence of omnivory: Feeding on more than one trophic level

What is El Nino?

The trade winds switch between Peru and Australia, typical upwelling doesn't occur and a lot of rain follows a lack of plant and animal life (starved by lack of upwelling)

Where is the highest species diversity in the ocean?

The tropics, near coastlines. The lowest point is the arctic near the poles

Bioremediation

The use of living organisms to detoxify and restore polluted and degraded ecosystems

What was the weasel vole example given of energy?

The weasel is a large boi, but it can follow the vole into its hole to mark it. it has a very unfavorable SA:V ratio, there is a lot of skin bc its a skinny boi, as a result of the weasels living in a very harsh environment. As a result, they burn about 99% of the energy they consume to make themselves warm Efficiencies are always in the eye of the beholder, in many ways the weasels have been optimized to hunting the voles, as such their energy efficiency makes sense

Why are habitats so interspersed?

The world is "patchy": hetereogenous

What is the ice sheet example of global warming?

The world's ice sheets are shrinking, faster and faster. A possible reason is that as more land becomes ice free, black earth around it begins absorbing heat and melting the ice over time The trend as of 2014 was exponential, as of 2018 was more linear luckily.

What are the characteristics of herbivores? Why is their life a hard knock life?

Their life isnt wonderful, they are between the devil and the deep blue sea They are located in the middle of the food chain, they have bottom-up and top-down influences on their population. The bottom-up means that plants don't want to be eaten and evolve adaptations. Bottom up: Plant aparency: If you hard to find your predation risk is low, many herbacious plants are low in plant apparency. Top-down Many herbivores go in population cycles, because they are under attack by a lot of things

What are the resulting processes from ingestion of matter? What is secondary production?

There are two herbivory based food chains that are based on life biomes, one thats based on dead organic matter The results are pretty much the same Ingestion->Assimilation/excretion-> Respiration/production Production->Storage/growth Once energy is ingested, some of it is assimilated, part of it is excreted. Once it is assimilated essentially energy goes into either growth or respiration Production from first level goes into secondary and etc.

What was the Snowball Earth hypothesis? What was the opposite? Why was it controversial?

There were periods of snowball earth, where there was ice everywhere, 650 min ya, before the Phanerozoic There were also periods of ice free earth when the world was HAWT An earth covered in snowball would reflect a lot of light, how would it come out of it

What were the ice Age temperature changes? When did humans come into this?

There were tons of periods with lots of ice, and low, it was like an up down up down When temperature was higher, we started seeing in history that humans were making bows and arrows and complex tools, good stuff! If we keep meddling we will get to jurassic szn!

What was the mite example? What kind of cycle does this show?

There's a predator and a prey mite, the prey mites Theres a predator and prey reaction that the cycles dampen, eventually the predators and prey enter a stable equilibrium

What is thermohaline circulation, and what is its significance?

Thermohaline circulation Is a global pattern of surface and deepwater currents that results in the mixing of water, that results from differences in salinity and temperature, which change the density of the water. It results in upwelling along the coasts of the ocean, the saltier water starts in the North atlantic, it sinks and then flows along the ocean floor until it rises to the top again

What is the main use of the Lotka Volterra equations?

They allow you to determine the equilibrium conditions of two species, and when they are stable, at a stand still, or at the end point of competition

What is the cause and role of upwelling?

They are where surface currents move away from Western coastlines, Cold high nutrient water is brought to the surface and productivity increases

Explain the example given comparing Marine Toads to Sockeye Salmon?

They both live the same and have same parental care, however the Toad produces 10x the offspring. This is because competition hurts the salmon offspring a lot, whereas toads are going for quantity over quality.

What are the examples given comparing the Short-tailed Albatross to the African elephant?

They both show examples of investing in their offspring. They care for them and only have a small amount, this is another life history strategy.

How do sharks (and some rays) conserve water

They convert ammonia into urea (like mammals), this results in a high circulating concentration of urea in the blood stream To counter this potential for protein damage, they also circulate trimethylamine oxide in the blood to prevent damage to proteins

Why are the r and L models not accurate for determining population? What are the factors that limit pop. (type and examples)

They dont take into account density Density limits the overall size of populations, there are also density independent factors Density related: Resources, disease Density independent: Natural disasters

How do conifer forests affect ecotones?

They drop their needles establishing acidic soil for them to bool in, resulting in a sharp difference between steppe and conifer forest Fire can kill conifers, this helps ensure the change is sharp. There are feedback loops with fire and such, the ecotone can be changed by climate change but that takes time

What was special about CO2 and temperature in the early times? What does the graph show?

They fluctuated by orders of magnitude The graph demonstrates the spiking of CO2 in the past 400 million years ago, there were periods of high CO2 and very high temperature. During the jurassic period there were no glaciers CO2 was 20x higher in Paleozoic compared to today

How do mosses disperse according to Turchikinz

They get stuck to the birdies and disperse when THEY disperse to new places okurrrrr

What do cock of the rocks do?

They have a very loud and extreme mating call, can attract predators

How to plants adapt to the temperatures that they most commonly inhabit

They have enzymes that function best at the temperatures that they commonly occupy

How do fire resistant perennials respond to fire in the vicinity of them?

They have fire resistant root crowns that send out shoots in response to fire

What is the digestive adaptation of a herbivore?

They have longer digestive tracts and rumens, rumens hold bacteria usually that assist with digestion Ruminants mean that an organism can chew food later that it consumed. This allows it to digest when its safe from predation

What is the difficulty with the structure of territory and dominance hierarchies?

They have to organize resource access, and dominant males get more food Example: Male Sage Grousse: The non-alpha males don't get much mating, the alpha does 80% of the mating

What did MacArthur and Wilson do?

They plotted bird species richness and island area for a group of islands off New Guinea They determined that islands of equal size had more species if they were closer to New Guinea (Islands that are closer have more succession)

How does the Virginia Pepperweed deal with herbivores?

They produce hairs and compounds that make the plants hard to chew. (glucosinolates)

What were the dispersion results of the SPB?

They tried 500m, (using pheromones traps), then they tried 1k meters and etc. They found beetles in a lot of places They ran the beetles under UV light in the lab and found them far away They used mathimatical models to determine the distances that they were 50%, 67%, and 95% population contained at

What happened to the wolf population after introduction?

They went up until 2004, now they are in equilibrium. As the density increased, reproduction and survival rates declined

What was the prickly pear cactus example? What was the solution to the problem?

They were introduced bc they make dye and are pretty, ended up TAKING over Cactus moths were introduced, they MERKED a lot of the population of cacti, resulting in a control of the population

Summarize the Lake and Pond biomes? What are the zones of lakes and ponds? (Hint: LLPB)

Three characteristics: Non-flowing systems, freshwater, and some areas too deep for plants to rise above the surface LLPB Zones Littoral Zone: Shallow area around the edge carrying rooted vegetation Limnetic Zone: Open water beyond the littoral zone, where dominant photosynthetic organisms float (phytoplankton) Profundal Zone: Too deep for sunlight, little O2 Benthic Zone: Bottom, habitat for burrowing organisms They go through seasonal cycles depending on temperature of mixing

What is unique about dog breeds and genetics?

Three genes control the fur composition of 95% of dogs. These 3 alleles lead to 7 coat types, a very interesting example of genetic diversity

What is tolerance in the CSM?

Tolerance: A variety of different species may colonize a site. Later on the better competitors come to dominate the site Example: Forest succession in new England, earlier trade species come to be the faster growers, eventually better competitors win though

What was the moose wolf example? What does this show about kill rate/prey density?

Torching characterized the density of the moose and then the rate of which the wolves killed them. Eventually the kill rate becomes saturated. The wolves kill and eat the moose. As such the kill rate saturates because wolves can't spend their entire time killing moose because they wouldn't have time to do anything but to kill and eat moose

What is self-thinning?

Trees get shaded out and die reducing the number of trees, results in equally distribution

What is the pine cone example given in class?

Trees that make more cones are smaller, they put less energy towards reproduction Aka width and pine cone production are negatively correlated

What are the types of interactions?

Trophic: resource-consumer (+,-) Commensalism: +,0 Amensalism: 0,0 Mutualism: +,+ Competition -,-

What type of competition is expoloitave competition?

True competition, whoever can survive at the lowest quantity of food WINS

What competition is true, what isnt

True: Intereference, exploitive Not: Apparent

What was Turchin's research? What beetles are there? What do they do? What is its importance

Turchin studied the dispersal of the southern pine beetle. The grow in the pines in the west, theyre used for paper and such. They grow very rapidly, in 15-20 years From the point of the forest industry, they're pests. They kill trees, theyre predators not parasites. The beetles steal nutrients from the tree, and when their larvae hatch they tunnel into the tree killing it

What was Turchin's example of exponential growth?

Turkey szn! Turkeys grow a lot, and the constant increase on the log scale represents no density dependent inhibition.

What are complete competitors?

Two distinct species that live in the same place and have exactly the same ecological requirements

What is the protist example shown in the competitive exclusion principle? How did it demonstrate the result of a single resource exclusion (persisting species principle)

Two protists grown with bacteria as a food source, grown together only one survived. The persisting species is the one that can drive the resource abundance the lowest and not go extinct.

What was the protist example from class?

Two species of protist were demonstrated to have two different inherent Ks, but they got Ks nonetheless

What is the vampire bat example?

Vampire bats will share blood meals with an unsuccessful bat, it seems like altruism but its so when the unsuccessful bat is successful it can then share back (apparent altruism)

What were the examples given of predator prey capture rate/what is the traits of the types of functional response?

Type 1: Rarely seen in nature, results in a linear relationship between prey present and prey caught Type 2: common among specialist predators, they eventually are overwhelmed by prey and can't catch/eat anymore than the are, resulting in a saturation point (Wolves and moooooses) Type 3: Present among predators that are generalist. The immediate acceleration is due to changing habitat, type of prey, and specific image recognition that allows them to hone in on a certain type of prey immediately and increase rapidly the rate of capture. Slow down occurs for the same reason as type II

What are the three types of Functional response?

Type I: / Type 2: /- Type 3: _/-

What is the difference between predator and prey populations in terms of peak cycles?

Typically the distance of 1/4 cycle, because of the four scenario depiction of the graph

What are other examples besides Monarch Butterfly of aggregation (UP)?

Unpalatable organisms also aggregate sometmes. bugs to catepillars.

What is mullerian mimicry?

Unpalatable species come to resemble eachother

What is environmental stochasticity?

Unpredictable changes in the environment that can cause changes in birth and death rates, can lead to extinction Unpredictable environmental changes

What are equilibrium conditions?

Using LV: When one species has an observed growth of 0, Two species have a growth of 0 too. The two-species equilibrium is the important one

What is the point of photosynthesis? What pigments are there and what do they absorb?

Using sunlight absorbed through chlorrophyl/other pigments to provide energy for photosynthetic synthesis of sugars Chloro: Absorbs red and blue, reflects green Carotenoids: Absorb blue and green, reflect red yellow and orange

What is demographic stochasticity? (One cause of demographic stochasticity)

Variation in birth rates and death rates due to random differences among individuals (births and deaths etc.) Four populations with identical starting points can end up at different points at the end of the time course IMPORTANT IN SMALL POPULATIONS NOT REALLY LARGE POPULATIONS

Summarize the Boreal Forest Biome

Very cold <5* average temperature 50-1000mm rainfaill, Diagram has low temperatures with seasonal variation, much higher rain than tundras, lower growing season and no dry season Evergreen trees are the primary vegetation, with year round needles (no shedding) Largest source of organic carbon, matter decomposes slowly. Important for lumber and paper.

What is the significance of trophic interaction and population size/carrying capacity?

Very important in terms of predation, the population response of predators to prey results in the determination of carrying capacity quite often

Why is the flu more common in the winter?

Virus particles survive better in the colder and drier air of the winter

What is the importance of atmosphere transparency?

Visible light is transparent through the atmosphere, its much more opaque to longwave radiation. Because the atmosphere reflects different proportions of light, we have an effect where most of the visible light comes through but most of the infrared light gets trapped

Who were the fathers of the Lotka-Volterra predator prey model?

Vito Volterra's son in law was a fishery guy, and Volterra got his interest piqued Charles Elton was a british ecologist who can be considered the father of animal ecology Elton saw population cycles in rodents, he thought it was young rodents/climate, in reality it POSSIBLY WASNT. The predator-prey interaction wasn't taken into account as a possibility

What was the event of mount St. Helen?

Volcano erupted, killed errytlang

Why does seasonal mixing of water depend on temperature?

Water becomes denser as it cools to 4*C, but then less dense below 4. This means that water cools to 4, sinks, but then as it cools farther rises to form a layer of ice on the surface of the lake/pond

Why does the Southern Hemisphere have smaller annual temperature variations than the Northern Hemisphere?

Water cools and heats up slower, the NH has less water more land so temperate changes faster

What adaptations are present to help aquatic organisms conserve O2? Why do they need these adaptations?

Water is 1% oxygen by volume, different than ait which is 21% FIsh use counter-current exchange at gills, this allows them to get the most oxygen through water exposure. Many zooplankton can produce more hemoglobin for storage, this turns them red Some fish and tadpoles swim to the surface to gulp air for swim bladders or primitive lungs

How do animals adapt to Water Stress? Desert Kangaroo rat, Marine Iguana?

Water stress for urine: Animals convert ammonia into urea and uric acid to save water. Desert Kangaroo rat has special kidneys, Marine iguana secretes salt out his nose

What are the commercial catches of four whale species?

We hunted a lot of whales, we overfished them and as a result their populations collapsed :(

What was the role of weasels in the cycles of voles?

Weasels: Specialist predators of voles, their primary food source is small rodents, Voles have no natural defenses against weasels, and when voles are low weasels rapidly starve to death. Intrinsic rate of population increase of weasels is lower than that of voles Fact: Mice can escape weasels much more likely than voles can

Weather vs Climate

Weather is temporary, irregular, and unpredictable Climate is long term, and consistent over time

What were the questions presented about global warming?

What is the role of carbon CO2/CH4 in global warming? (Theory: greenhouse effect) Is temperature rising? Are concentrations of greenhouse gases rising? Are these two processes connected? Empirical evidence, climate simulation models What are the likely impacts of global warming

How did you do the food pyramid question?

Whatever the efficiency of the human vegetarians are, thats the base. Carnivores can only eat from that base (cattle = vegetarians in this example) As such if the efficiency is 5% for carnivores, they get 1/20th the energy as the "base" (vegetarians). Just use the carnivore biomass

What is the lion infanticide example?

When Male Lions take over a pride, they kill the infants so the female lions will enter heat sooner and be able to reproduce

What is pleiotropy? What is CFTR and how does it relate?

When a gene has multiple effects on an individuals phenotype CFTR is the channel affected by cystic fibrosis mutations. Its dysfunction leads to a dysfunction in many organs of the body. A single gene having an effect on multiple parts of the body

What is fragmentation?

When a habitat is broken apart, meta-populations form based upon this breaking up of population

How do trees defend against pine beetles?

When a hole is punctured in a tree pitch flows out of it, this plugs the hole and keeps the beetle out.

What is metamorphosis?

When a juvenile turns into an adult, barking tree frog is an example. The earlier it happens the smaller the resulting adult is but the safer it is

What is bog succession?

When a lake turns into a bog, an example of primary succession

What is delayed density dependence? What is the coefficient assigned to time delay?

When dependence occurs based on density at some point in the past after reproduction and gestation Start with the logistical growth model At tau as time delay (gestation period), 600 days etc. New formula: dNt/dt=rNt(1-(N{t-T}/K)

What is the confusion effect?

When the predator has to decide which creature to eat and makes the predator disoriented, sometimes taking enough time for the prey to get away e.g.) Zebras have stripes that make them hard to see and pick off

What is the phenotype example of the Siamese cat/himilayan rabbit?

When the rabbit or cat's fur gets cold, t turns darker its a feature of the temperate climate

What was the gyrfalcon example?

When the royals used the gyrfalcons to hunt prey, they were in high demand and their populations fluctuated frequently. Until the hunting went out of sport and the people stopped importing them

When is the growing season?

When the temperature is above 0-5* C, highlighted months on the bottom

Why do animals migrate?

When their environment gets too cold, or when food or water is hard to find, they migrate to areas with more food and other nutrients they need last resort when acclimation becomes too costly

What is a trophic cascade?

When top consumers reduce the biomass of the next lowest trophic level and this reduction cascades down food chain

What factors determine the impact of a pest? What control approaches are there for pests?

Whether a pest simply removes host biomass or is a disease factor ex: Aphids can spread disease, the effect is greatly multiplied Which part of the plant is attacked Direct pests: Higher damage, because they destroy tree Indirect pests: Usually mites, Control approaches Chemical: Pesticides Mechanical: Physical stuff Biological: natural enemies of pests Integrated pest management: All of the above

What is the general condition for exponential growth

While environmental influences stay constant, populations grow exponentially In practice, we see it when a small number of individuals is released into a favorable environment

What's the weird pyramid diagram called?

Whittaker's diagram

What was the debate about the earth being green?

Why is the earth green if you have herbivores: it HAS to be the lack of predators OR because plants fight back

How do organisms adapt to cold through tolerance? (Amphibians and birds)

Willow tit can withstand really cold temperatures, and undergo nocternal hypothermia Amphibians: Amphibians can freeze solid at cold temperatures, allowing them to withstand cold temperatures

What was the landscape difference between before and after wolf reintroduction?

Wolf reintroduction resulted in the killing of animals, lots of dead bois, but grass returned, ravens returned, the grass was back too, overgrazing was gone The Landscape looked very different

What type of predator is a wolf, what was triggered when they were introduced?

Wolves are an apex predator Their reintroduction triggered a trophic cascade Direct and indirect effects percolated throughout the YNP system

What do wolves do to coyotes? What effect was there

Wolves chase down and mark coyotes, a 50% reduction in their population in the northern range of yellowstone resulted

What was the example of predation by wolves structures in the yellowstone community?

Wolves exterminated in YNP in the 1920s because ranchers wanted their plants, No willow or aspen regeneration, all new shoots were grazed to death Wolves were brought back in 1995, wolf populations have been increasing and currently all parts of YNP have packs, willows have been absent for decades but now are coming back Wolves were introduced, and now they're back.

How do organisms adapt to cold through hibernation?

Woodchucks and Chipmunks can hibernate through cold temperatures by lowering respiration rate and body temp to survive through the winter.

What was the graphical result of the tundra mouse survey?

You can see very clear cycles of population every 5 years of the rodents Mice live in the taiga and the survey was taken in the tundra boo

What was the catch and effort of yellowish in eastern atlantic?

You catch more at better effort until you reach a certain point, you gotta keep it at K/2

What was the laboratory example of Didinium and paramecium?

You introduce your paramecium, and they do quite well, and the didinium eats them all, all the prey die and everyone is dead after a single cycle (really freakin anticlimactic)

What is the issue with keeping the stomata closed?

You lose less water, but you also get really hot and store too much energy in the light arrays. Also cannot absorb CO2, becomes a problem for the plant.

What was the latitudinal diversity gradient?

You see more species around the equator, and species richness near the poles are lower, as a gradient

What is capture mark recapture? What are the assumptions?

You use it to estimate abundance (N) Capture and mark a number of animals from the study population (M) You capture and release, then re capture after a set period of time and resample from the same population. You use the amount of second capture animals that are marked to extrapolate what percentage they were of the population, then use math to solve N=nM/x Assumptions: Animal markings aren't lost, the animals are equally likely to be caught, they mix thoroughly between samples. Also no change in population size, no deaths, births, immigration, emigration.

What is the synergy of the yucca and yucca moth?

Yuccas are only pollinated by yucca moths, which depend entirely on yucca moths for their survival Females collect pollen then actively pollinate flowers after laying eggs, the larvae feeds on developing seeds, pollination for the moth is a form of parental care as it increases odds of survival for the larvae The larvae don't eat all the seeds, so the plant benefits, because its so reliable they don't attract generalist pollinators, they rely solely on moths Mutualisms are cool

What does benthic mean?

bottom of the ocean

What is the formula for the Logistic (LOGISTIC NOT GEOMETRIC) formula of population growth?

dN/dt = rN(1-(N/K))

What are the isocline formulas in the LVM, what are the simplifications of the isoclines?

dN/dt=rN-aNP=0 dP/dt=baNP-mP=0 P=r/a N=m/ba At the isoclines the rate of change of the populations is 0! Letters used on the test are amb hopefully

What is the formula for the Linear functional response? If it isn't realistic, then why is it available?

f(R)=aR There are few real life examples of true type 1 functional response The main point is that the graph is the caricature of the actual kill rate.

What does lotic mean?

flowing water in a biome (Rivers and streams are lotic)

what are the four types of consumers?

herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, detrivores

What is a selfish herd?

individuals behaving selfishly try to position themselves so that as many of their companions as possible are between them and a predator Three frogs around a pond, a snake emergences daily, then grabs the nearest frog in a random direction. The frog in the widest area feels scared, the frog then moves between the other two Animals can position themselves to make their chance of getting SNATCHED minimal. They dont care about the group, they just want to minimize their personal chance of getting eaten Also predator dilution effect is very similar.

What is the Niche distribution model? (Definition of a niche)

niche = n-dimentional hypervolume of environmental conditions in which a population has positive growth A graph showing the potential conditions that an organism can survive in Simply: The range of conditions where the population preforms well

What does the Coriolis effect do?

pushes winds to the right of the intended path Northern hemisphere- right southern hemisphere- left

What is the difference between r and K selected populations?

r: Faster, abundant resources and low competition, lots of offspring (dandelions, fruit flies) K: Slower, populations hover around K, a more stable population model (elephants, oak trees)

What is the mathematical significance of r

r=b-d b>d r=+ (GROWTH) d>b r=- (SHRINKING) d=b r=0 (plateau)

What are the three rules for r*tau (time delay) (Three patterns)

rtau<.37 -> Approach K without oscillations .37<rt<1.57 -> Dampened oscilations rt>1.57 -> Stable limit cycle large regular oscillations continue (CYCLIC OVERSHOOT AND DIE OFF)

What are endomycorrhizae?

symbiotic fungi that helps plants absorb water and nutrients, they enter the actual root covering of the plant

What are the axises of the Lotka Volterra model?What do the variables r, a, m, and b mean?

y axis: r/a (Number of predators (P)) x axis: m/ba (Number of prey (N)) r= intrinsic growth rate a= Prey capture efficiency m= predator death rate b= reproductive rate of the predator