ENGR 482 Exam 2

Definition of acceptable risk from the "respect for persons" approach to ethics, which is more Kantian in nature:

"An Acceptable Risk is a risk that is freely assumed with informed consent or properly compensated..." (Harris et al) When imposing a risk on others, we are not permitted to treat them in a way they would not consent to, or rational people could not consent to.

Some features that set engineering as a profession apart and hold it to a higher standard

1. Entrance into the profession typically requires an extensive period of training, and much of this training is intellectual in character. 2. Professions like engineering possess knowledge and skills that are vital to the wellbeing of the larger society.

Proper Engineering Decision (PED)

A decision that should be made by engineers because it either involves technical matters that require engineering expertise OR falls within the ethical standards embodied in engineering codes (public health/safety)

Proper Management Decision (PMD)

A decision that should be made by managers because it involves factors relating to the well-being of the organization, such as cost, scheduling, marketing, & employee morale/welfare AND the decision does not force engineers to make unacceptable compromises with their own technical and ethical standards.

Negligence

A failure to exercise the appropriate and or ethical ruled care expected to be exercised amongst specified circumstances.

Profession

A number of individuals in the same occupation voluntarily organized to earn a living by openly serving a moral ideal in a morally permissible way beyond the law, market, morality, and public opinion would otherwise require

Layperson

A person without professional or specialized knowledge in a particular subject.

Harm Preventing Whistleblowing

A practice or product does or will cause serious harm to individuals or society at large. There is good reason to believe public disclosure will avoid the present or prevent similar future wrongdoing.

NSPE Perform services only in areas of ____________

Competence

Conditions of _________ risk usually vary based on ______________

Acceptable Perspective

Disobedience by protest

Actively and openly protesting a policy/action of an organization

Utilitarian

Calculates magnitude of risk in terms of EXPECTED consequences.

Limitations of acceptable risk model

Can't always anticipate all effects/consequences (cost-benefit analysis will be unreliable). Certain kinds of value don't seem measurable in monetary terms (human life). Makes no allowance for the distribution of costs/benefits (only considers net benefits). Gives no place for informed consent.

Limits of not being probabilistic

Can't assume the event in question has a known probability (never happened before)

Seven characteristics of professions

Cannot be composed of only one person Involves a public element. A way people earn a living and work. Can enter and leave voluntarily. Commits itself to some morally desirable goal. Must pursue said goal by morally permissible means. Should obligate professionals to act in ways that go beyond what law, market, morality, and public opinion would otherwise require.

Limitations to the acceptable risk model are ___________ to the limitations of the probabilistic model of risk

Closely related (both utilitarian)

NSPE Canons Following Duty Ethics

• Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner. • Act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees. • Avoid deceptive acts. • Conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically, and lawfully so as to enhance the honor, reputation and usefulness of the profession

Complex Interactions

One event affects other systems or exacerbates other events in an unexpected way

Limits of Utilitarianism

Cost/benefits distributed unjustly, expected outcome doesn't equal actual outcomes, permits us to do counterintuitive things.

NSPE Avoid __________ acts

Deceptive

Recklessness

Deliberately and unjustifiably pursuing a course of action while consciously disregarding any risks flowing from such action.

3 kinds of ______________________ that engineers can employ when faced with an immoral decision

Organizational Disobediance

Limits of not risk averse

Does not tell you to avoid risk of a certain magnitude

Disobedience by contrary action

Engaging in activities contrary to the interests of the company, as perceived by management

It is the __________ who should be involved when there is an ethical issue or morally relevant feature in a decision, and it is the _________ job not to interfere with that

Engineer Managers

NSPE Preamble

Engineering is an important and learned profession. As members of this profession, engineers are expected to exhibit the highest standards of honesty and integrity. Engineering has a direct and vital impact on the quality of life for all people. Accordingly, the services provided by engineers require honesty, impartiality, fairness, and equity, and must be dedicated to the protection of the public health, safety, and welfare. Engineers must perform under a standard of professional behavior that requires adherence to the highest principles of ethical conduct.

According to _____________, an acceptable risk is one in which the product of probability and magnitude of the harm is ____________ or ___________ by the product of probability and magnitude of the benefit.

Engineers Equaled Exceeded

Which of the following best describes the obligation engineers have to protect the public according to the TBPE?

Engineers who are involved in projects that are reasonably likely to result in risk to public health, safety, PROPERTY or welfare are REQUIRED to notify involved parties, and, if issues are unresolved, report them to the TBPE or proper civil or criminal authorities.

There is a ________ (pertaining to our knowledge) and __________ (pertaining to what we are required to do) element to the precautionary principle

Epistemic Normative

Technocrat

Expert

NSPE Act for each employer or client as __________ agents or _________

Faithful Trustees

Columbia Incident (2003)

Foam shedding caused a crack in the wing. Engineers wanted pictures but were told it wasn't necessary. Groupthink, self-deception.

Fundamental Canons of NSPE Code of Ethics

Hold paramount the safety, health, & welfare of public Perform services only in areas of competence Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner Act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees Avoid deceptive acts Conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically, & lawfully so to enhance the honor, reputation, and usefulness of the profession

Democratic Model

Holds that all parties, even laypeople, should have a say in how we manage risk.

Technocratic Model

Holds that experts should be in charge of determining how we handle & manage risk (engineers call the shots)

4 dimensions of precautionary principle

If there is a THREAT, which is UNCERTAIN, then some kind of ACTION is MANDATORY.

Epistemic interpretation

In a precautionary appraisal of risk, it is more desirable to avoid false negative errors than false positive ones.

8 symptoms of groupthink

Invulnerability of group to failure A strong "we-feeling" Shift responsibility to others Assumes inherent morality of group Self-censorship to not "rock the boat" Illusion of unanimity, silence = consent Direct pressure on those who disagree Mindguarding, preventing outside views

Normalization of Deviance Example

Knowledge and Acceptance of "blow by" of hot gases during the launches of the space shuttle in the Challenger case. A "fix", not a redesign was always the remedy.

In a precautionary appraisal of risk, it is more desirable to avoid false ___________ errors than false ___________ ones.

Negative Positive (Think cancer example, rather safe than sorry)

In some sense, the ___________ interpretation of the precautionary principle is that you have to do something when there is an uncertain threat, and the ____________ interpretation says, "better safe than sorry."

Normative Epistemic

NSPE Issue public statements only in an __________ & ___________ manner

Objective Truthful

Actual Risk AKA __________

Objective Risk

Perceived Risk

People perceive risk differently depending on how they perceive the risk to themselves (the likelihood that an event will happen to them)

Free and Informed Consent and Equity and Justice

People tend to see risk as more acceptable when they freely consent to the risk, and are informed about it. Additionally, people tend to be willing to assume more risk when they are justly and equitably recompensed for it.

Informed consent

Permission granted in the knowledge of the possible consequences, typically that which is given by a patient to a doctor for treatment with full knowledge of the possible risks and benefits.

Engineering Definition of Risk AKA _______________________

Probability Model of Risk

Engineering Definition of Risk

Product of the likelihood of an event & the magnitude of the resulting harm

NSPE Hold paramount the safety, health, & welfare of _________

Public

When using Engineering definition of risk, one must be cautious not to _______________________________________________

Quantitatively compare or add risk quantities that have different units

Disobedience by non participation

Refusing to carry out an assignment because of moral or professional objections

Challenger Incident (1986)

Ring blow destroyed seals caused heating of fuel tank resulting in failure, due to the cold weather. Roger Boisjoly tried to prevent launch from Martin Thiokol control room the night before. Bob Ebeling was another engineer who tried to stop the launch. NASA pushed forward with launch. Groupthink, PED/PMD, Normalized Deviance all involved. Acceptance of authority, self-deceptions, ignorance.

Engineering Definition of Risk Formula

Risk=sum{(probability of event)(consequences)}^i

Voluntary assumed risk

Risks which an individual knowingly takes on and accepts, as opposed to an uncertain risk involuntarily imposed on them.

Perceived Risk AKA __________

Subjective Risk

Tight Coupling Interactions

Temporal, meaning events happen too quickly for a response

Standard of Care

The level at which the average, prudent engineer in a given community would practice. It is how similarly qualified engineers would have managed the situation under the same or similar circumstances.

Whistleblowing

The most important kind of protest

Duty Ethics

The normative ethical position that judges the morality of an action based on rules

Groupthink

The practice of thinking or making decisions as a group in a way that discourages creativity or individual responsibility

Actual Risk

The risk of an event actually happening at all

Normalization of Deviance

The tendency to come to consider behavior that varies from good design/engineering practice as acceptable.

NSPE Code of Ethics Rules of Practice

They are an expansion and explanation of the fundamental canons

External Whistleblowing

This means that the whistleblower reports misconduct to a person outside the organization, such as law enforcement or the media.

Internal Whistleblowing

This means that the whistleblower reports misconduct to another person within the organization.

Common limitations of fault & event tree analysis, especially inaccuracies that arise from __________ & _________ interactions

Tight coupling Complex (Often coincide)

False Negative Error

Type I You fail to discover a correlation between some variables.

False Positive Error

Type II False Alarm! You incorrectly think there is a correlation between some variables where none really exists.

7 impediments to moral responsibility

Uncritical acceptance of authority Groupthink Microscopic vision Self-deception Self interest Fear of retribution Ignorance

Downside to Democratic Model

Uninformed public perceives risk differently from engineers & in any case, we can be wrong about what is actually a risk

The engineering conditions of acceptable risk is very ____________

Utilitarian

4 limitations to probabilistic definition of risk

Utilitarian Not risk averse Not probabilistic Cannot explain how risk is perceived by the public (car crash vs. nuclear meltdown)

TEPA Rules in Chapter 137, Subchapter C

• General Practice • Engineer Standards of Compliance with the Professional Services Procurement Act • Engineers Shall Protect the Public • Engineers Shall Be Objective and Truthful • Engineers' Actions Shall Be Competent • Engineers Shall Maintain Confidentiality of Clients • Engineers' Responsibility to the Profession • Action in Another Jurisdiction

Precautionary Principle

Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.

Malicious Intent

Without just cause or reason, to commit a wrongful act that will result in harm to another. It is the intent to harm or do some evil purpose.

Autonomy-Promoting Whistleblowing

You believe that if you do not publicly reveal what you know, then this will diminish people's autonomy by e.g. not making it possible to make informed decisions about what risks to accept.

Complicity-Avoiding Whistleblowing

You believe that your work for that organization will contribute (more or less directly) to the wrong if (but not only if) you do not publicly reveal what you know.

Which of the following best describes an epistemic aspect of a risky situation? a. A lack of knowledge about the effects of a chemical that may need to be vented on humans. b. Uncertainty about how to proceed in a situation where irreversible harm may be done. c. (a) and (b) d. None of the above

a. A lack of knowledge about the effects of a chemical that may need to be vented on humans.

Which of the following moral ideals are mentioned in the Preamble to the NSPE Code of Ethics? a. Honesty and integrity b. Courage and judgment c. Charity and utility d. All of the above

a. Honesty and integrity

According to the Precautionary Principle, if there is any uncertainty regarding a threat that may cause harm, a. Precautionary measures may be appropriate after more conclusive data is obtained. b. Precautionary measures cannot be reliably applied. c. Precautionary measures are mandatory. d. None of the above

a. Precautionary measures may be appropriate after more conclusive data is obtained.

The objective risk of an activity depends on how likely some negative event is to actually occur. The subjective risk, also known as the perceived risk, a. depends on what the agent believes about the negative event in question. b. depends on what the agent believes about the negative event in question and is therefore impossible to measure in an objective manner. c. depends on what the agent believes about the negative event in question and is therefore widely agreed to be irrelevant for policy decisions. d. depends on what the agent believes about the negative event in question and therefore always differs from the objective risk.

a. depends on what the agent believes about the negative event in question.

According to the Texas Engineering Practice Act (TEPA), which of the following must an engineer who may be put in a potential conflict of interest do? a. Notify all parties, either in writing or orally, about the potential conflict of interest. b. Notify all parties in writing about the potential conflict of interest and receive written confirmation that the notification was received. c. Notify all parties, orally or in writing, and the State Board about the potential conflict of interest. d. Use his or her best professional judgment to make sure that all parties will achieve the best possible outcomes.

b. Notify all parties in writing about the potential conflict of interest and receive written confirmation that the notification was received.

In "GM Recalls," how do the authors explain the story of whistleblower Courtland Kelley, who had pressed for safety improvements for a number of years? a. He was promoted for his hard-fought efforts to encourage management to take safety seriously. b. He was given a lucrative retirement package and several awards for his efforts. c. He was transferred to a job with limited responsibilities. d. He was fired for insubordination.

c. He was transferred to a job with limited responsibilities.

According to Kant's categorical imperative, a. It is always immoral to use another person as a means to an end I desire. b. It is usually immoral to use another person as a means to an end I desire. c. It is always immoral to use another person as a mere means to an end I desire. d. It is usually immoral to use another person as a mere means to an end I desire.

c. It is always immoral to use another person as a mere means to an end I desire.

How does the Texas Engineering Practice Act define the practice of engineering? a. It is defined narrowly, as the manipulation of objects to create things that affect the general public. b. It is defined circuitously, i.e., it is defined as work that an engineer usually does. c. It is defined broadly, as service or creative work that requires engineering education, experience, and the application of mathematical, physical, or engineering sciences. d. It does not define it: it allows each firm to define it as they see fit.

c. It is defined broadly, as service or creative work that requires engineering education, experience, and the application of mathematical, physical, or engineering sciences.

Which of the following is true about the "standard of care" engineers are expected to meet? a. It is based on the best of the best, state-of-the-art practices found anywhere in the world. b. It is fully determined by industry standards, regulations, and laws. c. It means that no errors are due to negligence. d. It is the optimal point found when analyzing performance and engineering labor expense curves.

c. It means that no errors are due to negligence.

What kind of statement is the instruction given to engineers to "avoid deceptive acts"? a. Aspirational b. Preventive c. Prohibitive

c. Prohibitive

In order to determine whether a risk is acceptable, engineers and risk experts considering engineering solutions often use a ________________ that is fundamentally a _____________ approach.

cost-benefit analysis Utilitarian

How did the state of Texas respond to the New London school explosion? a. They enacted a technical fix by requiring a malodorant be added to natural gas. b. They enacted a social fix by passing the Texas Engineering Practice Act. c. The added the "industry exemption" to the existing Texas Engineering Practice Act. d. (a) and (b) e. (a) and (c)

d. (a) and (b)

Which ethical issues were mentioned in Incident at Morales? a. Concern over groundwater pollution b. An apparent conflict of interest regarding a supplier relationship c. Pricing collusion d. (a) and (b) e. (a), (b), and (c)

d. (a) and (b)

Which of the following makes engineering a less paradigmatic profession than law or medicine? a. Most engineers are not licensed, whereas nearly all lawyers and doctors are. b. The societal good that engineering provides has not been as clearly articulated as law (justice) and medicine (health). c. Engineers are generally compensated less than lawyers or doctors for the same amount of effort. d. (a) and (b) e. (a), (b), and (c)

d. (a) and (b)

Which of the following are true of a proper management decision (PMD)? a. It involves technical matters requiring engineering expertise or judgment. b. It involves factors relating to the well-being of the organization. c. It does not require professional members of the organization to compromise technical or ethical standards. d. (b) and (c) e. (a), (b), and (c)

d. (b) and (c)

Which of the following can be said about normalization of deviance at NASA? a. It was neither a factor in the Challenger or Columbia catastrophes. b. It was not a factor in the Challenger explosion but had emerged before Columbia catastrophe. c. It was a factor in the Challenger explosion but had been eliminated by the time of Columbia. d. It was a factor in both the Challenger and Columbia catastrophes.

d. It was a factor in both the Challenger and Columbia catastrophes.

Which argument against responsibility does Michael Davis say professional engineering codes address in "Ain't No One Here But Us Social Forces"? a. Individual helplessness b. Institutional constraint c. Neutrality d. Replaceability

d. Replaceability

According to the Fundamental Canons of the NSPE Code, engineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties, shall: a. Perform services only in areas of their competence. b. Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner. c. Act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees. d. (a) and (b) e. (a), (b), and (c)

e. (a), (b), and (c)

Which of the following are characteristics of whistleblowing? a. It involves going outside of typical institutional structures (the "chain of command"). b. It is done in response to a situation in which illegal, unethical, or could reasonably be expected to cause harm. c. There must always be a justification for it. d. (a) and (b) e. (a), (b), and (c)

e. (a), (b), and (c)

Which of the following are commonly considered to be necessary for risk to be considered "acceptable" by non-engineers? a. A person must not be coerced into taking the risk. b. A person must have relevant information about the risk. c. A person must be rational and competent enough to evaluate the information. d. (a) and (b) e. (a), (b), and (c)

e. (a), (b), and (c)

Which of the following are tools that engineers use to manage risk? a. Design codes b. Engineering standards c. Operations manuals d. (a) and (b) e. (a), (b), and (c)

e. (a), (b), and (c)

Which of the following symptoms indicate that a team or an organization is affected by groupthink? a. An illusion of morality that discourages careful examination of the moral implications of what the group is doing. b. An illusion of unanimity, construing silence of a group member as consent. c. An illusion of invulnerability of the group to failure. d. (a) and (b) e. (a), (b), and (c)

e. (a), (b), and (c)

According to the harm-preventing account of whistleblowing, a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for morally permissible instances of whistleblowing is that: a. You believe that the organization, though legitimate, is engaged in serious moral wrongdoing. b. You believe that your work for that organization will contribute (more or less directly) to the wrong if (but not only if) you do not publicly reveal what you know. c. A practice or product does or will cause serious harm to individuals or society at large. d. The charge of wrongdoing has been brought to the attention of immediate superiors. e. (c) and (d)

e. (c) and (d)

Engineers focus on the __________ issues of the probability & magnitude of harm and contains no _____________ evaluation of whether a risk is morally acceptable

factual implicit

NSPE Canons Following Rule Utilitarianism

•Hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public. • Perform services only in the areas of their competence. • Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.