Environmental Science Exam Notes

What are septic systems?

- 14% of Canadian homes are on a septic system. 1. Wastewater drains into a septic tank; grease and oils rise to the top, solids sink to the bottom. 2. Clarified liquid waste runs from the tank through pipes embedded in gravel below the soil surface of the septic field. 3. The pipes have small holes, allowing water to drain into the gravel and soil, form which it leaches or evaporates. 4. The tank must be pumped out occasionally.

Fish farming

- Actually accelerates the decline of wild fish stocks. - Many farmed fish are fed meal made from wild fish. - Some forms of fish farming destroy natural fish habitat and produce large scale effluent flows.

What three main sources feed the waste stream?

- Agriculture - Industry - Municipality

Primary resources

- Air - Water - Soil - Energy - Minerals

Global hydroelectric power

- All Top 10 large dams produce over 4000 MG. - None are located in Africa, Europe, or Oceania - 3 in Russia/Mongolia - Most dams in North America are along the coast (none inland) with equal numbers in the US and Canada. - North American dams produce more energy than European one as they are larger.

What is energy?

- All energy comes from sun. - Used directly in solar panels, solar water heating, and wind power. - Used indirectly in oil, coal, and natural gas and nuclear energy.

What factors affect individual ecological footprints?

- Amount of traveling (car, plane, cruise, etc) - Prepackaged product use - Heating/cooling in home - Access to more options in everyday

What is agricultural solid waste made up of?

- Animal waste (manure) - Plant debris left over after harvesting - Animal tissue left over after slaughtering and processing

What is a landfill?

- Area of land where solid waste is disposed of by dumping. - Landfill sites can either be publicly or privately owned and run. - Transportation and collection amount for 75% of the total cost of landfilling.

Non-conventional oil methods

- Because of high viscosity of oil-sands/tar-sands, oil shale, and extra heavy oil (high specific gravity), extracting them relies on: - Strip mining - oil sands and shales are removed from ground and refined. - In situ extraction - steam or solvent injected into the sands to allow oil to flow for pumping.

Secondary treatment

- Breaks down the organic material biologically in one of the following ways: 1. Aeration tank digestion: sewage is aerated and mixed with aerobic bacteria, which digest the organic matter. - Sewage then goes into a final settling tank, and the sludge is removed. 2. Trickling filter bed: sewage drips from perforated pipes or overhead sprayer through a stone bed or corrugated plastic sheets. Bacteria on the bed decompose organic material. 3. Sewage lagoon: outdoor lagoons expose sewage to sunlight, algae and air, which break down the organic material (a slower but cheaper method).

Biomass energy

- Chemical energy is non-fossil fuel organic materials (e.g. wood, vegetation, plant oils, organic wastes).

How do layers in soil differ?

- Chemical make-up - Physical properties - Particle size - Amount of organic matter

What is industrial solid waste made up of?

- Chemicals used during processing - Mine tailings - Waste produced during construction or demolition

Advantages of biofuels

- Cleaner burning than petrol or diesel - Renewable resource - Creates many jobs in rural areas

What is non-renewable energy?

- Comes from sources that cannot be replaced within short spans of time. - Includes natural gas, coal, oil, and radioactive materials. - Fuels (i.e. natural gas, coal, oil) formed so long ago they are remnants of living organisms and are called fossil fuels. - Nuclear power gains energy from atoms formed billions of years ago and were trapped in earth when formed.

Active solar collection

- Concentrates solar energy using collectors. - System consists of solar collector pump, heat storage system, and system of pipes to move heat. - e.g. solar water heater

Reducing the Heat Island Effect

- Concrete and asphalt absorb lots of heat during day. - Temperatures in core of city can be 3 degrees higher than surrounding areas causing that island. - Urban forest reduce heat island effect. - Trees and plants provide shade, water evaporation from plants cools air, and green roofs are also effective at reducing heat.

Advantages of non-renewable energy and resources

- Convenience of naturally occurring energy source - Easy to transport and store - Ability of various applications - Small amount of resource produces large quantity of energy

Photovoltaic (PV) cells or "solar cells"

- Convert light energy into electricity through a circuit. - PV cells made of silicon, - Prices have begun to decline and solar cell production has grown rapidly as efficiency increases.

Disadvantages of monocultures

- Degrades soil nutrition - May need to use pesticides - May require fertilizers

What factors affect country ecological footprints?

- Developed/undeveloped/industrial country - Stable form of government - More access to money and resources - Increase profit from exports such as oil and coal

Other agricultural practices

- Drip irrigation is most efficient but has high start-up costs. - Using recycled water helps reduce water waste. - Using renewable energy sources helps reduce use of fossil fuels.

What are living organisms in soil?

- Earthworms helpt to mix organic and inorganic material in soil. - Bacteria and fungi help in the decay and recycling of materials.

Benefits of composting

- Easy to do and free at home. - Compost can be used by gardeners, landscapers and farmers to improve soil and help plants grow better. - Helps soils by improving fertility, texture and ability to hold water. - Reduces amount of organic plant waste going to landfills by 30%.

Advantages of fossil fuels

- Easy to store and transport - High net-energy production - Well established distribution systems - Low air pollution (in natural gas and clean liquid fuels) - Hugh possible reserves - Well-Developed extraction technologies

Advantages of organic farming

- Farmers can still make use of new high-yielding crop varieties. - Produce is pesticide-free and produced sustainably. - Improves soil quality and structure, reducing nutrient and water loss.

Disadvantages of geothermal power

- Few suitable sites - Noise and odour pollution - Land settling/sinking due to extracted water

Disadvantages of fossil fuels

- Fixed supply and therefore eventually run out - High air pollution when used inefficiently - High CO2 emissions when burned cleanly - Can cause severe land and wildlife damage when mishandled - Relatively high economic and environmental cost of extraction

Negative impacts of incineration

- Flue gases may contain large amounts of particulate matter, heavy metals, dioxins, furans, sulphur dioxide, and hydrochloric acid. - Fine fly ash can escape cleaning process adding to atmospheric particulate pollution. - Incineration produces carbon dioxide adding to global warming. - Surrounding properties devalued because of incinerator sight and smell. - People around incinerators complain of respiratory problems.

Natural capital service forest example

- Forest cover has a lower albedo than urban concrete; trees absorb light for photosynthesis while concrete absorbs shorter wave lengths and releases them over time (urban areas are warmer). - Trees lower overall temperature of area, remove CO2, provide shade and habitat for free.

Geothermal power

- Generation is possible in places where Earth's crust is thin and heats water close to the surface. - Water heated by magma close to surface and turns to: 1. Dry steam - (gaseous water with no water droplets) can be used to drive turbine immediately. 2. Wet steam - (a mixture of gaseous water and water droplets) is sent to a separator to extract dry steam. 3. Hot water - can be used in low level thermal heating.

What are GMOs?

- Genetically modified organism is which scientists have altered its genetic make-up (DNA). - Bacterial genes (e.g. Bt) have been uses for crops to become pest resistant. - Genes for herbicide resistance have also been used to modify crops; minimizes preparation of soil, as crops grow with weeds, herbicides kill weeds but not crops.

Disadvantages of clearcutting

- Habitat loss for species - Damage to soil - Increased surface water run-off and soil erosion

What countries have the lowest ecological footprints?

- Haiti - Afghanistan - Bangladesh - Timor-Leste - Puerto Rico

Disadvantages of hydroelectric power

- High construction costs - High environmental impacts - High CO2 production form reservoir - Interference with fish migration

Disadvantages of nuclear power generation

- High start-up costs - Chance of catastrophic environmental damage if accident occurs - Removal and storage of waste presents large technological problems - Decommissioning old plants presents waste problems - Technology can be adapted to produce nuclear weapons

Disadvantages of selective cutting

- Higher costs than clear cutting - Risk of damage to trees/plants - Some animals species may decline

Advantages of pesticides

- Higher yields of crops - Cost of pesticides balance cost of crops and more maintenance

Medical hazardous waste

- Hospitals, clinics, dental offices, and veterinary practices produce wastes such as blood products, body tissues and organs, old medicines, and used swabs, needles, bandages, and syringes. - Potentially infectious biohazards managed under special regulations. - Medical centres may produce radioactive waste.

Tertiary treatment

- In between secondary and tertiary treatment, the fluid is disinfected with chlorine, UV light, or ozone to kill harmful bacteria. - Sewage still contains nitrates, phosphates, and other inorganic materials after process. 1. Material is passed through natural wetland to artificial filtering system to filter out these nutrients, or chemical flocculants are added to bind the nutrients so they settle out.

What is stormwater?

- Includes rain and melting snow that run off roads, driveways, roofs, and lawns, into storm sewers. - May contain sediments, organic matter, and chemicals. - Often runs directly into water systems.

Advantages of rangeland, CAFO, and feedlots

- Increase meat and dairy production - Rangelands provide habitat for wildlife - Land is maintained with help of government to remain in healthy state - CAFOs reduce overgrazing and yield higher profits - Provide employment

Advantages of nuclear power generation

- Larger energy supply - Little amount of fuel needed to produce large quantities of energy - Few direct environmental impacts - Low air pollution (low CO2 emissions) - Low risk due to multiple safety systems

Hazardous agricultural waste

- Leftover pesticides, pesticide containers, spraying equipment, and contaminated soil containing pesticide residues. - Persistent pesticides (e.g. DDT) last a long time and can bioaccumulate in human tissue and other organisms.

Disadvantages of solar power

- Limited by land, seasons, climate, latitude - Backup systems required - Making cells is intensive and polluting

Municipal hazardous waste

- Linked to consumer products (manufacturing and disposal). - Batteries, anti-freeze, paints, fluorescent lights, cleaning products. - Electronic devices (e-waste) often contain PCBs which can cause health problems.

What are the two types of sewage treatment?

- Liquids cannot be disposed of in a landfill because they increase leaching and destabilize the landfill structure. - Sewage must be treated before the water it contains can be returned to the natural system. - Septic systems and a three-step municipal system are used for sewage treatment.

Advantages of renewable energy resources

- Little local/global environmental effect in long-term - Little input needed to run systems after establishment - Can be scaled up to down as needed - Can provide limitless energy

What soil is ideal for agriculture?

- Loam is ideal for agriculture. - 20% clay, 40% silt, 40% sand

Advantages of solar power

- Low or no CO2 emissions - Renewable and abundant - Relatively high net energy gain

Disadvantages of organic farming

- Lower yields but more land is needed. - Produce more expensive to buy, of reduced quality, and with shorter shelf life, and consumer choice may be restricted if out of season. - Considerable bacterial contamination due to high manure usage.

What is sewage?

- Material that is rinsed down the drain or flushed down a toilet into the sewage system. - Contains wash water (showers, baths, laundry, and dishes) and organic matter (food particles, urine, and poop). - Also contains hundreds of chemicals, including: plasticizers, medicines, pesticides, and flame retardants.

Disadvantages of pesticides

- May affect non-target organisms - Crops become resistant to pesticides, increasing required strength of pesticides.

What is soil mixture of?

- Mineral grains - Air - Water - Organic material (carbon-based)

Advantages of monocultures

- More efficient; single and simple maintenance - Less expensive - May lead to increased crop yields

Who is responsible for managing solid waste in Canada?

- Municipal governments - collect and manage waste form homes or recycling, composting, and disposal. - Provincial/territorial governments - approval, licensing and monitoring of waste management operations. - Federal governments - international and interprovincial movements of hazardous waste, releases of toxic substances into the air, land, and water, and activities on federal lands.

Sources of liquid waste

- Municipalities (houses, businesses, institutions): from sinks, tubs, showers, toilets, etc. - Agricultural activities: rainfall and irrigation run-off from farms contains fertilizer, pesticides, manure, and soil; run-off from ranches and feedlots contains nutrients, organic matter, bacteria, growth hormones, and drugs. - Industry: Industrial wastewater may contain petroleum products, metals, acids and other chemicals, nutrients, and sediments.

To produce goods and services requires...

- Natural capital (resources) - Human labour (jobs) - Financial resources (money)

Global wind power

- Northern hemisphere countries (developed) use most megawatts. - More energy from nuclear than wind (1-2%). - Ontario in Canada and Texas in the USA use most megawatts. - Top three MW countries in Europe are Germany, Spain, and Italy while lowest are Greece, Austria, and Ireland.

Examples of natural capital services

- Nutrient recycling - Climate control - Pollution control - Waste treatment - Biodiversity control and assessment - Pest and disease control - Population control

What are hazardous substances?

- Occur naturally and are also human-made. - Include corrosive and reactive chemicals, some heavy metals (i.e. lead and cadmium), gasoline, pesticides, household cleaners, and medicines. - Developed and studied by researchers. - Used in manufacturing; stored, transported, and used.

Oil extraction

- Often found by echo location where sound waves are fired into prospective sites and the echo produced by the layers of rock is analyzed. - Well is made by drilling down to the oil reservoir; under pressure oil will rise to surface itself. - Once pressure no longer great enough to allow oil to rise, water or gas may be pumped into reservoir to increase pressure and force oil out.

Disadvantages of renewable energy resources

- Often need large set-up costs - Local environmental damage in short term - Many technologies currently inefficient - Different energy supplies needed for different applications

Natural gas extraction

- Often occurs in same areas as oil. - Natural gas is difficult to store and ship; large proportion is burnt at well as waste product or re-injected into well to maintain pressure.

What is humus?

- Organic material in soil from decay of plant and animal remains. - Contains nutrients for plants, helps plants hold water and absorb nutrients, and created loose/crumbly soil to allow water and air to incorporate.

What is incineration?

- Organic materials in solid waste are burned. - "Thermal treatment" converts waste into ash, flue gas, and heat. - Ash is formed from inorganic, incombustible part of waste. - Flue gases must be cleaned of particulate and gaseous pollution before they are released into atmosphere.

What is municipal solid waste made up of?

- Paper (36%) - Organic waste (29%)

Disadvantages of biofuels

- Petrol engines need to be modified to run on ethanol - Fuel tanks and pipes can be corroded by ethanol fuels and need to be treated - Fuel consumption is 20% greater compared to a petrol engine - Valuable land for food crops is occupied by biofuel crops

Product productions that create hazardous waste

- Plastics (e.g. organic chlorine compounds) - Pesticides (e.g. phosphate compounds) - Medicines (e.g. heavy metals) - Paints (e.g. heavy metals) - Oil/gasoline (e.g. phenols, heavy metals) - Metals (e.g. heavy metals, cyanides) - Leather (e.g. heavy metals) - Textiles (e.g. heavy metals)

Negative impacts of landfills

- Pollution of local environment (i.e. groundwater and soil contamination from dump leakage). - Off-gassing methane (greenhouse gas) from decomposition of organic matter. - Presences of disease vectors (i.e. rats and flies). - Nuisance factors (i.e. dust, odour, vermin, noise from machinery). - Damage to roads by heavy garbage trucks. - Injuries to wildlife. - Difficulty in locating new sites.

Advantages of selective cutting

- Preferred cutting for steep slopes - Retains habitat for species - Individual trees of high value can be chosen leaving behind trees that can naturally regenerate.

Natural capital services

- Processes performed by the environment which balance waste disposal, populations, and resource use. - Natural capital services affect the quality of our land, water, air, food, and earth.

Disadvantages of wind power

- Produce visual and noise - Require steady winds - Back up systems required in low winds - Can interfere with the flight paths of animals (bats, birds)

Disadvantages of non-renewable energy and resources

- Production of large-scale pollution - Local environment often heavily damaged - Resources become difficult to extract - Resources strategically vulnerable (controlled by external parties or countries)

What is a polyculture?

- Raise diverse species in same area - Mimic natural ecosystem - Reduce need for water, fertilizer, pesticide

Disadvantages of rangeland, CAFO, and feedlots

- Rangelands can be overgrazed, leading to desertification - Managing rangelands may negatively affect biodiversity - Special food for animals in CAFOs to maximize growth require large inputs of energy - CAFOs produce large amounts of animal waste - Animals in CAFOs require antibiotics - Ethical issues in using CAFOs, mistreatment of animals

How to reduce hazardous waste

- Redesign manufacturing and industrial processes. - Reuse waste in another way (e.g. waste oils fuel power plants). - Donate old electronics to recycler to salvage useable parts. - Giver leftover paints, cleaners, etc. to others to use. - Substitute hazardous household products of alternatives. - EPR encourages procures to design products with waste in mind as companies are responsible of disposal of product at end of lifespan.

Benefits of incineration

- Reduce amount of waste going to landfills by 90% extending life of landfills. - Useful in small countries where little land available for landfills. - Incineration of medial wastes and sewage sludge can break down pathogens and organic toxins. - Resulting ash is sterile and safe to landfill. - Heat produced can generate electricity (98% efficient). - Innovative incinerator technologies remove most of pollutants from flue gases.

Advantages of shelterwood system

- Remaining trees provide seeds for new trees and shelter - Remaning forest is still aesthetically appealing - Encourages regrowth of species that are sensitive to wind/sun

Primary treatment

- Removes solids and suspended sediments. 1. A screen removes large debris. 2. Heavier particles like sand and gravel settle out in a grit tank. 3. Half the organic solids settle to the bottom of a primary sedimentation tank; the semisolid material is called sludge.

Advantages of hydroelectric power

- Renewable - High net energy, high efficiency - Long life span - Flood control - Recreational uses of reservoirs

Advantages of wind power

- Renewable - No emissions, little effect on land - Quick compact construction - Various locations (even at sea)

Renewable energy resources

- Renewable energy resources come from sources that can be replaced within a relatively short span of time. - Last decade has seen increase in reliability and efficiency of renewable energy technologies. - Include: hydroelectric power, wind power, solar power, geothermal power, wave power, ocean thermal power, solar ponds, and biofuels.

Advantages of geothermal power

- Renewable, high efficiency - Moderate CO2 emissions - Low cost (in suitable areas) - Low environmental impact

Underground mining methods

- Room and pillar mining removes blocks of coal seam while leaving others to act as pillars to keep the roof stable. - Long wall mining uses machine that move along the length of the coal face; removed coal falls onto conveyor that takes it to the surface.

How are natural capital services degraded by human activity?

- Runoff of pesticides, fertilizers, and animal wastes - Destruction of wetlands - Erosion of soils - Deforestation - Urban sprawl

What does municipal sewage treatment consist of?

- Sanitary sewers take municipal sewage to a water treatment plant. - There are three steps: primary, secondary, and tertiary treatment.

Clearcutting

- Selection of mature forest picked for removal based on tree height, girth, or species. - All trees from chosen area are removed; understory is destroyed and new forest of economically desirable trees may be planted.

Disposal of municipal hazardous waste

- Should never be poured down the drain or sent to landfill where liquids can leach into surrounding ecosystems. - Should be taken to collection centre, where is handled properly. - Should take: batteries, aerosol containers, fluorescent lightbulbs, household cleaners, paints and coatings.

Soil properties: pH

- Soil pH depends on rainfall and amount of organic material. - More rainfall and less organic matter increases acidity.

Soil properties: Texture

- Soil texture is determined by size of the mineral particles. - Soil is classified based on the proportions of combinations of sand, silt, and clay. 1. Sand: particles 0.05 - 2mm in diameter. 2. Silt: particles 0.002 - 0.05mm in diameter. 3. Clay: particles <0.002 mm in diameter.

Should the two systems be connected or separate?

- Some storm water sewers are connected to sanitary sewers, and all this water is treated. - Heavy rains may overload the system, causing raw sewage to back up into houses and natural waterways. - Having separate sanitary and storm sewers prevents this problem. - Stormwater flowing into natural waterways can: 1. Erode stream banks. 2. Increase the temperature of the receiving water, reducing available oxygen. 3. Introduce chemicals that can harm aquatic life.

Negatives to composting

- Space needed - Takes time and patience - Insects and animals attracted

Advantages of clearcutting

- Stumps, branches, and some fallen trees are left as habitat to conserve nutrients - Safer for forest worker - Efficient and cost-effective

What do plants need?

- Sunlight - Moisture/water - Nutrients and minerals - Growing/medium space - Gases from atmosphere

Coal mining

- Surface mining: area or strip mining and contour mining. - Surface mining involves the removal of overburden, the rock and material lying on top of the proposed site. - Requires use of extremely large machines for removal of overburden (used later as backfill) and coal.

Soil properties: Porosity

- The size and number of spaces among particles of soil. - Spaces allow water and air to move through soil.

Value of a forest

- The value of a standing forest is $0. - The value of a forest after being cut down (lumber, paper) is greater than $0.

Passive Solar Collection

- Transforms energy into thermal energy without special devices. - Glass windows let solar energy in, inside air and surfaces absorb energy and radiate as thermal energy (heat). - e.g. greenhouse, closed windows in house or car.

Selective cutting

- Trees are selected for removal from mature forest based on height, girth, or species. - Trees are felled individually or in small clusters every 10-20 years. - Directed to fall in way that minimizes damage to surrounding younger trees.

Overfishing

- UN estimates 70% of the world's marine fisheries are overexploited or in danger of being overexploited. - "New" species of fish previously unacceptable are being marketed. - Wild fish in open ocean cause high competition as do not belong to any single country.

Which countries have the highest ecological footprints?

- United States - Belgium - Denmark - United Arab Emirates - Quatar

Nuclear power

- Used in mostly developed countries (e.g. United States). - Uses spontaneous fission (splitting of atoms) of uranium or plutonium to produce heat. - Heat turns water to steam that drives a turbine connected to a generator. - Reactor consists of rods of nuclear fuel mixed with control rods made of chemicals capable of slowing the rate of nuclear chain reactions. - Reactor surrounded by pressurized water or a liquid metal. - Intense nuclear reactions hear water or metal which passes to heat exchanger to transfer heat to powerhouse where reactions drive steam turbines.

What is mechanized agriculture?

- Uses machines that use fossil fuels. - Agricultural ecosystems may be: intensive (high energy input) systems or traditional (low energy input) systems.

How can we decrease our ecological footprints?

- Walk more often. - Take shorter showers and don't leave water running. - Eat more organic/non-packaged food products. - Be aware of temperature in home and throw on a sweater or wear layers.

Hydroelectric power

- Water stored in reservoir is directed along pipes to powerhouse. - Kinetic energy of falling water drives turbine connected to generator. - Further water falls and greater its volume, the bigger the turbine and generator can be, producing larger amounts of electricity.

Tidal and wave energy

- Wave and tidal power plants use regular cyclical movement of water. - Kinetic energy of ocean tides can be converted to electrical energy by turbines. - Turbines are installed underwater or wave tubes sit on the surface.

Wind power

- Wind farms use areas where wind speed i s relatively constant such as: ridge tops, coastal sites, and wide open plains. - Wind turbines need to be very large to catch wind drifts.

Disadvantages of shelterwood system

- Young trees may be damaged during harvest - More roads must be built into forest - Planning and harvesting more costly

Why is the pH level of soil so important?

- pH affects how easily nutrients can be removed from soil, affecting the kinds of plants that will grow. - Affects the amount of organic matter farmer add to the soil. - e.g. aluminum dissolves more easily in acidic soil, but high aluminum is toxic to many plants.

Composting at home

1. Collection of organic waste in outdoor pile/container. 2. Layer different organic materials, mix pile occasionally to aerate, and water. 3. Material will eventually break down and form humus.

How is an incinerator used?

1. Crane dumps waste into one end of grate, which moves waste to combustion chamber and then to an ash pit. 2. Holes in grate supply air from below, and more air is blown by nozzles over grate. - Air helps combustion, cool grate, and mix flue gases. 3. Flue gases must reach temperature of 850 degrees C for two seconds to break down toxic inorganic substances. 4. Flue gases are cooled by transferring heat to steam, which can be used to generate electricity.

What are the three methods of hazardous waste disposal?

1. Deepwell injection: liquid waste injected into natural or human-made wells deep in earth. 2. Non-retrievable storage: hazardous waste landfill lined with plastic liner and layers of compacted clay to prevent leaching; wastes separated by absorbent soil layer, and capped with plastic, clay, and soil. 3. Retrievable storage: waste stored in containers in building, cave, or abandoned mine.

What are the four categories of hazardous waste?

1. Flammable and combustible (i.e. gasoline, matches, paint thinner). 2. Corrosive (i.e. strong acids: HCI and strong bases: NaOH). 3. Reactive (i.e. gunpowder, chlorine bleach mixed with ammonia). 4. Toxic and infectious (i.e. medicines, blood products, pesticides, household polishes and cleaners).

What are the four methods of solid waste disposal?

1. Landfill 2. Incineration (burning) 3. Composting (of organic waste) 4. Dumping at sea

Three methods to capture solar energy

1. Passive solar collection 2. Active solar collection 3. Photovoltaic (PV) cells

A sustainable society must...

1. Provide all of its people with enough food, safe shelter, clean water and air. 2. Meet the needs of its people without destroying the Earth's natural capital.

How is a landfill used?

1. Solid layer is spread in 3m layers, compacted by a bulldozer, covered with a thin layer of soil, then compacted again. 2. Fill is lined and contoured to minimize contamination. 3. Select proper soil, divert upland drainage, and place waste sites in areas not subject to flooding or high groundwater levels. 4. Gases generated in landfills through anaerobic decomposition can be collected and used to generate electricity, or provide heating fuel (biogas).

What are the different types of soil layers?

1. Surface litter: Composed of loose, fallen leaves and organic matter that is partially decomposed. 2. Topsoil: Upper layer of soil that contains nutrients, organic material, and is where plants have most of their roots; dark-coloured. 3. Subsoil: Contains less organic matter and fewer organisms than topsoil; accumulates nutrients leached from topsoil. 4. Rock particles: Contains no organic matter; chemical content of materials in layer helps determine pH of soil. 5. Bedrock: solid layer of rock.

How are livestock raised?

50% of livestock are raised on rangeland or enclosed pastures while the other half are raised in confined animal feeding operations (CAFO) and feedlots.

What is irrigation?

Adding water to a field to allow crops to grow where a lack of water would prevent their cultivation - 70% of water consumption around the world. 1. Surface/flood irrigation 2. Spray irrigation 3. Drip/trickle irrigation

Municipal solid waste

All waste from homes, businesses such as office buildings, and schools. Canada leads the world in per capita production of solid waste with over 80% of this same solid waste ending up in landfill sites.

What are pesticides?

Any chemical used to control the populations of unwanted organisms or "pests."

What is solid waste?

Any material, non-hazardous or hazardous, that is discarded.

Natural capital resources

Anything obtained from the environment to meet plant, animal, or human needs e.g. raw materials, natural cycles - carbon, nitrogen, etc. - and life support systems - UV protection, biodiversity, water cleansing, and climate stability.

Oil and natural gas

Both are mixtures of hydrocarbons, molecules comprised go only hydrogen and carbon atoms.

Aquaculture or "fish farming"

Breeding, raising, and harvesting of animals in specially designed aquatic environments.

What can and cannot go in the green bin?

CAN - Fruits/vegetables - Meat, poultry, fish products - Diapers, sanitary products CANNOT - Hot drink cups, lids, sleeves - Plastic food containers, glass jars, pop cans - Dryer sheets, baby wipes, make-up pads, cotton tipped swabs, dental floss

Renewable resource

Can be replaced fairly quickly on a human scale or lifetime (e.g. forests, fresh water, air and soil).

Benefits of landfills

Cheapest method of solid waste disposal if suitable land is available close to the source of waste.

Agricultural solid waste

Comes from farms, ranches, feedlots, and many slaughterhouses.

Industrial solid wastes

Comes from manufacturing, construction, mining, and other industries.

What is ocean dumping?

Deliberate disposal of wastes at sea.

Ecological deficit

Difference between bio-capacity and ecological footprint; when the footprint of a population exceeds the bio-capacity of the area available to that population.

Capitalistic economy

Economy in which goods and services are produced to make a profit.

What is DDT?

Effective pesticide now banned because of harmful effects: - Nervous system dysfunction - Lactation problems - Premature births in humans - Reproductive dysfunction in animals - Eggshell thinning in birds

Non-renewable resource

Exist on earth in fixed amount (e.g. fossil fuels, metals such as iron and copper).

Urban forestry

Field of science that deals with long-term planning, planting, and maintenance of forests, trees, and green spaces in urban environments. Urban forests help: - Purify city air by removing dust, pollutants, and CO2. - Act as buffer to reduce noise pollution. - Increase aesthetic and economic values of homes and communities. - Provide habitats and food for many organisms.

What is organic farming?

Food produced without use of synthetic fertilizers or pesticides, hormones, antibiotics, synthetic additives, GMOs or irradiation.

What is GDP?

GDP is gross domestic product or the market value in dollars of all goods and services produced within a country during a year.

Goods and Services

Goods are things that can be touched (e.g. cellphone, table, clothing). Services are actions (e.g. haircut, healthcare, book keeping).

What is a monoculture?

Growth of a single crop in a large area of land.

What methods are used to treat hazardous waste?

Hazardous waste is treated to make it less hazardous. - Chemical: chemical conversion into less hazardous form. - Physical: applying force/devices to isolate hazardous waste for disposal. - Biological: Using organisms to reduce/remove contaminants (bioremediation). - Thermal: extreme heat applied to reduce waste volume and make less hazardous. - Immobilization: waste is fused inside glass, ceramics, or cement for disposal. - Stripping: chemicals are removed from water. - Precipitation: hazardous components of sewage bound to flocculants and removed. - Carbon absorption: activated carbon particles bind to hazardous chemicals in waste gases/liquids and then removed. - Phyto-remediation: plants (often wetlands) are used.

Human impact

Humans are the only species on earth to deplete and waste natural capital.

What is Integrated Pest Management?

IPM describes pest control practices where each crop and its pests are evaluated as part of an ecological system. - Includes biological organisms, chemical substances, and crop management to control pest populations. - Aim is not to eradicate pest population, but to reduce crop damage to an economically tolerable level. - May use natural predators, parasites or disease-causing organisms to control pest population.

Managing fisheries

Key features in fisheries management include: - Developing an understanding of the resource before harvesting. - A commitment to ongoing research into the biology of the fished species. - Developing the safeguards necessary for sustainability. - Consideration of human needs and demands.

Sustainable aquaculture

Land-based ponds or warehouses can be sustainable when raising herbivorous fish (catfish, carp, tilapia) which consume less than carnivorous fish. - e.g. In China, certain fish species are raised in rice paddies, helping fight rice pests and increasing yield.

What is another name for liquid waste?

Liquid waste, although not always containing water, is called wastewater.

Fishing method: Longline

Longline fishing boats set cables up to 130km long with hooks every 2m to catch fish such as tuna, halibut, and swordfish. - Catch unintended animals (sea birds, turtles, dolphins, sharks) called by-catch. - Caused significant reduction in shark population and endangered species such as turtles.

What is marine debris?

Marine debris, or marine litter, is human created waste that has deliberately to accidentally been released into and ocean. Debris in oceans tends to accumulate in gyres (Great Pacific Garbage Patch) and on coastlines.

Manufacturing/Industrial hazardous waste

Mining, oil and gas, chemical, and pulp and paper industries use and produce high volumes of hazardous substances; heavy metals from mining and oil and gas are large problem.

Large-scale composting technology

Modern, large-scale composting is a multi-step, closely monitored process with measured inputs of water, air and carbon- and nitrogen-rich materials.

How can we move towards sustainability?

Need a paradigm shift in values, beliefs, and perspectives and should raise awareness about environmental problems, educating people on how they can be more sustainable and eco-friendly.

What are fertilizers?

Nutrients lost though cropping can be replaced by addition of fertilizers: materials that supply nutrients to plants. 1. Organic fertilizers (carbon-based) include animal manures, green manure, compost. 2. Inorganic (synthetic) fertilizers contain simpel inorganic chemicals immediately available to the plant.

Types of forests

Old-growth: forest that has been developed for at least 120 years without severe disturbance from fire, windstorm, or logging. Even-aged: ages of trees are within 10-20 years of each other. Uneven-aged: trees with vastly different ages, complex mix of forest layers. Mature tree: tree that has grown to reach its greatest economic value for size and use.

What is companion planting?

Planting two or more species together for some benefit (type of polyculture). - e.g. Aboriginals planted the "3 sisters": corn, beans, and squash.

Fishing method: Pots and traps

Pots and traps are cages used to catch seafood such as crab, shrimp, and lobster and fish. - Pots set out on ocean attached to line with floating buoys. - By-catch includes small sized-organisms of target species. - Pots dragged along ocean floor damage habitats. - Leftover pots and cages can still trap marine life.

What is agriculture?

Practice of growing and raising plants or livestock for food or other human needs.

What is composting?

Process of breaking down organic materials, such as kitchen and yard waste, into a nutrient-rich material called compost, or humus. Can be used in gardens, landscaping, agriculture, and environmental restoration.

Sustainable agriculture

Producing food to meet needs of present without compromising ability of future generations to meet their needs. More: Organic fertilizers, irrigation efficiency, crop rotation. Less: Soil erosion, overgrazing and overfishing, food waste.

Sustainable fishing

Purse seine fishing catches fish that feed near the surface. - Spotter plane finds school of fish, boat traps using purse seine. - Hook and line fishing has fewer hooks, less by-catch. Diving for scallops, sea cucumbers or sea urchin using harpoons to catch swordfish. - No by-catch and has minimal damage on ocean floor.

Soil conservation

Reduce loss of topsoil due to erosion. 1. Crop rotation: grow different crops at different times on the same land to preserve nutrients (e.g. legumes return nitrogen to soil). 2. Organic fertilizer: compost, mulch, and green manure. - Compost adds nutrients and reduces soil erosion. - Mulch is protective ground cover that retains moisture and soil temperature. - Green manure is from vegetation and ploughed into topsoil.

Vermi-composting

Relies on worms to break down organic materials - takes up very little space and can be done at home.

Shelterwood system

Removes trees in a series of cuts over 10-30 years leaving 1/3 of mature trees standing.

Perpetual resource

Renewed continuously in a human time frame (e.g. solar, wind, etc).

How can livestock be raised sustainably?

Rotational grazing: livestock are confined to small areas for short times and moved to different areas. Smart pasture operations (SPO): smaller and feed grass to cattle (requiring less energy and producing less waste). Organic livestock: raised without growth hormones, antibiotics, GMOs, animal by-products, fertilizers, or pesticides. Polyculture system: switches between raising livestock and producing grain on same land (natural fertilizer from livestock).

Effects of hazardous substances and waste on the environment

Severity of effects depends on: - Toxicity (how harmful it is) - Duration of exposure (how long and organism is exposed) - Amount of exposure (how much of it is an organism exposed to) - Route of exposure (inhaled, ingested, or absorbed through skin)

Logging methods

Silviculture: branch of forestry related to development and management of forests. Methods include: - Clearcutting - Selective cutting - Shelterwood systems Depends on: - Tree species - Age of trees - Condition of site - Foresters and people

Sustainable society

Society which can provide for and manage its population and economy now and in the future.

Why is soil important to us?

Soil supports plant life.

What are the two types of municipal wastewater?

Storm water and sewage

Sustainable living

Sustainable living uses only perpetual or renewable resources (no use of non-renewable resources), only at a rate at which they can be replaced.

Structure of forests

The Canopy - Leaves and branches of tall, mature trees. - Crows (tops receive most of sunlight. - Covers and shades the forest. - Canopy is habitat for animals. The Understory - Young trees, shrubs and bushed adapted to living in the shade. - e.g. dogwoods, berry shrubs + snakes, birds The Forest Floor - Decomposing leaves and trees, animal droppings, other organic matter. - Breakdown contributes to nutrient cycle. - E.g. ferns, birds, rodents, amphibians

Bio-capacity

The capacity of ecosystems to regenerate what people demand from their resources or surface areas.

Sustainable yield

The highest rate a renewable resource can be used without being depleted.

Ecological footprint

The measure of how much area of protective land and water an individual, population, or activity requires to produce all the resources it consumes, and absorb all the waste it generates.

What is the waste stream?

The movement of waste from its sources to its final destination - usually landfill or incinerator.

Sustainable

The quality of not being harmful to the environment or depleting natural resources, thereby supporting long-term (indefinite) ecological balance.

Natural capital

The resources and ecological services provided by the earth that support and sustain the earth's life and economies.

Economy

The system of production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.

Forest and timber resources

Timber: wood cut from trees. - Construction - Carpentry - Wood pulp for paper products Non-timber resources: products from forests but not timber. - Food (e.g. mushrooms, ginseng, fruits, nuts, etc.) - Medicine and personal care products (e.g. drugs) - Wood-carving/craft-making (e.g. canoes) - Tourism

Fishing method: Trawling

Trawlers drag heavy nets across ocean bottom. - Organisms such as coral, sponges, and other fish are killed. - Clouds of sediment are stirred up. - Lost fishing gear (particularly drift nets) threaten marine life, including birds and mammals. - May be most damaging.

Green Bin Program

Waste in green bins is collected every week as a part of a long-term waste strategy. Saves cities millions of dollars and reduces need for more landfill sites.

Ecological overshoot

When a country or region's demands on their natural environment "overshoots" their biosphere's supply or reproductive ability.