English - Cultural literacy

homonyms

(HOM-uh-nimz) Homonyms are words that sound alike, and may even be spelled alike, but have different meanings. /Trunk/ (of an elephant) and /trunk/ (a storage chest) are homonyms. /Deer/ (a hoofed animal) and /dear/ (a sweet person) are also homonymns

parentheses

Parentheses are PUNCTUATION MARKS () that set off certain words inside a SENTENCE. They ay contain helpful information: "Aunt Sarah (my mother's sister) will visit us over the holidays."

personal pronoun

Personal pronouns represent a PERSON or persons in a sentence. They are: I, me, we, us, you, he, him, she, her, it, they, and them. See also PERSON.

punctuation marks

Punctuation marks are standard signs used in writing to clarify the meaning. The most important punctuation marks are the PERIOD, the COMMA, QUOTATION MARKS, the COLON, the SEMICOLON, the QUESTION MARK, and the EXCLAMATION POINT.

quotation marks

Quotation marks are double PUNCTUATION MARKS (" ") that set off dialogue, material quoted from another source, titles of short works such as poems, and definitions within a sentence. When something is quoted within a quotation, single quotation marks are used: "Mother said, 'Did you remember to brush your teeth?'"

auxiliary verb

When a PHRASE has more than one VERB, one is the main verb and the others are auxiliary, or helping, verbs. In the examples that follow, the auxiliary verbs are in italics: The show /will/ start in ten minutes Gail /should have/ won that race.

onomatopoeia

(On-uh-mat-uh-PEE-uh) Onomatopoeia is the use of words that sound like what they describe, as in the /buzz/ of a bee or the /hiss/ of a snake.

alliteration

(uh-lit-uh-RAY-shuhn) Alliteration is the repetition of the same sound, usually at the beginning of words. "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers" is an example of alliteration.

bibliography

A bibliography is a list of books and articles on a particular subject. For instance, if you wanted to read about the CIVIL WAR, you would find titles of works on the subject listened in a bibliography on the Civil War.

capital letter

A capital letter indicates the beginning of a SENTENCE or a PROPER NOUN. In the examples that follow, the capital letters are in italics: /S/tudents should not throw food in the cafeteria. /M/artin /F/isher moved here from /T/oledo. Capital letters are also called uppercase letters. Compare LOWERCASE LETTER.

clause

A clause is a group of words that contains a SUBJECT and a PREDICATE. A SENTENCE may contain one or more clauses. Some clauses can stand alone as sentences: /Alfred caught the biggest fish/. Other clauses cannot stand alone: /Because he caught the biggest fish/, Alfred won the trophy. A clause that can stand alone as a sentence is called an /independent clause./ A clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence is called a /dependent clause/.

colon

A colon is a PUNCTUATION MARK (:) used to introduce a list, a description, or an example: She wanted only one present for her birthday: a new bicycle. Before the camping trip, I had to buy serveral things: a backpack, a pocketknife, a canteen, and some boots.

comma

A comma is a PUNCTUATION MARK (,) that separates the parts of a SENTENCE and indicates where to pause when reading a sentence: First we'll go to the zoo, and then the bus will take us to the museum. Commas are also used in dates and place names: July 4, 1776, is the official birthday of the United States. Paris, France, is known for the Eiffel Tower.

conjunction

A conjunction is a word that joins words or groups of words, such as /and/, /but/, /or/, and /because/.

contraction

A contraction is one word made up of two words that have been shortened. For instance, /I'm/ is a contraction of /I am/; /shouldn't/ is a contraction of /should not/. An APOSTROPHE shows where letters or sounds have been left out.

declarative sentence

A declarative sentence makes a statement or declares something. The sentences that follow are declarative: He loves ice cream. That is the new train station. My mother will be coming home soon. Compare IMPERATIVE SENTENCE; INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE.

linking verb

A linking verb is a verb that connects or identifies the SUBJECT of a sentence with the PREDICATE. /Are/ and /see/ are linking verbs in the following sentences: The students /are/ busy. You /seem/ tired.

lowercase letter

A lowercase letter is a small (not capital) letter. For instance, all the letters in this sentence except the first letter ("F") are lowercase. Compare CAPITAL LETTER.

modifier

A modifier is a word that acts upon, or tells about, another word. ADJECTIVES and ADVERBS are modifiers.

noun

A noun is a PART OF SPEECH that names a person, place, thing, or idea, such as cat, child, river, knife, friendship. See also PROPER NOUN.

paragraph

A paragraph is a group of /SENTENCES/ organized around a main idea. Most writing is broken up into paragraphs. The first line of a paragraph is usually indented (moved to the right) to indicate that a new paragraph has started.

period

A period is a PUNCTUATION MARK (.) that comes at the end of an ABBREVIATION or a SENTENCE.

phrase

A phrase is a group of related words that cannot stand alone as a SENTENCE, such as : a flock of birds; Mr. Hayakawa's class; crossing the street; on top of the refrigerator. Unlike a CLAUSE, a phrase does not have both a SUBJECT and a PREDICATE.

prefix

A prefix is one or more letters added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning. In the following words, the prefixes are in italics: /un/happy, /dis/qualify, /pre/school, /mis/understood, /over/eat, /post/script, /sub/terranean, /ultra/modern. Compare SUFFIX.

preposition

A preposition is a PART OF SPEECH that shows how a particular word is related to other words in a SENTENCE. Common prepositions include: at, in, into, on, by, from, for, to and with.

prepositional phrase

A prepositional phrase is a PHRASE that includes a PREPOSITION and its OBJECT. In the sentence /The book was written by her/, /by her/ is a prepositional phrase, where /by/ is the preposition and /her/ is its object.

pronoun

A pronoun is the PART OF SPEECH that can take the place of a NOUN in a SENTENCE. The following words are all pronouns: /he, you, ours, herself, what, that, who, and which/. See also PERSONAL PRONOUN.

proper noun

A proper noun is the name of a unique person, place, or thing. Proper nouns are capitalized, as in /Abraham Lincoln/, /Los Angeles/, and /World War I/.

question mark

A question mark is a PUNCTUATION MARK (?) used at the end of a question.

regular verb

A regular verb is a verb whose past tense is formed by adding 'ed' to the present tense. For example, the verb /walk/ becomes /walked/ in the past tense, and the verb /open/ becomes /opened/. Most verbs in English are regular verbs. Compare IRREGULAR VERB.

semicolon

A semicolon is a PUNCTUATION MARK (;) that is used to join two independent CLAUSES: /Jim likes to run; Martha prefers swimming./

sentence

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. Every sentence contains at least one SUBJECT and PREDICATE. See also DECLARATIVE SENTENCE; IMPERATIVE SENTENCE; INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE.

suffix

A suffix is one or more letters added to the end of a word to change its meaning. In the following words, the suffixes are in italics: disappoint/ment/, kind/ness/, machin/ist/, port/able/. Compare PREFIX.

syllable

A syllable is the most basic part of a spoken world. It contains only one VOWEL sound. For example, the word /basic/ is made up of two syllables: /ba-sic/.

verb

A verb is a word that expresses action or a state of being. /Walk, fly, read, catch, turn, complain, grow, hold, smile, notice, play, decide, rattle, get, and release/ are all action verbs. The verb /to be/ expresses states of being; it tells what something /is/ rather than what it /does/. Every sentence must contain (or imply) at least one verb. See also AUXILLIARY VERB; LINKING VERB; IRREGULAR VERB; REGULAR VERB.

abbreviation

An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word and is usually followed by a PERIOD. For instance, Mr. is the abbreviation of Mister: Jan. is the abbreviation of January

adjective

An adjective is a PART OF SPEECH that modifies (acts upon or describes) a NOUN or PRONOUN. In these PHRASES, the words in italics are adjectives: the /red/ raincoat; a /shy/ boy; the /next/ street; /those/ apples

adverb

An adverb is a PART OF SPEECH that modifies (acts upon) a VERB, an ADJECTIVE, or another adverb and often ends in /ly/. In these examples, the words in italics are adverbs: Sam works /quickly/. (/Quickly/ modifies the verb /works/.) My father drives /carefully/. (/Carefully/ modifies the verb /drives/.) The trees look /very/old. (/Very/ modifies the adjective /old/.) Please speak /more softly/. (/More/ modifies the adverb /softly/, and /softly/ modifies the verb /speak/.)

apostrophe

An apostrophe is a PUNCTUATION MARK (') used with a NOUN and some PRONOUNS to indicate possession: Sarah's book my mother's car anyone's guess An apostrophe is also used to indicate missing letters in a CONTRACTION, as in these examples: Paul can't come to the phone right now. I'm getting impatient with you See also POSSESSIVE.

exclamation

An exclamation is a word or SENTENCE that expresses excitement or gives a command: Hey! Help! Let's go! Get away from the fire!

exclamation point

An exclamation point is the PUNCTUATION MARK (!) that comes at the end of an EXCLAMATION.

imperative sentence

An imperative sentence requests or commands someone to do something. The following sentences are imperative: Come to the blackboard. Please turn off the light. Compare DECLARATIVE SENTENCE; INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE.

interjection

An interjection is a brief EXCLAMATION, often containing only one word. Ouch! Hey! and Gosh! are interjections.

interrogative sentence

An interrogative sentence asks a question: Can Janet come along? Have you read that book? Compare DECLARATIVE SENTENCE; IMPERATIVE SENTENCE.

antonyms

Antonyms are words of opposite meaning. For example /cold/ and /hot/ are antonyms. /Compare/ SYNONYMS.

person

Every PERSONAL PRONOUN is in the first, the second, or the third person. The first-person pronouns (I, me, we, and us) refer to the person or persons who are speaking. The second-person pronoun (you) refers to the person who is being spoken to. The third-person pronouns (he, him, she, her, it, they, and them) refer to the persons or things being discussed.

predicate

Every SENTENCE contains a SUBJECT and a predicate. The subject is a NOUN or group of words that tells what the sentence is about. The predicate contains a VERB and sometimes a group of words related to the verb. It describes something about the subject. In the following sentences, the subject is in italics and the predicate is in boldface: /The bell/ *rang*. /Pigs/ *are intelligent.* /My father/ *couldn't find a parking place.*

subject

Every SENTENCE contains a subject and a PREDICATE. The subject consists of the main NOUN (or a group of words acting like the main noun) and tells what the sentence is about. In the following sentences, the subject is in italics: My /sister and her friends/ joined the Girl Scouts. The /river/ looks too wide to swim across. /Squirrels/ are afraid of cats. /Running/ is good exercise.

grammar

Grammar is the study of the structure of language. It also refers to the rules of correct writing and speaking.

irregular verb

In English, verbs that add /ed/ in the past tense are called REGULAR VERBS. For instance, /walk/ is a regular verb because it becomes /walked/ in the past tense. Verbs that do not add /ed/ in the past tense are called irregular verbs. Below are some irregular verbs, listed first in the present and then in the past tense: swim - swam teach - taught fly - flew feel - felt

parts of speech

In GRAMMAR, a part of speech is a class of words that have the same grammatical function: NOUNS, VERBS, ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, PRONOUNS, ARTICLES, PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS and INTERJECTIONS.

agreement

In every SENTENCE, the SUBJECT must agree with (or match up with) the VERB. A SINGULAR subject takes a singular verb, and a PLURAL subject takes a plural verb. For instance, the following sentence is wrong because the verb and subject do not agree: My grandparents /is/ coming to visit us. It should read: My grandparents /are/ coming to visit us. In addition, a PRONOUN must always agree with the NOUN it refers to. A singular nound takes a singular pronoun, and a plural noun takes a plural pronoun. For instance, the example that follows is wrong because the noun and pronoun do not agree: Each boy will have to buy /their/ own uniform. It should read: Each boy will have to buy /his/ own uniform. A pronoun must also agree with its function as a SUBJECT or OBJECT in a sentence: /They/ (subject) praised /them/ (object) for singing.

italics

Italics are a special kind of type used to set off a particular word or group of words. /Italics look like this./ The titles of books, magazines, and newspapers are often printed in italics.

plural

NOUNS, PRONOUNS, and VERBS have both SINGULAR and plural forms. The singular form refers to only one thing, while the plural form refers to more than one thing. See also AGREEMENT.

singular

NOUNS, PRONOUNS, and VERBS have both singular and PLURAL forms. The singular form refers to only one thing, while the plural form refers to more than one thing. See also AGREEMENT.

definite article

See ARTICLE

indefinite article

See ARTICLE.

helping verb

See AUXILIARY VERB.

uppercase letter

See CAPITAL LETTER

dependent clause

See CLAUSE

independent clause

See CLAUSE; SEMI-COLON

style

Style, when applied to writing, means the characteristic manner of the writing. Long or short SENTENCES, plain or fancy words, adn serious or comic tones are some of the traits that define a writer's style.

synonyms

Synonyms are words of similar meaning. For instance, /small/ is a synonym of /little/. Compare ANTONYMS.

tense

Tense is the form of a VERB that expresses when the action of the verb takes place. For example, in the sentence "He /runs/," the verb is in the present tense. In the sentence "He /ran/,", the verb is in the past tense. In the sentence "He /will run/," the verb is in the future tense.

direct object

The NOUN that directly receives the action of a VERB in a sentence is called the direct object. In the sentences that follow, the direct objects are in italics: Roger is eating /lunch/. Karen threw the /ball/ to Joe. Compare INDIRECT OBJECT.

object

The NOUN, PRONOUN, or group of words that receives the action of a VERB is called the object of the verb. See also DIRECT OBJECT; INDIRECT OBJECT.

consonants

The alphabet contains two kinds of letters, VOWELS, and consonants. The letters that follow are vowels: a, e, i, o, u These letters are consonants: b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z The letter /y/ is sometimes a vowel, as in /goodbye/, and sometimes a consonant, as in /yo-yo/.

vowels

The alphabet contains two kinds of letters, vowels and CONSONANTS. The lettrs a, e, i, o, u are vowels. The letter 'y' is sometimes a vowel, as in 'try', and soemtimes a consonant, as in 'your'. All the other letters in the alphabet are consonants.

topic sentence

The most important sentence in a PARAGRAPH is the topic sentence because it staes the main idea of the paragraph.

nominative case

The nominative case in GRAMMAR indicates that A NOUN or PRONOUN is the SUBJECT of a VERB. In the sentences /The children played softball/ and /I visited them last Friday/, the words /children/ and /I/ are in the nominative case.

objective case

The objective case in GRAMMAR indicates that a NOUN or PRONOUN is the OBJECT of a VERB in a SENTENCE or CLAUSE or that is the object of a PREPOSITION. In the sentences /The children played softball/ and /I visited them at home last Friday/, the words /softball/, /them/, and /home/ are in the objective case.

possessive

The possessive form of a NOUN or PRONOUN shows who owns (or possesses) something. SINGULAR nouns become possessive when they add an apostrophe followed by an s: She borrowed her friend's tennis racket. Plural nouns that alread end in 's' become possessive by adding an apostrophe: Those are the students; books.

article

The words /the, a/ and /an/ are called articles. /The/ is the /definite article/ because it refers to specific (or definite) items: Look at /the/ boats. /The/ apples look good. /A/ and /an/ are /indefinite articles/ because they refer to any one of a general group of items: My father wants to buy /a/ boat. Give me /an/ apple. (/An/ is used before a VOWEL.)

indirect object

When a VERB has more than one OBJECT, the NOUN that /directly/ receives the action of the verb is called the DIRECT OBJECT. The NOUN that /indirectly/ receives the action is called the indirect object. In the following sentences, the direct object is in italics and the indirect object is in boldface: Throw the /ball/ to *him*. Throw *him* the /ball/. He gave *Jennifer* the /ticket/.