ES 446 Exam 1 (Ch. 1)
Mechanics, kinesiology
Biomechanics: Application of - to biologic systems More specific than -
Functional Anatomy
Body components necessary to achieve goal. Focus on function. Example: Analysis of biceps curl. Is the study of the body components needed to achieve or perform a human movement or function. The prime consideration of - is not the muscle's location but the movement produced by the muscle or muscle group.
Reference Point
Both proximal and distal must be expressed relative to some -.
Upward Rotation
Bottom of the scapula moves away from the trunk, top moves toward. The scapulae can swing out such that the bottom of the scapula moves away from the trunk. This movement is termed -.
Horizontal Abduction
Combination of extension and abduction. In the arm and thigh segments, a combination of extension and abduction is called -. Horizontal extension, is a horizontal movement of the arm or thigh away from the midline of the body.
Horizontal Adduction
Combination of flexion and adduction. In the arm and the thigh segments, a combination of flexion and adduction is termed -. Sometimes called horizontal flexion, is the movement of the arm or thigh across the body toward the midline using a movement horizontal to the ground.
Dorsiflexion
Decrease angle between the foot and the shank. Specialized name for foot flexion. The movement of the foot up toward the leg that decreases the relative angle between the leg and the foot. This movement may be created by putting weight on the heels and raising the toes or by keeping the feet flat on the floor and lowering with weight centered over the foot. Any foot-leg angle less than 90 degrees is termed a - position.
Flexion
Decreasing joint angle. A bending movement in which the relative angle of the joint between two adjacent segments decreases.
Pronation of Foot
Dorsiflexion at the ankle, eversion in the tarsals, abduction of the forefoot.
Accelerated
Dynamics: Examines systems that are being - Example: Softball pitch
Kinetics
Examines forces. Biomechanical analysis. The area of study that examines the forces acting on a system, such as the human body, or any object. A - movement analysis examines the forces causing a movement. A - movement analysis is more difficult than a kinematic analysis to both comprehend and evaluate because forces cannot be seen. Only the effects of forces can be observed. Because the force cannot be seen, there is no way of accurately evaluating the force unless it can be measured with recording instruments. The forces produced during human movement are important because they are responsible for creating all of our movements and for maintaining positions or postures having no movement. The assessment of these forces represents the greatest technical challenge in biomechanics because it requires sophisticated equipment and considerable expertise. Thus, for the novice movement analyst, concepts relating to maximizing or minimizing force production in the body will be more important than evaluating the actual forces themselves. A - analysis can provide the teacher, therapist, coach, or researcher with valuable information about how the movement is produced or how a position is maintained. This information can direct conditioning and training for a sport or movement. - analyses also identify the important parts of a skill in terms of movement production. Lastly, - has played a crucial role in identifying aspects of a skill or movement that make the performer prone to injury.
Kinematics
Examines space and time. Biomechanical analysis. Concerned with the characteristics of motion from spatial and temporal perspective without reference to the forces causing the motion. A - analysis involves the description of movement to determine how fast an object is moving, how high it goes, or how far it travels. Thus, position, velocity, and acceleration are the components of interest in - analysis. Linear - analysis are the examination of the projectile characteristics of a high jumper or a study of the performance of elite swimmers. Angular - analysis are an observation of the joint movement sequence for a tennis serve or an examination of the segmental velocities and accelerations in a vertical jump. By examining an angular or linear movement -, we can identify the segments involved in that movement that require improvement or obtain ideas and technique enhancements from elite performers or break a skill down into its component parts. By each of these, we can further our understanding of human movement.
Statics
Examines systems not moving or moving at a constant speed. Example: Spaceship gliding through space. Forces are present without motion and are produced continuously to maintain positions and postures that do not involve movement. Principles of - are used to evaluate the sitting posture. - is a branch of mechanics that examines systems that are not moving or are moving at a constant speed. - systems are considered to be in equilibrium. - is also useful for determining stresses on anatomical structures in the body, identifying the magnitude of muscular forces, and identifying the magnitude of force that would result in the loss of equilibrium. Because the - case involves no change in the kinematics of the system, a - analysis is usually performed using kinetic techniques to identify the forces and the site of the force applications responsible for maintaining a posture, position, or constant speed. Kinematic analyses, however, can be applied in - to substantiate whether there is equilibrium through the absence of acceleration.
Dynamics
Examines systems that are being accelerated. Example: softball pitch. Is the branch of mechanics used to evaluate this type of movement (getting up from desk) because it examines systems that are being accelerated. - uses a kinematics or kinetic approach or both to analyze movement. An analysis of the - of an activity such as running may incorporate a kinematic analysis in which the linear motion of the total body and the angular motion of the segments are described. The kinematic analysis may be related to a kinetic analysis that describes forces applied to the ground and across the joints as the person runs.
Hyperextension
Extension beyond normal range. Can occur in many joints as the extension movement continues past the original zero position. It is common to see - movements in the trunk, arm, thigh, and hand.
Flexion, extension, hyperflexion, hyperextension
Flexion and Extension: - Decreasing joint angle - Increasing joint angle - Flexion beyond normal range - Extension beyond normal range
Hyperflexion
Flexion beyond normal range. A person can also perform - if the flexion movement goes beyond the normal range of flexion. This can happen at the shoulder only when the arm moves forward and up in flexion through 180 degrees until it is at the side of the head, and then - as it continues to move past the head toward the back.
Linear Kinetics
Force.
Anterior
Front, ventral. The location of an object or a movement relative to the front is -. - is also synonymous with ventral for a location on the human body.
Components, function
Functional Anatomy: Body - necessary to achieve goal Focus on - Example: Analysis of biceps curl
Ulnar Flexion
Hand toward the little finger. At the wrist joint, the movement of the hand toward the little finger.
Radial Flexion
Hand toward the thumb. At the wrist joint, the movement of the hand toward the thumb.
Lateral Flexion
Head or trunk only. Example: head tilts sideways. Right and left - applies only to movement of the head or trunk. When the trunk or head is tilted sideways, the movement is termed -. If the right side of the trunk or head moves so that it faces down, the movement is termed right - and vice versa.
Axial
Head, trunk, and neck are segments comprising the main part of the body, or the - portion of the skeleton. This portion of the body accounts for more than 50% of a person's weight, and it usually moves much more slowly than the other parts of the body. Because of its large size and slow speed, the trunk is a good segment to observe visually when one is learning to analyze movement or following the total body activity.
Axes
Imaginary lines that intersect at right angles. The reference frame consists of imaginary lines called - that intersect at right angles at a common point termed the origin. The - are generally given letter representations to differentiate the direction in which they are pointing. Any position can be described by identifying the distance of the object from each of the -. In two dimensional or planar movement, there are two -, a horizontal - and a vertical -. In a three dimensional movement, there are three -, two horizontal - that form a plane and a vertical -.
Relative Angle
Included angle between two segments. To discuss joint position, we must define the joint angle, or more correctly, the - - between two segments. A - - is the included angle between the two segments.
Plantarflexion
Increase angle between the foot and the shank. Specialized name for foot extension. The movement in which the bottom of the foot moves down and the angle formed between the foot and the leg increases. This movement can be created by raising the heel so the weight is shifted up on the toes or by placing the foot flat on the ground in front and moving the leg backward so that the body weight is behind the foot. Any foot-leg angle greater than 90 degrees is termed a - position.
Extension
Increasing joint angle. A straightening movement in which the relative angle of the joint between two adjacent segments increases as the joint returns to the zero or reference position.
Biomechanical, kinematics, kinetics
Kinematics vs. Kinetics: Both are - analyses - •Examines space and time - Examines forces
Anatomical, physiologic, psychological, biomechanical
Kinesiology: Scientific study of human movement -, -, -, -
Eversion
Lift lateral edge of the foot. The opposite movement of the foot: The lateral aspect of the foot lifts so that the sole of the foot faces away from the other foot.
Inversion
Lift medial edge of the foot. Takes place when the medial border of the foot lifts so that the sole of the foot faces medially toward the other foot.
Translation, translational, straight, curved, distance, time
Linear Motion: AKA - or - motion Movement on - or - pathway All points move same -, same -
Depression
Lowering the scapula. Opposite lowering movement is called -.
Rotation
Medial (internal) or lateral (external). Right/left for the head and trunk. A - can be either medial (also known as internal) or lateral (also known as external). - are designated as right and left for the head and trunk only. - occur in the vertebrae, shoulder, hip, and knee joints. - movements are important in the power phase of sport skills involving the trunk, arm, or thigh.
Angular Motion
Motion around some point. The second type of motion is - motion, which is motion around some point so that different regions of the same body segment or object do not move through the same distance in a given amount of time. Swinging around a high bar represents - motion because the whole body rotates around the contact point with the bar. To make one full revolution around the bar, the feet travel through a much greater distance than the arms because they are farther from the point of turning. It is typical in biomechanics to examine the linear motion characteristics of an activity and then follow up with a closer look at the - motions that create and contribute to the linear motion. All linear movements of the human body and objects propelled by humans occur as a consequence of - contributions. It is important to identify the - motions and their sequence that make up a skill or human movement because the - motions determine the success of failure of the linear movement. - motions occur about an imaginary line called the axis of rotation. - motion of a segment, such as the arm, occurs about an axis running through the joint. - motion can also occur about an axis through the center of mass. Finally, - motion can occur about a fixed external axis. For proficiency in human movement analysis, it is necessary to identify the - motion contributions to the linear motion of the body or an object.
Protraction
Move scapulae apart. If the two scapulae move apart, as in rounding the shoulders, the movement is termed -.
Retraction
Move scapulae together. The return movement, in which the scapulae move toward each other with the shoulders back, is called -.
Plantarflexion, dorsiflexion, inversion, eversion
Movement Descriptors of the Foot: - Increase angle between the foot and the shank - Decrease angle between the foot and the shank - Lift medial edge of the foot - Lift lateral edge of the foot
Circumduction
Movement in a conic fashion. Can be created in any joint or segment that has the potential to move in two direction, such that the segment can be moved in a conic fashion as the end of the segment moves in a circular path. - is not a simple rotation; rather, it is four movements in sequence. The movement of the arm in the creation of the imaginary O is actually a combination of flexion, adduction, extension, and abduction. - movements are also possible in the foot, thigh, trunk, head, and hand.
Elevation, depression, protraction, retraction, upward rotation, downward rotation
Movement of the Scapulae: - —raising the scapula (shrug) - —lowering the scapula - —move scapulae apart - —move scapulae together - —bottom of the scapula moves away from the trunk, top moves toward - —return to normal
Abduction
Moving away from midline. A movement away from the midline of the body or the segment. Raising an arm or leg out to the side or the spreading of the fingers or toes is an example of -.
Adduction
Moving toward midline. The return movement of the segment back toward the midline of the body or segment. Bringing the arms back to the trunk, bringing the legs together, and closing the toes or fingers are examples of -.
Reference Systems
Necessary for accurate observation and description. Fundamental and anatomical positions. A - is essential for accurate observation and description of any type of joint motion. The use of joint movements relative to the fundamental and anatomical starting position is an example of a simple -. To improve on the precision of a movement analysis, a movement can be evaluated with respect to a different starting point or position. A - is necessary to specify position of the body, segment, or object so as to describe motion or identify whether any motion has occurred. The - frame or - is arbitrary and may be within or outside of the body.
Equilibrium
No acceleration. Static systems are considered to be in -. - is a balanced state in which there is no acceleration because the forces causing a person or object to begin moving, to speed up, or to slow down are neutralized by opposite forces that cancel them out.
Qualitative
Non numerical. Based on direct observation. Equipment not necessary. Focus on time and space. Examples: Rotation of femur during golf swing; Adduction of humerus during freestyle swim. - examples in this text describe the characteristics of movement. A - analysis is a nonnumeric evaluation of motion based on direct observation. These examples can be applied directly to a particular movement situation using visual observation or video.
Quantitative
Numerical. Based on data collected. Equipment necessary. Focus in forces. Examples: Stress on shoulder during baseball pitch; Compression force on femur during landing. A - analysis is a numeric evaluation of the motion based on data collected during the performance. Movement characteristics can be presented to describe the forces or the temporal and spatial components of the activity. The application of this material to a practical setting (teaching a sport) is more difficult because it is more abstract and often cannot be visually observed. - information can be important, however, because it often substantiates what is seen visually in a qualitative analysis. It also directs the instructional technique because a - analysis identifies the source of a movement. It is through the - analysis that the source of the movement, the magnitude of the forces generated, can be identified. A force cannot be observed qualitatively, but knowing it is the source of the movement helps with qualitative assessment of its effects.
Contralateral
On opposite sides. Actions, positions, and landmark locations on the opposite side can be designated as -.
Ipsilateral
On the same side. The term - describes activity or location of a segment or landmark positioned on the same side as a particular reference point.
Rotation, lateral flexion, circumduction
Other Movement Descriptors: - Medial (internal) or lateral (external) Right/left for the head and trunk - Head or trunk only Example: Head tilts sideways - Movement in a conic fashion
Abduction, adduction
- and - is another pair of movements that is not as commonly known as flexion and extension, occurring only in particular joints, such as the metatarsophalangeal (foot), hip, shoulder, wrist, and metacarpophalangeal (hand) joints.
Six, flexion, extension
- basic movements occur in varying combinations in the joints of the body. The first two movements, - and -, are movements found in almost all of the freely movable joint in the body, including the toe, ankle, knee, hip, trunk, shoulder, elbow, wrist, and finger.
Force
A push or pull between two objects that may or may not result in motion.
Linear Motion
AKA translation or translational motion. Movement on straight or curved pathway. All points move same distance, some time. Often termed translation or translational motion. - motion is movement along a straight or curved pathway in which all points on a body or an object move the same distance in the same amount of time. Examples are the path of a sprinter, the trajectory of a baseball, the bar movement in a bench press, and the movement of the foot during a football punt. The focus in these activities is on the direction, path, and speed of the movement of the body or object. The center of mass of the body, of a segment, or of an object is usually the point monitored in a - analysis. The center of mass is the point at which the mass of the object appears to be concentrated, and it represents the point at which the total effect of gravity acts on the object. However, any point can be selected and evaluated for - motion.
Abduction, adduction, hyperabduction, hyperadduction
Abduction and Adduction: - Moving away from midline - Moving toward midline - Abduction past 180° point - Adduction past 0° point
Hyperabduction
Abduction past 180 degrees point. Can occur in the shoulder joint as the arm moves more than 180 degrees from the side all the way up past the head.
Hyperadduction
Adduction past 0 degrees point. Occurs frequently in the arm and thigh as the adduction continues past the zero position so that the limb crosses the body.
Structure, structure
Anatomy: - of the body Focus on - Example: Study of biceps brachii
Around
Angular Motion: Motion - some point
Biomechanics
Application of mechanics to biologic systems. More specific than kinesiology. In this text, - will be used as an umbrella term to describe content previously covered in courses in kinesiology as well as content developed as a result of growth of the area of -. In 1960-70s, - was developed as an area of study in undergraduate and graduate curricula across North America. The content of - was extracted from mechanics, an area of physics that consists of the study of motion and the effect of forces on an object. Mechanics is used by engineers to design and build structures and machines because it provides the tools for analyzing the strength of structures and ways of predicting and measuring the movement of a machine. - is the study of the structure and function of biological systems by means of the methods of mechanics (1). Another definition proposed by the European Society of - (2) is the study of forces acting on and generated within a body and the effects of these forces on the tissues, fluid, or materials used for the diagnosis, treatment, or research purposes. A - analysis evaluates the motion of a living organism and the effect of forces on the living organism. The - approach to movement analysis can be qualitative, with movement observed and described, or quantitative, meaning that some aspect of the movement will be measured. The use of the term - in this text incorporates qualitative components with a more specific quantitative approach. In such an approach, the motion characteristics of a human or an object are described using parameters such as speed and direction; how the motion is created through application of forces, both inside and outside the body; and the optimal body positions and actions for efficient and effective motion.
Lateral
Away from midline of the body. A position relatively far from the midline or a movement away from the midline. In the anatomical position, the thumb and the little toe are on the - side of the hand and foot, respectively, because they are farther from the midline. Pointing the toes out is a - movement.
Distal
Away from the point of attachment. Used to describe the relative position with respect to a designated reference point, with - being a point farther from the reference point.
Posterior
Back, dorsal. The location of an object or a movement relative to the back is -. - refers to the dorsal surface or position on the human body.
Supination of Foot
Plantarflexion at the ankle, inversion in the tarsals, adduction of the forefoot.
Linear and Angular Kinematics
Position, Velocity, and Acceleration.
Inversion, eversion, dorsiflexion, eversion, abduction, plantarflexion, inversion, adduction
Pronation and Supination of the Foot: Pronation and supination of the feet are not the same as - and - Pronation of the foot - at the ankle - in the tarsals - of the forefoot Supination of the foot - at the ankle - in the tarsals - of the forefoot
Non-numerical, direct, not, time, space
Qualitative: - Based on - observation Equipment - necessary Focus on - and - Examples: •Rotation of femur during golf swing •Adduction of humerus during freestyle swim
Numerical, data, necessary, forces
Quantitative: - Based on - collected Equipment - Focus on - Examples: •Stress on shoulder during baseball pitch •Compression force on femur during landing
Elevation
Raising the scapular (shrug). Raising the scapula, as in a shoulder shrug, is termed -.
Standard, front, anatomical, relaxed, inward, segments
Reference Positions: Anatomical Position: - reference point Palms face - Fundamental Position: Similar to - position Arms more - Palms face - Relative Angle: Included angle between two -
Fundamental, anatomical, axes, origin
Reference Systems: Necessary for accurate observation and description - and - positions - Imaginary lines that intersect at right angles - Point of intersection of axes
Anterior, posterior, ipsilateral, contralateral
Relative Position: - —front, ventral - —back, dorsal - —on the same side - —on opposite sides
Medial, lateral, proximal, distal, superior, inferior
Relative Position: - —toward midline of the body - —away from midline of the body - —toward the point of attachment - —away from the point of attachment - —toward the top of the head - —toward the bottom of the feet
Downward Rotation
Return to normal. The opposite movement, when the scapula swings back down into the resting position, is -.
Kinesiology
Scientific study of human movement. Anatomical, physiologic, psychological, biomechanical. - can be used in one of two ways. First, - as the scientific study of human movement can be an umbrella term used to describe any form of anatomical, physiologic, psychological, or mechanical human movement evaluation. Consequently, - has been used by several disciplines to describe many different content areas. Second, - describes the content of a class in which human movement is evaluated by examination of its source and characteristics. The course originally focused on the musculoskeletal system, movement efficiency from the anatomical standpoint, and joint and muscular actions during simple and complex movements. A typical student activity in the - course was to identify discrete phases in an activity, describe the segmental movements occurring in each phase, and identify the major muscular contributors to each joint movement. Most - analyses are considered qualitative because they involve observing a movement and providing a breakdown of the skills and identification of the muscular contributors to the movement. The content of the study of - is incorporated into many biomechanics courses and is used as a precursor to the introduction of the more quantitative biomechanical content.
Fundamental Position
Similar to anatomical position. Arms more relaxed and palms face inward. Some biomechanists prefer to use what is called the - - as the reference position. This reference position is similar to the anatomical position except that the arms are in a more relaxed posture at the sides with the palms facing in toward the trunk. Whatever starting position is used, all segmental movement descriptions are made relative to some reference position.
Head, neck, trunk, upper extremities, lower extremities
Skeleton: Axial: - - - Appendicular: - -
Flexion, adduction, extension, abduction, supination, pronation, radial flexion, ulnar flexion
Specialized Movement Descriptors: Horizontal adduction Combination of - and - Horizontal abduction Combination of - and - - —turn palms frontward - —turn palms backward - —hand toward the thumb - —hand toward the little finger
Anatomical Position
Standard reference point. Palms face front. The description of a segmental position or joint movement is typically expressed relative to a designated starting position. This reference position, or the - -, has been a standard reference point used for many years by anatomists, biomechanists, and the medical profession. In this position, the body is in an erect stance with the head facing forward, arms at the side of the trunk with palms facing forward, and the legs together with the feet point forward.
Not, constant, acceleration
Statics: Examines systems - moving or moving at a - speed Equilibrium: No - Example: Spaceship gliding through space
Anatomy
Structure of the body. Focus on structure. Example: Study of biceps brachii. The science of the structure of the body, is the base of the pyramid from which expertise about human movement is developed. It is helpful to develop a strong understanding of regional - so that for a specific region such as the shoulder, the bones, arrangement of muscles, nerve innervation of those muscles, and blood supply to those muscles and other significant structures (e.g., ligaments) can be identified.
Functional Anatomy
Subgroup of kinesiology.
Kinematics and Kinetics
Subgroups of biomechanics.
Linear and Angular
Subgroups of kinematics and kinetics.
Intertarsal, metatarsal
The foot has another set of specialized movements, called inversion and eversion, that occur in the - and - articulations.
Right Rotation
The movement of the anterior surface of the trunk so that it faces right while the posterior surface faces left.
Lateral/External Rotation
The opposite movement in which the anterior surface moves away from the midline and the posterior surface of the segment moves toward the midline.
Left Rotation
The opposite movement so that the anterior trunk faces left and the posterior trunk faces right.
Zero Position
The starting position is also called the - - for description of most joint movements. For example, when a person is standing, there is zero movement at the hip joint. If the thigh is flexed or rotated internally or externally (in or out), the amount of movement is described relative to the fundamental or anatomical starting position. Most - - appear to be quite obvious because there is usually a straight line between the two segments so that no relative angle is formed between them. - - in the trunk occurs when the trunk is vertical and in line with the lower extremity. The - - at the knee is found in the standing posture when there is no angle between the thigh and the leg. One not so obvious - - is at the ankle joint. For this joint, the - - is assumed in stance with the sole of the foot perpendicular to the leg.
Movement/Motion
The theme and focus of study in both kinesiology and biomechanics. Involves a change in place, position, or posture relative to some point in the environment. Two types are present in a human - or an object propelled by a human, linear and angular.
Ipsilateral, contralateral, ipsilateral, contralateral
Thus, when a person lifts the right leg forward, there is extensive muscular activity in the iliopsoas muscle of that leg, the - leg, and extensive activity in the gluteus medius of the - leg to maintain balance and support. In walking, as the - lower limb swings forward, the other limb, the - limb, pushes on the ground to propel the walker forward.
Angular Kinetics
Torque.
Inferior
Toward the bottom of the feet. A segment or anatomical landmark may lie on an - aspect, that is, lower than a reference segment or landmark.
Medial
Toward the midline of the body. Refers to a position relatively close to the midline of the body or object or a movement that moves toward the midline. In the anatomical position, the little finger and the big toe are on the - side of the extremity because they are on the side of the limb closest to the midline of the body. Also, pointing the toes toward the midline of the body is considered a movement in a - direction.
Proximal
Toward the point of attachment. Used to describe the relative position with respect to a designated reference point, with - representing a position closer to the reference point.
Superior
Toward the top of the head. A segment or anatomical landmark may lie on the - aspect of the body, placing it above a particular reference point or closer to the top of the head.
Pronation
Turn palms backward. The movement in which the palms face backward. Also referred to as internal rotation.
Supination
Turn palms frontward. The movement of the forearm in which the palm rotates to face forward from the fundamental starting position. Also referred to as external rotation.
Appendicular
Upper and lower extremities are termed the - portion of the skeleton. Generally speaking, as one moves away from or distal to the trunk, the segments become smaller, move faster, and are more difficult to observe because of their size and speed. The movements of the arm are typically described as they occur in the shoulder joint, forearm movements are described in relation to elbow joint activity, and hand movements are described relative to wrist joint activity. In the lower extremity, the thigh is the region between the hip and knee joints, the leg is the region between the knee and ankle joints, and the foot is the region distal to the ankle joint. The movement of the thigh is typically described as it occurs at the hip joint, leg movement is described by actions at the knee joint, and foot movements are determined by ankle joint activity.
Medial/Internal Rotation
When in the fundamental starting position, - refers to the movement of a segment about a vertical axis running through the segment so that the anterior surface of the segment moves toward the midline of the body while the posterior surface moves away from the midline.
