English Pt. 2 Literary Terms or Rhetorical Devices

Verb Tense Issues

The mistakes that I will outline for you in this usage lesson are mistakes that I see quite often in student writing, and they are mistakes that can be rather distracting. The mistakes I refer to deal with verb tense. Verbs convey action or a state of being, but in addition to that, the way you conjugate a verb will tell whether the action or state of being takes place in the past, present, or future. For example, if I take the verb run, it means something like "moving quickly on foot." Now, depending on how I conjugate it, it will tell me when something moved quickly on foot. Past: The horse ran. Present: The horse runs. Future: The horse will run. Now, that information is basic, but to understand the first usage problem I will talk about in this lesson, make sure you understand the concept that verbs change according to when the action happens. The first problem that I will cover regarding verb tense issues is what we call a shift in verb tense. A shift occurs when you are writing a story or writing a summary and you are in one tense and then all of a sudden you inappropriately shift to a different tense. (For example, you are writing in the past tense and you shift into the present tense.) Example: When I was four years old I received a Hot Wheels Stud Cruiser for Christmas. Even though the cold taunted me and the street was covered with ice, I wanted to try out the new machine. I walked to the top of the steep hill and prepared for takeoff. I am bursting with excitement. I fly down the hill, slam on the brakes, and spin out of control. Then I do it again. Notice that all of the italicized verbs are in the past tense, and then all the bold verbs are in the present tense. The shift makes the writing awkward. It is much more effective to stay in one tense. The best way to fix this particular piece would probably be like this: When I was four years old I received a Hot Wheels Stud Cruiser for Christmas. Even though the cold taunted me and the street was covered with ice, I wanted to try out the new machine. I walked to the top of the steep hill and prepared for takeoff. I was bursting with excitement. I flew down the hill, slammed on the brakes, and spun out of control. Then I did it again. As you can see, it is better when the verb tense stays the same. The second common problem with verbs is called subject/verb agreement. Not only do verbs tell when an action happened, but they also convey whether the action was committed by one person or more than one person. For example, the verb "to be" takes the following forms depending on how many people are involved in "being": One person in the present tense: Sam is a good basketball player. More than one person in the present tense: Brian, Taylor, and Sam are good basketball players. Also, when it is in the past, the verbs are conjugated differently to match the subject. (Is the subject singular (just one) or plural (more than one)?) One person in the past tense: Sam was a good basketball player. More than one person in the past tense: Brian, Taylor, and Sam were good basketball players. Notice how awkward it sounds to say something like "Sam are a good basketball player." Or "Brian, Taylor, and Sam was good basketball players." The reason those sentences sound awkward is because the subject—"Sam" or "Brian, Taylor, and Sam"—does not have the correct verb conjugation that matches the number in the subject. Going back to the first example in this usage lesson, think about how awkward it sounds to say the following sentences: The horse run fast. or The horses runs fast. The reason those sound awkward is because the number of the subject (horse or horses) does not agree with the number of the verb. Run or runs. One horse runs. Many horses run. This seems basic, but there are a few situations that I will outline below that make it kind of tricky. The situation where this is most often misused is when information gets stuck in between the subject and verb. For example many of us would write the following sentence. This English course—with its readings, questions, and writing assignments—are difficult. This sentence is incorrect. It should actually look like this: This English course—with its readings, questions, and writing assignments—is difficult. What can make it misleading is the extra plural information that gets caught between the subject (course) and the verb (is). We would all say, "This English course is difficult." Very few would ever say, "This English course are difficult." Yet when that extra information gets caught in the middle, it is easy to mix up the subject/verb agreement. Here is one more example. Incorrect: The coach, as well as the players, are excited about the game. Correct: The coach, as well as the players, is excited about the game. The subject is coach, and even though you throw in the players as additional information, the verb has to be singular. One thing that is important to understand is that if you connect coach with players by using the word and, then players becomes part of the subject (just like Brian, Taylor, and Sam creates a plural subject). For example, this sentence is correct: The coach and the players are excited about the game. Another example of when subject/verb agreement can be confused is when you are using subjects that are singular but appear plural. For example, the following examples are correct even though they may seem awkward at first. The Democratic Party headquarters is over there. The Utah Jazz is the best team in the NBA. Both Utah Jazz and headquarters may seem plural, but they are actually singular. The Utah Jazz refers to one specific team. Headquarters refers to one specific building or place. There are a few other tricky areas in subject/verb agreement, but the ones above are the ones you need to master and be responsible for in this course. On some of the tricky sentences, it is a good idea to have a reference book around to check whether you are correct or not.

irony

when what you expect to happen is the opposite of what actually happens (See lesson 7 for a more in-depth analysis.) -Example: A traffic cop gets his license suspended for unpaid parking tickets. In 1912 the Titanic was touted as "100% unsinkable," and yet the ship sank on its maiden voyage.

rhetorical questions

- This is a question that the speaker asks the audience. He or she doesn't expect a response. It is used to stimulate an audience to think/focus on a particular idea or issue—it does not seek an overt response. - Example: "How can we sit here in comfort and warmth and ignore the plight of the poor, the cold, the homeless?"

climax

- building to a point of intensity - Example: "At the local level, the homeless are a nuisance, at the state level they are a budget item, but at the national level they are a reflection of our inhumanity."

paradox

- containing seemingly contradictory or incompatible elements - Example: "I must be cruel only to be kind." (Shakespeare 1603) "I can resist anything except temptation." (Wilde 189

hyperbole

- language used to exaggerate - Example: "Listening to this speech is as exciting as watching paint dry."

allusion

- reference to a familiar person, place or thing - Example: "Just as Johnny Appleseed, we are planting the seeds of a federal deficit from which future generations will harvest bitter fruit."

antithesis

- use of contrasting or opposing ideas or words in such a way to dramatize the difference - Example: "Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country." (J.F. Kennedy 1961)

repetition

- using a phrase or word, with appropriate frequency, to create a memorable impression on the audience - Example: "Government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth." (Lincoln 1863)

alliteration

- using words which have the same opening consonants ("slippery slope") - Example: "Let us believe, in spite of doubts and dogma, and of tears and fears, that these dear words are true of all the countless dead." ( Ingersoll 1899). "Let us go forth to lead the land we love,." (J.F. Kennedy 1961). "Veni, vidi, vici." (Caesar 47 BC).

personification

- when an author describes an animal, object, or idea is if it were human; giving non-human things human characteristics - Example: "Their apartment is as cheerful as can be!"

oxymoron

-using language to imply a contradiction -Example: "The silence was deafening." jumbo shrimp plastic silverware

Writing in the Active Voice

A little bit later in this lesson, you will have the opportunity to write a definition paper. One of the usage elements that will improve the overall quality of your paper is to make sure that it is written in the active voice rather than the passive voice. When we talk about writing in the active rather than the passive voice, what we are really asking is whether the emphasis in the sentence should be placed on the doer or the receiver of the action stated by the verb. The active voice emphasizes the doer. Examples: - Susan plays the violin. - John ate the hot dog. The passive voice emphasizes the receiver. Examples: - The violin is played by Susan. - The hot dog was eaten by John. Notice that the first active sentence implies that Susan has a talent of playing the violin. The first passive sentence seems to be more like an answer to someone's question about who was playing the violin. Notice too, that the passive sentence is much less direct than the first. Now, before I tell you not to ever use the passive voice in your writing, let me say that there are a few occasions where it is necessary to use it. If the doer is unknown or it is preferable that the doer remain anonymous, then you will use the passive voice. Examples: - The car was dented by someone. - The punch was spilled on the new carpet. It is mostly used when the doer is of no importance or when his or her identity is already known or on occasions where the performer of the action is obvious. Examples: - The Brooklyn Bridge was built about 100 years ago. - The job will be finished in two weeks. - The newspaper is distributed early in the morning. Now that you know that there are a few occasions when it is acceptable to use the passive voice, I am going to tell you to use the passive voice as little as possible. The active creates a livelier and more forceful quality to your writing or speaking style. So try to make your writing and speaking more active, because it will be more effective for the reader or listener. The passive is more formal and more impersonal than the active voice. I will give you several examples. As you read these examples, notice how the active voice is much more direct and crisp when compared with the passive voice. Passive: -The game was dominated by the Knights. Active: The Knights dominated the game. Passive: The car was driven to work by Bill. After the work was done by him, the airport was went to by Bill. Active: Bill drove his car to work. After Bill finished work, he went to the airport. The last example is a bit ridiculous, but it shows effectively why the active voice is best, except in certain cases. Remember to look for passive sentences in the rough draft of your speech, and turn them into active sentences.

metaphor

A metaphor compares two things that are different, and is considered the most important figure of speech. Aristotle wrote that the use of metaphor was so powerful because human beings have "an eye for resemblances." He means that we like to see how one thing resembles another! - Example: "The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty trees, The moon was a ghostly galleon tossed upon cloudy seas, The road was a ribbon of moonlight over the purple moor, And the highwayman came riding—" (Noyes 1906)

Revising and Editing Checklist:

As I said above, revising refers to changing and improving the actual content of your paper. So read your paper several times, and then apply each of the following items on this checklist to improve the quality of your paper. Ideas and Content - Are the ideas expressed concisely and directly? - Are your ideas and content true and accurate? - Are quotes, statistics, and so forth presented in the context you found them? - Is your topic focused and narrow? - If your topic is too broad, try to narrow it. - If you ramble away from your topic, fix it by cutting out the rambling. - Is your topic interesting? - Does the title catch the reader's attention and lead you into the writing? Organization - Did you effectively use paragraphs to organize your writing? - Does your paper move logically through from beginning to end? - Are your transitions between ideas and paragraphs smooth, clear, and logical? Word Choice - Replace awkward or questionable words or phrases with ones that express the exact meaning that you want. Use concrete nouns and vivid verbs. - Check your writing for the appropriate level of diction. - Avoid slang in formal writing. - Don't be too formal in informal writing. - Omit needless words. Voice - Read your writing aloud to test it for style. It is also a good idea to have someone else read it aloud to you. It should read smoothly and naturally. - Does the writing sound authentic and honest? Voice is hard to attain without honesty. - Does your writing sound like you care about your subject? Sentence Fluency - Have you eliminated all run-ons and fragments? - Does each sentence make sense? - Are any of your sentences awkward? - Examine your sentences for variety. - Vary the length of your sentences. Are all of your sentences too long or too short? - Do too many of your sentences all begin the same way? (I, they, the, it, etc.) Conventions -Carefully check each sentence for correctness. -Use the spell checker on your computer, but understand that the spell checker will not catch all of the mistakes you make. -Look up any spelling that you are not absolutely sure of. -Have someone else read it to look for mistakes you missed. -Review each sentence for end punctuation marks (Period, question mark, and so forth). -Review writing for proper comma usage, apostrophes, quotation marks, and capitalization. -Check for general usage problems, such as subject/verb agreement problems, parallel structure, active/passive voice, and verb tense shifts. I guarantee if you go through your paper carefully and consider all of these things you will improve the final product. The questions that follow are somewhat shallow, but they will help you review the concept of proofreading, revising, and editing. The real test will come when you submit your final draft of your speech. Learn to apply these checklists to your writing. At first it will take time and could be tedious, but as you get better you will start to catch many of the problems automatically.

Commonly Confused Words

At one time or another all writers stumble over words that are commonly confused for each other. These can consist of homonyms (words that are spelled the same and have different pronunciation), such as desert, meaning the arid geographical region with little precipitation, and desert, meaning to abandon, and homophones (words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings), such as to, too, and two. Most of these words are simple in their definitions. That's not the hard part. The difficulty comes in their usage. I'm not going to take the time to review all of the most commonly confused pairs. Below is a chart that includes pairs/groups that you should be familiar with. Know how to use them correctly. At this point in your schooling, these words should be mastered. However, if you are unfamiliar with the words in the tables (or the correct way to use them), please take the time to look them up on your own. I will still hold you responsible for using them correctly. a lot allot board bored brake break desert dessert hear here its it's led lead lie lay your you're right write rite wright to too two there their they're capital capitol choose chose cell sale sell emigrate immigrate farther further weak week knew new loose lose passed past quiet quit quite accept except advice advise council counsel councilor counselor principal principle peace piece than then weather whether who's whose We will now spend a little time on words that may be a little more difficult (and more grade-level appropriate for you). These are the commonly confused words you will be held responsible for in the Speedback assignment and in the final exam. Assure Part of Speech: v. Definition: to declare earnestly to; inform or tell positively; state with confidence to Example Sentence: Zoe's mother assured her that the story would have a happy ending. Ensure Part of Speech: v. Definition: to make sure or certain Example Sentence: We need to take measures that ensure the success of our plan. Insure: Part of Speech: v. Definition: to guarantee against loss or harm Example Sentence: Beth insured her diamonds against theft. Coarse: Part of Speech: adj. Definition: lacking in fineness or delicacy of texture, structure, and so forth Example Sentence: His manners reminded me of sandpaper—coarse. Course: Part of Speech: n. Definition: a direction or route taken or to be taken; a class Example Sentence: Are you sure this is the course to the harbor? Do you think Archie can pass this course? Formally: Part of Speech: adv. Definition: in a formal manner Example Sentence: Have you formally met my mother? Formerly: Part of Speech: adv. Definition: in time past; in an earlier period or age; previously Example Sentence: Formerly, it was unacceptable to end a sentence with a preposition. Later: Part of Speech: adj. / adv. Definition: occurring, coming, or being after the usual or proper time Example Sentence: She will arrive on the later bus. Latter: Part of Speech: adj. Definition: being the second mentioned of two (distinguished from former) Example Sentence: He chose the latter of the two examples. I was born in the latter half of the twentieth century. Stationary: Part of Speech: adj. Definition: standing still; not moving Example Sentence: I rode for twenty minutes on the stationary bike this morning. Stationery: Part of Speech: n. Definition: writing materials, as pens, pencils, paper, and envelopes Example Sentence: Lila received a new stationery set for her birthday.

Dangling Modifiers

Back when I was in high school I had some rather unintelligent classmates who, upon hearing about dangling modifiers, immediately checked their noses. If that description includes you, don't worry. I'll slow down and explain. A modifier is merely something that modifies, or describes, a part of a sentence. These could be adjectives or adverbs working by themselves, or they could include entire phrases . When a modifier is said to be dangling, it is simply misplaced. In other words, your descriptor is misleading or confusing, usually regarding what is being modified. Example: Waiting at the airport for a taxi, a bus splashed mud on me. You might think that this sentence makes sense, but upon closer examination, the modifier waiting at the airport for a taxi actually refers to the bus (instead of the desired referent, me). Unless we have been transported to a fantasy world, buses don't realistically wait for taxis. So, how do you fix the dangling modifier? Usually all you need to do is reposition it so it is closer to the part being modified. You may need to add or delete words (such as an additional subject) in order for the sentence to flow more smoothly. Example: - A bus splashed mud on me as I was waiting for a taxi at the airport. or - As I waited at the airport for a taxi, a bus splashed mud on me. The purpose in making sure your modifiers don't dangle is to make your writing is meaningful and clear. Unclear writing usually results in confused readers or listeners. Some people may say that it doesn't matter. See if you feel the same way after you read two more examples of misplaced modifiers and ways to correct them: - Misplaced: The library has several books about zombies in our school. (Really? Zombies in our school?) - Clearer: The library in our school has several books about zombies. - Misplaced: Sleeping soundly, Sara woke her baby brother after lunch. (How can Sara do that if she is sleeping?) - Clearer: Sara woke her soundly sleeping baby brother after lunch. Sometimes the placement of your modifier will give the sentence a different meaning. - The band from Sweden gave a televised concert with special guests. - The band gave a televised concert from Sweden with special guests. - The band gave a televised concert with special guests from Sweden. The first sentence states that the band is from Sweden; the second sentence, that the concert is televised from Sweden; and the third, that the special guests are from Sweden. Big difference, right? Of course. The meaning conveyed changes depending on where you place your modifiers. So, in short, be careful that your modifiers don't dangle in public (or anywhere else) because it might be a little embarrassing.

Symbolism

Definition: when an object that has its own meaning is used to represent something completely different Example: An example would be a lion representing nobility or royalty.

Variations of Standard English

By now some of you are saying, "Hold on, you English nerds. You just had us read a novel that didn't follow that last rule. And by the way, I've read quite a few other things that don't always use complete sentences. So what now?" Nothing. See, I just used a fragment myself. It is true that fragment usage is becoming more prevalent in modern writing, as are other stylistic, seemingly incorrect practices. There is good reason. Sometimes an author will break the rules to create specific effects. For example, the use of fragments is primarily done to emphasize a specific point. Go back and check out most of Cisneros's vignettes. Really. And other times fragments are used to mimic how people talk. You know, it's that thing called dialogue. Honestly, nobody talks in complete sentences all the time. Try listening to yourself, especially when talking on the phone. It just doesn't happen. As with complete sentences, there are several other instances where writers will break conventions and traditional usage rules in order to create a specific emphasis. These variations of standard English, although not always appropriate (especially in formal settings), are crafted carefully to form stronger connections between the reader and a text. The setting of a story or the depth of a character can be greatly enhanced by using nontraditional English. The House on Mango Street accomplishes this with the structure of the vignettes, the language, and the blend of cultural references. Sometimes authors will leave bilingual dialogues as a mix of two (or more) languages. A few examples from Cisneros include the vignettes "Papa Who Wakes Up Tired in the Dark," "Elenita, Cards, Palm, Water," "No Speak English," and "Smart Cookie." There are plenty of others. Authors will also sometimes change spellings—usually phonetically—take out letters, and use colloquialisms or jargon in order to create culture or give insight into a character's life. This is easily detectable in dialogue. For example, try reading the following three passages out loud to give the scene more depth. The dialect, or variations from standard English, add to the scenes. - The door swung wide then and an elderly woman, frail and toothless, stepped out. Her left arm hung crazily at her side as if it had been broken long ago but had no mended properly, and she walked with a limp; yet she smiled widely, throwing her good arm around Mama and hugging her. "Land sakes, child, ain't you somethin'!" she exclaimed. "Comin' to see 'bout these old bones. I jus' sez to Sam, I sez, 'Who you reckon comin' to see old folks like us?' These yo' babies, ain't they? Lord a'mighty, ain't they fine! Sho' is!" She hugged each of us and ushered us into the house. (from Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry by Mildred D. Taylor, pp. 96-97, emphasis added) - It seemed like hours but it was probably only one until Timothy said, "Do not be alarm now, young bahss. I am goin' to jump into d'wattah an' kick dis raff to d'shore. Widout dat, we'll pass d'islan', by-'n'-by." (from The Cay by Theodore Taylor, p. 56, emphasis added) - "Woss that on your 'ead?" said Stan abruptly. "Nothing," said Harry quickly, flattening his hair over his scar. . . . "Woss your name?" Stan persisted. . . . "So—so this bus," he went on quickly, hoping to distract Stan, "did you say it goes anywhere?" "Yep," said Stan proudly, "anywhere you like, long's it's on land. Can't do nuffink underwater. 'Ere," he said. Looking suspicious again, "you did flag us down, dincha? Stuck out your wand 'and, dincha?" "Yes," said Harry quickly. "Listen, how much would it be to get to London?" "Eleven Sickles," said Stan, "but for firteen you get 'ot chocolate, and for fifteen you get an 'ot water bottle an' a toofbrush in the color of your choice." from (Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban by J.K. Rowling, pp.34-35, emphasis added) Another example of variation from standard English in The House on Mango Street is the lack of quotation marks to denote conversation —turn back to the vignette "And Some More." This whole vignette is a conversation between Esperanza, Nenny, Rachel and Lucy, yet there are no quotation marks! Why would Cisneros do this? It is not because she forgot or didn't feel like it. She often does not identify the speaker either. Think about how her omissions contribute to the flow of the piece. It flows faster and interrupts itself, exactly like the argument the girls are having. One final example from Mango Street comes in Cisneros's use of sentence fragments. She is a master at the use of effective sentence fragments. Go back to the end of the vignette "Sire." How would the feel of the snapshot change if it read like this: "Sire, how did you hold her? Was it like this? And when you kissed her, was it like this?" (73). It changes the mood of the sentence. The short, choppy fragments capture the breathlessness of Esperanza's imagination as she wonders what it would feel like to be held and kissed.

Dashes

Dashes have multiple uses. They may function as colons (introducing a list) or to signal an interruption (usually with strong emotion or style). Traditionally, the use of dashes has been frowned on as they are somewhat rogue in their usage. However, they are becoming more widely accepted in the print world. Personally, if you haven't noticed so far, I use them in my narrative. Dashes work the same way as commas when setting off parenthetical elements. They show breaks in thought and can be used to string together a line of thoughts that wouldn't normally fit together as a complete sentence. - In fact, there are three main ways—which are all correct—to set off parenthetical expressions in a sentence. - You need to distinguish a dash from a hyphen—something completely different—when you type. Though they appear cool and add depth to your voice at times, it isn't advisable to overuse dashes, as the reader may become confused by your haphazard line of thought. If you do choose to use the dash, make sure that you distinguish it by pressing the hyphen key twice when typing. A hyphen is something completely different. Also be aware that it is not an underscore either.

Metaphor

Definition: - a direct comparison between unlike things; It is very similar to a simile, but doesn't use "like" or "as" Example: - He is a library of information about dinosaurs.

Personification

Definition: - giving human-like qualities to something that is not human (This goes beyond giving animals qualities that they also possess) Example: - Winter seized the countryside by the throat and choked the life out of it.

Similie

Definition: -a comparison between unlike objects that often uses the words "like" or "as" Example: Janie's hand was like a vice grip on my arm as we walked through the haunted house.

Hyperbole

Definition: Winter seized the countryside by the throat and choked the life out of it. Example: I've told you a million times to stop pestering your sister!

idiom

Definition: a colloquial expression used by a specific group of people with a meaning that is understood through common use; these frequently become cliché Example: My grandma kicked the bucket last February.

Onomatopoeia

Definition: naming an action by imitating the sound that is associated with it Example: The drip drop patter of the rain on the window interrupted my thoughts.

Consult a dictionary (Strategies for Unknown Words)

Every student needs ready access to a good dictionary, whether that means a paperback tome on your bookshelf or an online version. Keep in mind that many textbooks will contain a glossary. These glossaries can be invaluable tools in learning new words. (Do you know what tome means? If not, use some strategies to figure it out.)

Agreement in Number and Gender

Here are a handful of sentences that show incorrect and correct pronoun agreement for the number and gender of the pronouns and their antecedents. Notice how each of the correct examples agrees in both number and gender: Incorrect Pronoun Agreement: Rochelle refused to let a disability impede his academic success. Correct Pronoun Agreement: Rochelle refused to let a disability impede her academic success. (singular, feminine) Incorrect Pronoun Agreement: Rochelle and David formed a team to overcome its challenges. Correct Pronoun Agreement: Rochelle and David formed a team to overcome their challenges. (plural) Incorrect Pronoun Agreement: Pablo is one of the best athletes in their school. Correct Pronoun Agreement: Pablo is one of the best athletes in his school. (singular, masculine) Incorrect Pronoun Agreement: Pablo and Dmitri prevent his team from complete annihilation. Correct Pronoun Agreement: Pablo and Dmitri prevent their team from complete annihilation. (plural) Incorrect Pronoun Agreement: The door, despite their age, held fast against the zombie hordes. Correct Pronoun Agreement: The door, despite its age, held fast against the zombie hordes. (singular, neuter) Incorrect Pronoun Agreement: Vampires and werewolves, despite its popularity in teen fiction, are becoming endangered creatures. Correct Pronoun Agreement: Vampires and werewolves, despite their popularity in teen fiction, are becoming endangered creatures. (plural) Traditionally a masculine pronoun is used when the gender of the antecedent is not known or unspecified. However, as language evolves, this is not always true. Regardless, the pronoun-antecedent rules still hold firm. - Incorrect: An author must capture their readers' attention. - Correct: An author must capture her readers' attention. - Correct: An author must capture his readers' attention. - Correct: An author must capture his or her readers' attention. - Correct: Authors must capture their readers' attention.

Avoid Fatty Phrases

Here are just a few phrases that use more word than necessary. Next to them are possible remedies. Wordy Phrases: He is a man who... Fixed: He... Wordy Phrases: in a quick manner... Fixed: quickly... Wordy Phrases: owing to the fact that Fixed: because Wordy Phrases: Bob, who was the smartest... Fixed: Bob, the smartest... Here are some examples of how to substitute one clear, specific word for several words that are less effective. When using more specific, concrete nouns and verbs, the necessity for extra fatty adjectives and adverbs dissipates. Many Words: The big, mean, ugly dog that likes to attack people... One Specific Word: The Rottweiler... Many Words: I went to the store quickly. One Specific Word: I sped to the store. Many Words: My football shoes with the little knobby things on them... One Specific Word: My cleats... As you can see, omitting needless words makes writing more active and direct. It is less "weighed down" under pointless verbage. Applying this concept to your writing will definitely improve it.

Sentence Fragments

I recall receiving many a composition back from teachers (not just of the English variety) with "frag." written up and down the margins. I had no idea what a frag was, and for a while I was pretty proud that I had so many on my page. That is, until I discovered that they were bad. A "frag," otherwise known as a sentence fragment is nothing more than an incomplete sentence. That's bad. We need to have complete thoughts when we are communicating to others in writing. Now, I know that fragment usage is becoming more widely accepted in writing, even in formal writing. There are exceptions to every rule. However, it is still best to avoid using them. When you write, please use complete sentences unless otherwise directed. Here are some basic rules and tips for using complete sentences. In order for a sentence to be complete, it must meet the following requirements: - Have a subject: who/what does the action or is being described (noun or pronoun) - Have a verb (predicate) - Begin with a capital letter - End with correct punctuation . ? ! - Make sense (form one complete thought) Notice that my list did not use complete sentences. If I were to rewrite it using complete sentences, it would look like this: - A sentence must have a subject. - A sentence must have a verb. - A sentence must begin with a capital letter. - A sentence must end with correct punctuation. - A sentence must make sense and contain one complete thought. When a group of words is missing one of these five components, it's called a sentence fragment. More often than not, a fragment is missing a subject, a predicate, or both, and it needs to be fixed. Examples: - Screamed until her lungs burst. (no subject) - Filbert Johnson, the psychotic scientist, supposed ruler of the lab rats. (no verb) - Around the corner. (no subject or verb) Each of these fragments can simply be fixed by adding the missing parts. Example corrections: - Stephanie screamed until her lungs burst. - Filbert Johnson, the psychotic scientist, supposed ruler of the lab rats, planned to take over the world. - A horde of zombies shuffled around the corner. Two other components (capitalization and punctuation) are conventions, and the importance thereof will be discussed more in lesson 9. Another common sentence mistake is when a writer tries to cram too many thoughts into one sentence. When this happens, it is called a run-on sentence. Each complete thought must be separated into its own sentence (or be joined correctly with proper conjunctions and punctuation). Just to note, a comma cannot hold two complete thoughts together by itself. This is called a comma splice. In certain classrooms the usage of comma splices results in punishments worse than death. A run-on may be fixed by one of three methods. First, you can separate the thoughts into two separate sentences. The second option is to use a semicolon for closely related sentences. Yet another way to fix the run-on is to rewrite the sentence so it contains proper conjunctions. - Run-on: I am tired, I didn't get enough sleep . - Correct: I am tired. I didn't get enough sleep. - Correct: I am tired; I didn't get enough sleep. - Correct: I am tired because I didn't get enough sleep. If you continue to have trouble, consult a grammar handbook. They should all have sections on fragments and run-ons. Here's one additional thought on complete sentences. As a student, you are frequently asked to answer questions using complete sentences. Here are a few more tips about answering questions using complete sentences: When answering questions using complete sentences, you should - use part of the question in your answer, -be able to tell what the question is by looking at your answer, and - never start your answer with "because," "so," "that," or any other conjunction or preposition.

Items in a Series

I'm going to insert a small yet important punctuation lesson here—one that, for some reason, continues to baffle students (and even adults). That is, when you list three or more items in a series, you must use commas to separate them. This ties neatly into parallel structure because it helps a writer keep the objects separate for the reader. Example: I enjoy grilling chicken, burgers, and steaks. If I left out my commas (I enjoy grilling chicken burgers and steaks.), it sounds like I grill burgers made of chicken and steaks of some nature...possibly still chicken. The commas are necessary to convey precise meaning. Following this simple rule would solve much texting, tweeting, or Facebooking confusion. This holds true as well for longer items such as phrases. Examples: Before I go to bed I brush my teeth, gargle with mouthwash, wash my face, and use the bathroom. Waking up in the morning, getting dressed in matching clothes, and remembering to get on the right bus should not be difficult tasks. My secretary reminded me to call my mother, to pick up the dry cleaning, and to make a dinner reservation. Notice that the examples use parallel structure. Now, some publishers and English teachers will debate the need to include the last comma (the one before the "and"). Side note: In many circles it's called the Harvard comma or the Oxford comma. Some use it and some don't. However, if you use it, you will always be right. Leaving the last comma off may still cause some confusion depending on the items in your list. The best rule to follow is to always include the last comma. When you reach the point where your publisher wants you to do something different, you can worry about it then.

Ask Someone (Strategies for Unknown Words)

If all else fails, ask for help. You and the person you ask might learn something new. Words are wonderful, powerful objects. The more words you know, the better you'll be able to express yourself and to appreciate the expression of others.

Omit Needless Words

In most situations in life we benefit from getting rid of excess "stuff." For example, when backpacking in the national parks of southern Utah, I carefully pack only the essentials. If I pack more than the essentials, I may never make it to my destination. When I was a Boy Scout, it was always a good joke to hide a big rock or multiple small rocks in a fellow hiker's backpack. Of course it wasn't funny to the victim when he unpacked in camp. Although we needed to be prepared, extra baggage just weighed us down. In writing, the same principle applies. Excess words and phrases that are not essential to the meaning of the work become heavy to the reader. We will refer to this concept as omitting needless words. Sometimes in my classroom I refer to this concept as "writer's liposuction." Liposuction is a medical procedure where a doctor literally sucks fat out of your skin. That is exactly what we want to do in writing—get the fat out. In their famous book on writing style, E.B. White and William Strunk said the following about omitting needless words: Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that every word tell.

Punctuation to Set Off Parenthetical Expressions

In writing, a parenthetical expression, also called a parenthetical element, sets apart a phrase that interrupts the main flow of a sentence. Sometimes the parenthetical information serves as an explanation and can be helpful in using context clues to determine meaning while reading. We just read a play, which provides great examples of parenthetical expression as all the stage directions (which are parenthetical in nature) are enclosed in parentheses. Parenthetical elements, though, are a little bit tricky, too, as they do not always use parentheses. In fact, there are three main ways—which are all correct—to set off parenthetical expressions in a sentence. And if you have been paying attention, you might have noticed that I have already used all three in this introduction.

Take it piece by piece (Strategies for Unknown Words)

Look for parts of the word such as prefixes, suffixes, or roots that are familiar to you. Take the word biannual. You know that "bi" means two and "annual" means yearly. So, from these clues, you could gather that a biannual event happens twice a year.

Agreement in Person

Many problems occur when an author switches points of view from first person to second person, or from third person to first, or from second to third, or whatever ill-formed combination. The key is to get your pronoun and its antecedent to agree in point of view. - Poor: Xi Lan and Kyle are going to visit the Sonora Desert, where you can see Gila monsters and rattlesnakes. - Better: Xi Lan and Kyle are going to visit the Sonora Desert, where they can see Gila monsters and rattlesnakes. - Better: Xi Lan and Kyle are going to visit the Sonora Desert, where tourists can see Gila monsters and rattlesnakes. When the antecedent of a pronoun is another pronoun, both still have to agree in terms of person. - Poor: They often visit Zion National Park, where you can enjoy hiking. - Better: They often visit Zion National Park, where they can enjoy hiking. - Poor: I hiked on trails that amazed you with their breathtaking waterfalls. - Better: I hiked on trails that amazed me with their breathtaking waterfalls. - Poor: When one reads, you can learn a lot. - Better: When one reads, one can learn a lot. - Better: When you read, you can learn a lot. Indefinite pronouns can make pronoun-antecedent agreement a little tricky. However, this chart can help you determine which form of pronoun to use. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS: Always Singular: each, everyone, nobody, anything, either, everybody, nothing, someone, neither, everything, anyone, somebody, one, no one, anybody, something Always Plural: several, few, both, many Singular or Plural (depending on context): some, all, any, most, none - Incorrect: Each of the girls must buy their own sledge hammer. - Correct: Each of the girls must buy her own sledge hammer. - Incorrect: Many of the students bring his or her lunch to school. - Correct: Many of the students bring their own lunch to school. - Incorrect: Not everybody has their own pocket harmonica. - Correct: Not everybody has his own pocket harmonica. Again, a masculine pronoun is traditionally used when the gender of the antecedent is not known or unspecified. However, as language continues to change, this is not always the case. If you don't want to mess with it, reword your sentence. Regardless of your word choice, though, the pronoun-antecedent rules still hold firm. - All people must buy their own sledge hammers. - Neither could afford to buy her own sledge hammer. - Everyone must acquire a sledge hammer somehow. (only one pronoun) Make sure that the antecedent of a pronoun is clearly stated and that a pronoun cannot possibly refer to more than one antecedent. Awkwardly written pronoun references confuse readers. - Vague: When the paper was put into the stack it was lost. (Which was lost, the paper or the stack?) - Clear: The paper was lost when I put it in the stack. - Clear: When put into the stack, the paper was lost. (no pronoun) Try to avoid the indefinite use of the pronouns "you" and "they" when the antecedent is missing or vague to begin with. - Vague: They said you couldn't park your car on the sidewalk. - Clear: The officers said you couldn't park your car on the sidewalk. - Vague: In Spain you take a nap after lunch. - Clear: In Spain many people take a nap after lunch. Clarifying your pronouns and their antecedents in each of these ways will help your reader avoid any misunderstandings that vagueness might bring.

Context clues (Strategies for Unknown Words)

Most of the time if you keep reading, the context—or other words in the sentence or paragraph—will give you clues about the meaning of the unknown word. For example, look at the previous sentence. If the word "context" were unfamiliar to you, then "other words in the sentence or paragraph" would clue you in to the meaning of the word "context."

Paragraphing

Paragraphs are the basic unit of composition, and it is crucial to use paragraphs effectively. Unfortunately, I often teach seniors in high school that still don't know how to use paragraphs. I hope that you do, and that this small usage lesson will serve as a refresher course. But if you don't use paragraphs effectively, make sure you internalize these concepts. The following are some basic concepts to think about as you decide where to make paragraph breaks. There is no law on how short or long a paragraph must be. However, you should keep the other paragraph guidelines in mind when writing. - A paragraph is a way of signaling to the reader that a single topic is covered in the space of any given paragraph. Inside of that paragraph, you should typically have a topic sentence with supporting details in other sentences. Ask yourself if you have more than one topic covered in a paragraph. If you do, you should probably divide it accordingly. - Of course, in narrative type writing (writing that tells a story), topics are not necessarily going to be the decision for creating paragraphs. Nevertheless, you should use good judgment regarding the use of paragraphs. One of the benefits of paragraphing in narrative writing is that it gives readers a chance to catch their breath. Think about reading a newspaper. Imagine if there were no paragraphs in any news stories. It would be very cumbersome to read. Newspapers have many short paragraphs because they make it easier for the reader to read. - You will normally start a paragraph with a topic sentence or a transition sentence that ties that paragraph to the previous one. When you are writing dialogue (i.e., where people are talking to each other), you must have a new paragraph every time the speaker changes. For example: "Hi, Bob!" yelled Susan. "Hi, Susan," retorted Bob. "I can't believe it has been six years since I saw you last. You don't look like you have changed a bit. Where are you living now?" asked Susan. "In Detroit," replied Bob. - In an essay, you will usually have a paragraph for your introduction, one for each of the topics that you discuss, and another one for your conclusion. - In conclusion, remember that there is no set of exact rules that governs the use of paragraphs, but you should follow these basic guidelines and use good sense when deciding how to break up your writing into paragraphs. Use paragraphs as tools to help you organize your paper and to serve the reader.

Parentheses

Parentheses, again, set off nonessential material in a sentence. They function the same as dashes or commas. - Ryan (he had been in my class ever since kindergarten) had a strange obsession with pickles. - Some people (I am not one of them) think making yourself vomit is a good weight loss program. - The team's average split time for running the 400 meter relay (once around the track for each runner) has decreased over the season. When using punctuation around parentheses, you need to be a little more careful than you do with commas and dashes (as they seem to take care of themselves). Here are a few rules to follow: - If a comma, semicolon, or colon is needed, place it after the parentheses. Despite his score on the lab report (95%), Jerry failed the chemistry test. - Place a question mark or an exclamation mark inside the parentheses if it is part of the parenthetical expression. Darrell was laughed off the stage (who wouldn't have cracked up?) when he lost his clown pants and revealed his pink rubber duckie boxers. - Place the question mark or exclamation mark outside (after) the parentheses if it is part of the entire sentence. In the corndog eating challenge, I broke the record for high school students (forty-three in sixty seconds)! Regardless of the punctuation used, all interrupters need to be set apart, whether it comes at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the sentence. You may find expressions within expressions, on rare occasions, but you must always open and close a parenthetical expression with the same type of punctuation.

Rhetorical Devices

Rhetoric is the art or study of using language effectively. Therefore, rhetorical devices are the tools of rhetoric. If used appropriately, these tools will make your communication in writing and speaking much more powerful. Here is the small list of terms you are responsible for. There are many websites that have a much more extensive list of technical terms if you are interested, but this should give you a good introduction into the world of rhetorical devices. Again, make sure you understand each of the following definitions. You will be asked questions about these terms throughout the course.

Commas

This is the most common way to set off a parenthetical expression. Interjections and other nonessential items in a sentence need to both start and end with commas. - The President said, off the record, that he hoped Congress would pass the bill. - What, in your opinion, should we have for dessert? - Well, let's just go to the party without the Davidsons. Notice that the information set off by the commas is not essential to the sentence's meaning. While some rules for commas are not hard and fast, this one is. When using parenthetical elements, make sure that you enclose the phrase with commas.

Antecedent Agreement

What's wrong with this writing? It was a good morning. We had breakfast at a restaurant. It was sunny. The service could have been better but it was delicious. It was more than I could handle in one sitting. It wasn't too much to give me indigestion, though. Hopefully you said to yourself, "Self, that paragraph had too many references to 'it.' You can't tell what 'it' refers to each time 'it' is used." If you said that, you are correct. If you didn't, you'll want to pay closer attention. Many writers struggle when using pronouns. Either the pronoun reference is vague and it is hard to tell what "it" refers to, or there is a mistake in agreement between the pronoun and its antecedent. An antecedent is the word or group of words which the pronoun replaces. Example: The mangy dog has fleas. He scratches at them until he bleeds. The pronoun "he" in the second sentence takes the place of "the dog" from the first sentence. It is fairly clear that "the dog" is the antecedent for the pronoun "he" in this case. All pronouns must agree with their antecedents in number (singular or plural), gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter), and person (point of view).

Parallel Structure

When you are writing and you have similar ideas and phrases that go together, they should be expressed in the same way. The easiest way to understand this concept is to see it in examples, so I will give you several to help illustrate the point. Just like some of the other usage issues that we have talked about in this course, when parallel structure is not followed, it can make your writing awkward and distracting. Correct: I go to school for knowledge, wisdom, and fun. Notice that the three things I listed are all nouns, and they are all listed in the same way. There are a lot of ways that students mess up parallel structure. I will use this same example to demonstrate some of these. Incorrect: I go to school for some knowledge, some wisdom, and fun. Correct: I go to school for some knowledge, some wisdom, and some fun. Notice in this example, the word some appears before two of the words, but not the last one. This can be fixed by adding some to fun, or you can just leave it out on all of them. Incorrect: I go to school for knowledge, to gain wisdom, and to have fun. Correct: I go to school to acquire knowledge, to gain wisdom, and to have fun. Notice in this example, that all items in the list have verbs in front of them now, except for knowledge. To make it parallel, they all need to have the same elements. Notice that by adding acquire to knowledge, it fixes the structure of the sentence. Here is another example of this same idea: Incorrect: My favorite people in the world are the French, the Germans, and Spanish. Correct: My favorite people in the world are the French, the Germans, and the Spanish. Correct: My favorite people in the world are French, German, and Spanish. Notice the parallel structure in the correct sentences. Also, notice the difference in meaning between the two correct sentences—putting the in front of all the nationalities does change the meaning. So, as you strive to have parallel structure in your writing, make sure you are conveying the meaning you want. Here's one final example of appropriate parallel structure—a personal resume (or any situation where more formalized structure is required). You should always construct lists in parallel structure (beginning with all verbs or nouns)—for instance, when listing your personal skills or experiences. Incorrect: Other Skills Good listener Fix dirtbikes and small motors Taking care of young children Dependable Spanish Speaker Correct: Other Skills Listens well Fixes small motors (incl. dirt bikes) Cares for young children Speaks Spanish Notice that in the first list, the items all begin differently. However, in the second example, each item starts with a verb in the same tense. The same rule holds true as you list items in the same order within each section (names, locations, dates, duties, etc.). There is no one correct order as long as you present your information in a parallel structure. Making sure that you have parallel structure when you write a series of things in a sentence will greatly enhance your sentence fluency. Good luck on the questions that follow.

anecdote

a short summary of an interesting or humorous, incident or event which is often biographical