ENGLISH 4 COLLEGE PREP : MODULE 01 : LESSON 07 INTRO: EVALUATING YOUR WRITING

Improper shifts

Improper shifts in tense occur when a writer improperly changes tense within a written piece. Some shifts can occur, but they must be supported by context.

Period

Period The period [.] marks the end of a sentence. Make sure an independent clause—a subject and verb—comes somewhere before the period. The period says to the reader, "This is where the statement ends." "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."—Declaration of Independence "I have a dream." —Martin Luther King, Jr.

Colon

Colon Think of the colon [:] as a sort of spotlight shining on what follows. It's a useful punctuation mark because it can: indicate a list, separate a cause from an effect, or expand on what has come before it. The colon says to the reader, "Focus on what follows me for more information on what has just been written." The seven years' difference in our ages lay between us like a chasm: I wondered if these years would ever operate between us like a bridge."—James Baldwin

Comma

Comma Commas [,] serve multiple purposes. Mainly, though, a comma separates an independent clause from any dependent clauses or phrases. In compound sentences with two or more independent clauses, a comma is used along with a conjunction. Another use is setting off non-essential information from the main independent clause. Commas say to the reader, "Here is where the main information in the sentence begins or ends." "To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men, that is genius." (Ralph Waldo Emerson). Notice how Emerson uses commas to separate "To believe..." from the main clause of "that is genius." "Ralph Waldo Emerson, who lived to the age of 78, was a leader of the Transcendentalist movement." Notice the commas used to set off the non-essential information (that Emerson lived to 78).

Comma Errors

Comma Errors [image of graded paper with lots of red marks] Commas are at the heart of many common errors. Remember that the comma is a tool to clarify parts of the sentence. Finding Finding comma errors is a matter of carefully re-reading what you've written for clarity. Imagine how someone else would read each sentence. Are independent clauses clearly separated from dependent clauses? Fixing Consider inserting or removing commas if there is any issue of clarity. Try It! Fix the comma error below, using the text box. Then reveal a solution. Hint: Read the sentence below carefully. You may need to read it twice. That's a sure sign that there is a comma error! Unless there is a basic understanding of grammar teachers and students do not have a common vocabulary to talk about their writing. Reveal Without the comma separating the dependent clause from the independent clause, it is unclear what requires a "a basic understanding." Unless there is a basic understanding of grammar, teachers and students do not have a common vocabulary to talk about their writing.

Comma Splices

Comma Splices [image of wires spliced together] This error is a simple matter of punctuation. Knowing the difference between an independent clause and a dependent clause is usually enough to correct these. Finding Commas are not used to create a pause. Look for areas where you wish the reader to "take a breath." If you are using a comma in that situation, then you are probably making this error. Fixing Comma splices are easily corrected by using either a period or a semicolon. Don't be shy about using a period to signal the end of thought. If you want to indicate a relationship between two independent clauses, then use either a semicolon or a conjunction. Try It! Fix the comma splice below using the text box. Then reveal a solution. Stem cell research poses tough ethical choices, doctors decide who will benefit from the therapy. Reveal This run-on combines two independent clauses. Just as with comma splices, don't be shy about creating two sentences or separating the clauses using a semicolon. Stem cell research poses tough ethical choices; doctors decide who will benefit from the therapy.

Dash

Dash A dash [—] can be used in place of a colon when you want to suddenly reveal— or expand on— what has come before it. A pair of dashes allows the writer to sandwich information into a sentence. The dash says to the reader, "This too!" or, in the case of a pair of dashes, "We're going to jump to something else before finishing the last thought." "Life does not consist mainly—or even largely—of facts and happenings. It consists mainly of the storm of thoughts that is forever blowing through one's head."—Mark Twain.

Why Correct Writing Mechanics Matter

Editing to correct mechanical mistakes comes after you have a solid draft of your writing. You should wait to work on the sort of technical revisions we'll review here so that you can focus on your subject and work through your ideas and insights. It's important in the writing process to have a stage where you can make mechanical mistakes. Unlike editing for style—diction, syntax, and figurative language—editing for mechanical errors can wait until the end of the writing process. That isn't to say, however, that writing correctly is unimportant. There are two very good reasons why correcting these errors matters: Correctness matters because with mechanical errors your writing may be incomprehensible. Distracting errors invite the reader to dismiss your ideas. Since our goal is to communicate a message as effectively as possible, writing mechanics matter.

Formal academic writing

Formal academic writing, the kind you are expected to produce in college, also uses the subjunctive mood in certain situations. The two most common of these are: To express a wish: "I wish I were taller." (not "I wish I was taller.") To express a condition contrary to the facts: "If I were you, I should take the job offer" (not "If I was you, I would take the job offer.")

Writing Mechanics Checklist

In this course, you will demonstrate your learning by writing effective essays. A short checklist of things to look for when revising will help. Correct grammar matters. Make it a habit of revising with this in mind. You want to be clear and not invite the reader to dismiss your ideas because of your mechanics. Check your writing for errors around the independent clause: fragments, comma splices, and run-ons. Every sentence must have a subject and predicate. All independent clauses should be separated from other clauses using a period, a comma and a conjunction, or a semicolon. Check for any confusing sentences. Try to deliberately misread the sentence. If the sentence can be read to mean something other than what you intend, then revise it. Check your pronouns and modifiers. Every pronoun should clearly refer to one noun. Modifiers should be as close as possible to the part of the sentence they modify. Check your commas. A comma is not a pause; it functions to help the reader separate parts of the sentence for clarity. For example, the main clause must always be clearly separate from dependent clauses. Spell check your writing. In addition, check that you are sure of your usage and have checked for commonly misused words. Use this checklist—and, indeed, this lesson—as a reference as you continue on your journey of writing more effectively.

Modification Errors

Modification Errors [image of a bunch of white umbrella's with one yellow one] Words or groups of words which describe, explain, limit, or intensify other elements in the sentence are called modifiers. Modification errors occur when these words are misplaced or appear to modify the wrong word or words. Finding These errors can be difficult to find. Check longer sentences and sentences with one or more prepositional phrases. Fixing Correcting these errors may involve changing a single word or moving whole portions of the sentence. Try to keep modifiers as close as possible to the words they modify. Revise to make the sentence as clear as possible. Try It! Fix the modification errors below using the text box. Then reveal a solution. When the boy was only five years old he caught his first fish with a broken arm. According to tradition, Christopher Columbus landed in the New World and planted the Spanish flag in a rowboat. Reveal The errors in these sentences occur because the modifier is too far removed from the word or words they modify. Grammatically, the first sentence states that the fish had a broken arm rather than the boy. The error in the second sentence implies the Spanish flag was planted in the rowboat rather than in the New World. The boy had a broken arm and was only five years old when he caught his first fish. According to tradition, Christopher Columbus landed his rowboat in the New World and planted the Spanish flag.

Actions in the past

Past tense to indicate an action that occurred in the past I finished my college application yesterday. My partner and I concluded the project last week. Present perfect tense to indicate an action completed at some unknown time in the past The coach has spent many hours on tonight's game plan. They have given the wedding reception careful consideration. Past perfect tense to indicate the action was completed at a point in the past If he had remained at the school, the coach would have been given a large salary increase. Before taking online classes, John had never collaborated using technology.

Patterns of Word Changes

Patterns of Word Changes Some words that we use start off as verbs, but end up being used as nouns, adjectives, and sometimes even adverbs. Sophisticated writers make sure to use the correct form of the word in any given context. Look at these examples: Verb Noun Adjective Adverb Conceive Conception Conceivable Conceivably Deceive Deception Deceivable (or deceptive, depending on the context) Deceptively Deprive Deprivation Deprived Not a typical usage Free Freedom Free Freely Liberate Liberation (or liberty, depending on context) Liberated Not a typical usage Perceive Perception Perceivable (or perceptive, depending on the context) Perceivably (or perceptively, depending on context) Redeem Redemption Redeemable Not a typical usage

Possessive Apostrophe Errors

Possessive Apostrophe Errors [image of two guys jumping to reach for the same football] The apostrophe (') can be used to show letters that are left out—as in a contraction ("don't" for "do not" for example)—or to show possession ("Paige's book" for the "book belonging to Paige"). Adding an apostrophe with an "s" makes a noun a possessive noun. If the apostrophe is missing or placed incorrectly, a singular noun becomes a plural noun. Finding Look for plural nouns and any use of the apostrophe to find this error. Fixing This is one of the easiest errors to correct; either add an apostrophe if the noun is possessive or remove it if you wish to indicate a plural noun rather than a possessive noun. Try It! Fix the possessive apostrophe error below using the text box. Then reveal a solution. The principal did not agree with the school committees recommendations. Reveal The sentence can be read to mean that there is one committee making recommendations or it can be read that there are multiple committees making recommendations. In both cases an apostrophe needs to be added. The principal did not agree with the school committee's recommendations. (a single committee) The principal did not agree with the school committees' recommendations. (more than one committee)

Predication Errors

Predication Errors [mismatched tights] The predicate of a sentence is the verb that tells the reader what the subject does, experiences, or is. The predicate is the verb necessary to create an independent clause. Predication errors are similar to subject-verb agreement errors; there is a mismatch. Finding This is an error that is easy to miss but will be found in the same way you would find subject-verb agreement errors: identify the sentence's subject and make sure the predicate verb describes its action, experience, or state of existence. Fixing You may have to shift parts of the sentence in order to correct this error. Isolate the subject and predicate. If the two don't make sense together, then you'll have to revise. Try It! Fix the predication error below using the text box. Then reveal a solution. The Voting Rights Act controversy was supposed to correct discriminatory election practices in the South. Reveal Adding "controversy" after the subject "Voting Rights Act" creates the predicate error here. Grammatically, the sentence means that the "controversy" was supposed to "correct" election discrimination rather than the Voting Rights Act. The controversial Voting Rights Act was supposed to correct discriminatory election practices in the South.

Actions in the present

Present tense to indicate an action is going on at the present time This recipe tastes fantastic. I am glad to work on this project with a partner. Present tense to express a present fact or accepted truth Working with a partner allows for division of labor. Fresh ingredients are preferred over frozen. Present tense to indicate customary action The school advisory council meets on the first Tuesday of every month. Sabrina walks her dog every morning before class. Present tense used to write about literature, even from the past (this is called "historical present") Shakespeare uses metaphor abundantly in Macbeth to deepen the reader's experience. Lady Macbeth urges her husband to "look like the innocent flower, but be the serpent under it." Present perfect tense used to express time begun in the past that is still continuing I have lived in the city (not am living) for 15 years. I have known (not know) Gracie my whole life. (Notice that the present perfect tense uses an auxiliary verb plus the past participle)

Pronoun Reference Errors

Pronoun Reference Errors [image of a group of people, with one person looking at them in confusion] Pronouns are words that are used as substitutes for nouns (he, she, him, her, they, them, my, some, who, I, it, etc.). There are over 60 common pronouns in English. Errors occur when the pronoun does not match the noun it is a substitute for in either number or gender. Finding Look for any pronoun in your writing that doesn't clearly refer back to a specific noun. If the connection is unclear, it's best to revise. Fixing To fix this error, avoid using too many pronouns. Don't begin a paragraph with a pronoun and always check that you can substitute the original noun for the pronoun without changing a sentence's meaning. If the pronoun creates a subject-verb agreement or predication error, you'll also need to revise. Try It! Fix pronoun reference error below using the text box. Then reveal a solution. College students like younger professors because they can better relate to the challenges they face. Reveal This sentence uses the pronoun "they" twice. In both cases, it is unclear which noun it is a substitute for. For the sake of clarity, the sentence needs to be revised. College students like younger professors because younger professors can better relate to the challenges college students face. Students like younger professors because they can better relate to the challenges of college. College students like younger professors because they can relate to the challenges students face.

Run-on Sentences

Run-on Sentences [image of race, people running] Similar to comma splices, run-on sentences are errors in punctuation. Knowing how to combine clauses solves this common mistake. Finding Sentences that seem to have two main ideas without using a semicolon or a conjunction to join them should be checked carefully. Punctuation signals important information for the reader. When it is missing or used incorrectly, the writing becomes less clear. Fixing Correct run-on sentences by identifying any sentence that seems to have two main ideas or independent clauses. Correct such a sentence by separating independent clauses using a semicolon or conjunction. A simple fix is using a period to create a separate sentence. Try It! Fix the run-on below using the text box. Then reveal a solution. The English language contains many borrowed words most European languages evolve this way. Reveal One possible solution to correct this run-on sentence is to separate it into two separate sentences: The English language contains many borrowed words. Most European languages evolve this way.

incorrect shifts

See if you can spot the incorrect shifts in verb tense in the passage below: SHOW INTERACTIVE Improper Shifts—Text Version Slide 1 [Image of people sitting together and texting] Texting while driving is dangerous, pure and simple. We all know that. Texting while dating, though, was just plain rude. My date and I are sitting down to dinner before going to see a movie. We have been dating for just over a month. During the dinner, John, not his real name, pulls out his phone. We just would order the appetizer, and what should he do? Start sending texts to his friends! Worse yet, he is telling them how the date went. Seriously? I look over at John and tried to get his attention. I smile. I flirted. I will ask him for his crab cake. I even took his crab cake. He has noticed! But he just kept on texting his friends. I finally got up to leave, but not before sending a text of my own: "Enjoy your dinner. I've just broken up with you." Good thing we only met at the restaurant. I drive myself home. Because of improper tense shifts, this paragraph is confusing! Slide 2 Let's take a closer look at all the awkward tense shifts in the paragraph. Texting while driving is (uses present tense correctly to express a fact or accepted truth) dangerous, pure and simple. We all know that. Texting while dating, though, was (should also use present tense to mirror or parallel driving sentence) just plain rude. One evening, my date and I are sitting (the writer should switch to past tense to tell this story, which has already occurred and been completed) down to dinner before going to see a movie. We have been (should use past perfect tense since the couple is no longer together) dating for just over a month. During the dinner, John, not his real name, pulls (the switch to present tense here is a common error and very awkward; the verb should be in past tense) out his phone. We just would order (implies that the two habitually order appetizers) the appetizer, and what should (incorrectly implies an obligation) he do? Start (inappropriate shift to present tense) sending texts to his friends! Worse yet, he is telling (inappropriate shift to present tense) them how the date went(this is a tricky one: in the context of the story, the date is still occurring). Seriously? I look (action in the story should be in past tense here) over at John and tried to get his attention. I smile (action in the story should be in past tense). I flirted. I will ask (action in the story should be in the past tense) him for his crab cake. I even took his crab cake. He has noticed (present perfect not appropriate here: use simple past tense instead)! But he just kept on texting his friends. I finally got up to leave, but not before sending a text of my own: "Enjoy your dinner. I've just broken up with you." Good thing we only met at the restaurant. I drive (complete the action of the story using simple past tense) myself home. Slide 3 Whew! That was a mess, somewhat like the date itself. Here is the corrected version. Notice how the appropriate use of verb tenses makes the story clear. Texting while driving is dangerous, pure and simple. We all know that. Texting while dating, though, is just plain rude. One evening, my date and I were sitting down to dinner before going to see a movie. We had been dating for just over a month. During the dinner, John, not his real name, pulled out his phone. We had just ordered the appetizer, and what did he do? Started sending texts to his friends! Worse yet, he was telling them how the date was going. Seriously? I looked over at John and tried to get his attention. I smiled. I flirted. I asked him for his crab cake. I even took his crab cake. He noticed! But he just kept on texting his friends. I finally got up to leave, but not before sending a text of my own: "Enjoy your dinner. I've just broken up with you." Good thing we only met at the restaurant. I drove myself home.

Semicolon

Semicolon The semicolon [;] has a very limited use; it separates independent clauses that are not connected using a conjunction. The semicolon says to the reader, "What has just been written is related to but independent of what follows." "Alone we can do so little; together we can do so much."—Helen Keller

Sentence Fragments

Sentence Fragments [image of fragmented broken glass] Topping the list of common errors is the sentence fragment. This error is exactly what it sounds like: an incomplete sentence written as a complete sentence. Finding As you read through your draft, look for any sentence that 1) lacks a subject, 2) lacks a predicate (verb that states something about the subject, or 3) is a dependent clause (Remember, a dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence.). Fixing To correct this error you need only provide the missing information. Turn the dependent clause into an independent clause by adding what's missing (a subject, a predicate, or attaching it to an independent clause). Try It! Fix the fragment below using the text box. Then reveal a solution. Begins first thing in the morning at 8:00 a.m. sharp. Reveal This sentence is missing a subject. A corrected sentence might read: English 101 begins first thing in the morning at 8:00 a.m. sharp.

Actions in the future

Shall and will versus should and would In very formal writing, shall is used for the first person future tense and will is used for second and third person: "I shall meet my goals with determination and conviction." (First person) "You will need to complete your application and send the fee." (Second person) "They will attend prom as friends, nothing more." (Third person) However, most writers today use will in all three points of view, except in certain questions. Examine the following: "Shall "I call you a cab?" "Shall we continue to hold your merchandise while you return home for your wallet?" Should and would, the past tense of shall and will, respectively, have some special uses in the future tense. Should is used to indicate an obligation: "One should observe proper etiquette when texting and emailing." "Congress should take greater action to reduce poverty." Would is used to indicate habitual actions or wishes: "I would never stoop so low!" "I wish that you would be more frugal." "The planning committee would meet once a week to discuss the trip."

Spelling and Diction Errors

Spelling and Diction Errors [image of dictionary open to a page] Misspelled words always hurt the effectiveness of your writing. A final draft with misspellings makes your meaning impossible to understand. They also allow the reader to think you are careless. Finding Spellcheckers will allow you to find and correct some but not all of these errors. Those missed by a spellchecker are probably diction errors. These are words spelled correctly but used incorrectly. Some of these (it's/its, there/their/they're, then/than, who/whom) are so common that you should be on the lookout for them. Fixing If you have any doubt about your usage, then consider using a different word or researching how the word is used before including it. Try It! Fix the spelling and diction errors below using the text box. Then reveal a solution. If people break the law rather then obey it, than they're must be consequences. Reveal This sentence makes a few common diction errors. Making a habit of finding and fixing these errors in your writing will help you avoid the confusion they cause. If people break the law rather than obey it, then there must be consequences.

Subject-Verb Agreement

Subject-Verb Agreement [image of a child's wooden pegbox: round blocks in round holes, square blocks in square holes, and triangular blocks in triangular holes] Simply, the subject of a sentence has to match the verb in terms of number. A singular subject must have a singular verb; a plural subject must have plural verb. Finding Mistakes of this sort usually occur in long sentences. Find the subject of the sentence—it's not always the noun nearest the verb—and check if it matches. Fixing This is a common error, but it's easy to fix. Correct subject-verb agreement errors by adjusting the verb. Try It! Fix the subject-verb agreement problem below using the text box. Then reveal a solution. Various kinds of social media has been used to express personal opinions on the election. Reveal Identifying the subject ("kinds") tells you the subject ("has") doesn't match. The noun "media" is nearest the verb but isn't the subject. Using the plural verb to match the plural subject corrects this error. Various kinds of social media have been used to express personal opinions on the election.