Ethical/Legal/Professional Issues

Describe the first three of six points under #2.01: "Boundaries of Competence," which is found in "Standard 2: Competence" of the ethical standards section of the APA's ethics code for psychologists.

"Boundaries of Competence" states that (1) psychologists remain within the limits of their competence based on training, education, study, supervised or professional experience, or consultation when delivering services, teaching, and conducting research. It says that (2) when conducting effective services or research requires an understanding of factors related to "age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, or socioeconomic status," as shown by professional or scientific knowledge in the psychology discipline, psychologists possess or acquire the experience, training, consultation, or supervision needed to assure competent services. They can also make "appropriate referrals," except in the case of emergencies. This is covered in Standard #2.02. It further states that (3) when psychologists plan to provide services, teach, or conduct research related to areas, technologies, techniques, or populations that are new to them, they pursue the pertinent training, education, study, supervised work experience, or consultation.

Summarize "Principle D: Justice," one of the general principles in the APA's ethics code.

According to "Principle D: Justice," professional psychologists should realize that justice and fairness mean that all individuals are entitled to have access to the things that psychology contributes to society, and to benefit from these things. Psychologists also acknowledge that all persons have the right to receive equal quality with respect to the services, procedures, and processes employed and provided by psychologists. This general ethical principle also states that psychologists must use reasonable judgment and take the necessary precautions to make sure that the limitations of their own expertise, the boundaries of their professional competence, and any possible biases they may possess will not condone practices that are unjust, and will not result in any unjust actions.

Describe #2.05: "Delegation of Work to Others" and #2.06: "Personal Problems and Conflicts," which are found in "Standard 2: Competence" of the ethical standards section of the APA's ethics code for psychologists.

According to #2.05: "Delegation of Work to Others," when psychologists use others' services (such as the services of interpreters) or delegate work to their teaching or research assistants, supervisees, or employees, they take reasonable actions to: (1) not delegate work to individuals who have multiple relationships with clients or patients, which would likely cause loss of objectivity or exploitation; (2) only delegate to others duties they can be expected to discharge with competence, either autonomously or with the degree of supervision given, based on their training, experience, or education; and (3) assure that those they delegate work to competently perform their duties. Standard #2.06: "Personal Problems and Conflicts" stipulates that (a) when psychologists know, or should know, that their personal problems are very likely to keep them from performing their work competently, they do not undertake such activity; and (b) when they realize personal problems may interfere with competent work, they take applicable measures, like seeking out professional help or consultation, and ascertain whether to terminate, suspend, or limit their work duties.

Provide a brief overview of the APA's Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (also known as the Ethics Code). Include a discussion of its components, what is and is not enforceable, applicability, inclusiveness, and some of the areas covered.

The components of the APA Ethics Code are its introduction, preamble, five general principles, and specific ethical standards. The introduction covers the code's intention, organization, procedural matters, and scope of application. The APA calls the preamble and general principles "aspirational goals" to motivate psychologists to try to act in accordance with psychology's highest ideals. These are not enforceable rules, but guidelines for acting ethically. Enforceable rules are given in the ethical standards section. They are written generally to apply to a wide range of contexts in which psychologists practice; individual context may affect a standard's application. The APA states these standards are "not exhaustive," meaning a given behavior may be ethical or unethical even if a standard does not specifically address it. The code covers areas including, but not limited to: "the clinical, counseling, and school practice of psychology; research; teaching; supervision of trainees; public service; policy development; social intervention; development of assessment instruments; conducting assessments; educational counseling; organizational consulting; forensic activities; program design and evaluation; and administration."

Describe the last three of six points under #2.01: "Boundaries of Competence," which is found in "Standard 2: Competence" of the ethical standards section of the APA's ethics code for psychologists.

"Boundaries of Competence" states in its fourth point that (4) if psychologists are asked to provide services for which they have not acquired the needed competence to people for whom appropriate mental health services are unavailable, psychologists with prior training or experience that is closely related to the services being requested may deliver these services to prevent such people from being denied service. This allowance is contingent upon psychologists making reasonable efforts to acquire the needed competence through pertinent study, training, research, or consultation. It says that (5) in new or emergent areas without generally accepted standards for preparation, psychologists take reasonable actions regardless to assure their competence and prevent harm to individual and organizational clients, supervisees, students, research participants, and others. This standard also states that (6) psychologists become reasonably acquainted with the administrative or judicial rules that will govern their conduct when they take on forensic roles, as in legal investigations.

Summarize "Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility," one of the general principles in the APA's ethics code.

"Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility" states that psychologists establish trusting relationships with others in their work. They realize their scientific and professional responsibility to their communities, and to society. They take responsibility for their behavior, uphold professional conduct standards, make their professional duties and roles clear, and work to control conflicts of interest that could lead to harm or exploitation. To serve others' best interests, psychologists cooperate with, consult with, or refer to other professionals and institutions as needed. Psychologists attend to their colleagues' compliance with principles of scientific and ethical conduct. Psychologists also work to give a part of their professional time and attention for "little or no compensation or personal advantage."

Summarize "Principle C: Integrity," one of the general principles in the APA's ethics code.

"Principle C: Integrity," one of the general principles of the APA ethics code, says that psychologists work to support honesty, accuracy, and being truthful in the practice, teaching, and science of psychology. In other words, psychologists do not intentionally misrepresent the facts in their professional activities; they do not cheat, steal, lie, or engage in fraud. They work to avoid commitments that are not prudent or whose nature is not clear. In specific circumstances where mitigating harm and optimizing benefit may ethically warrant the use of deception, psychologists are seriously obligated to think about the need for such deception, about its potential consequences, and about their own responsibility to rectify any harmful results and/or mistrust that might proceed from their use of deceptive practices.

Identify the bases of discrimination found unfair by Standard 3: Human Relations of the APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Describe the definition given under this standard for sexual harassment from which it prohibits psychologists in engaging.

In number 3.01 of Standard 3: Human Relations of the APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, psychologists are enjoined not to engage in unfair discrimination in their work. Such unfair discrimination is defined there as being on bases of race, ethnicity, national origin, culture, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, age, disability, socioeconomic status, "or any basis proscribed by law." Number 3.02 of this standard prohibits psychologists from sexual harassment, defined as physical sexual advances; solicitation of sex; or behavior of a sexual nature, verbal or nonverbal. Moreover, such behavior takes place related to the psychologist's work and is either unwanted, antagonistic, offends others, and the psychologist is aware or informed of it; or its intensity and/or severity constitutes abusiveness within its context to a "reasonable person." This definition includes both single acts and multiple or continuing behaviors. Standard 3.02 also cross-references Standard 1.08—Unfair Discrimination Against Complainants and Respondents.

Describe "Principle E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity," one of the general principles in the APA's ethics code.

In the general principles of the APA's ethics code, "Principle E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity" indicates that psychologists respect the value and dignity of all individuals; and that they respect all people's rights to self-determination, privacy, and confidentiality. Psychologists recognize that to protect the rights of persons or communities with vulnerabilities that impede their ability to make decisions independently, specialized safeguards may be required. Psychologists realize and show respect for individual differences, cultural differences, and differences in roles. These include differences based on "age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, and socioeconomic status." When working with members of such diverse groups, psychologists consider these factors in their interactions. They strive to eradicate any effects of biases based on these factors on their work. Psychologists also do not consciously condone, or participate in, activities of others that are based on prejudices or biases.

Enumerate eight points of which psychologists are to inform research participants according to the first of two parts of APA ethics code Standard 8.02, Informed Consent to Research; and three other standards in this code that this section cross-references.

Section (a) of Standard 8.02 references Standard 3.10, Informed Consent, which requires obtaining it; and elaborates that psychologists must inform participants of the following: (1) the intent of research, how long it is expected to take, and what its procedures; (2) participant rights to decline participation, or withdraw from it after beginning; (3) what results can be predicted from declining or withdrawing; (4) things that can be foreseen to influence participation like discomfort, adverse effects, and/or possible risks; (5) any benefits possible from research or participating in it; (6) confidentiality limits; (7) incentives if offered for participating in the research; and (8) who can be contacted to ask questions about the research and about the rights of research participants. Research psychologists are also to give participants opportunities to ask questions and have them answered. This section of the standard cross-references Standards 8.03, Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research; 8.05, Dispensing with Informed Consent for Research; and 8.07, Deception in Research.

Enumerate five points specified in the second of two parts of APA ethics code Standard 8.02, Informed Consent to Research, regarding information psychologists must provide to participants in research involving experimental treatments. Include another standard in the same code that this section cross-references.

Section (b) of Standard 8.02 enjoins psychologists who conduct intervention research using experimental treatments to make clear to participants at the beginning of such studies the following points: (1) the fact that the treatment used is experimental in nature; (2) what services will and/or will not be accessible to participants in control groups, when applicable; (3) how the researcher(s) will assign participants to control groups and treatment groups; (4) what alternatives to the experimental treatment will be available to individuals who do not want to participate in the research, or who want to withdraw from the study after it has started; and (5) any financial expenses for participating in the study and/or any financial compensation for participating in it, including where applicable whether the researcher(s) will seek any reimbursement from participants or third-party payers. This second section of the standard also cross-references Standard 8.02a, Informed Consent to Research, which is the first section of the same standard.

Explain what is covered under APA ethical Standard 10.01, Informed Consent to Therapy, including any cross-references.

Standard 10.01a requires psychologists, when acquiring informed consent to therapy, to inform patients/clients as early in the therapeutic relationship as possible about the therapy's expected course, nature, third-party involvement, and confidentiality limits; and give them adequate opportunities for asking and having their questions answered. 10.01a cross-references Standards 3.10, Informed Consent; 4.02, Discussing the Limits of Confidentiality; and 6.04, Fees and Financial Arrangements. 10.01b requires that psychologists who request informed consent for treatment wherein "generally recognized techniques and procedures" are not yet established inform patients/clients of this, including possible associated risks, available alternative treatments, and the fact that their participation is voluntary. 10.01b cross-references Standards 2.01e, Boundaries of Competence, and (again) 3.10, Informed Consent. 10.01c includes in the informed consent procedure that patients/clients be informed if their therapist is in training and the trainee's supervisor is legally responsible for the treatment; and that they be given the supervisor's name.

Describe the import of APA ethical Standard 10.02, Therapy Involving Couples or Families, including cross-referenced ethical standards.

Standard 10.02a stipulates that when psychologists have agreed to serve several related individuals—e.g., parents and children, married couples, siblings, or significant others—they will make reasonable efforts at the beginning to make clear who among these individuals is/are the patients/clients, and what relationship each individual involved will have with the therapist. This includes the role of the psychologist, and how the information acquired and/or the services given will probably be used. 10.02a cross-references Standard 4.02, Discussing the Limits of Confidentiality. Standard 10.02b clarifies that if psychologists find they will be asked to assume roles that could conflict with one another—for example, providing marriage counseling to a couple and subsequently being asked to be a witness for one member of the couple during divorce proceedings—the psychologists will take realistic actions either to change their roles, make them clear, or withdraw from them as is indicated. This section of the standard cross-references Standard 3.05c, Multiple Relationships.

Explain what is covered in APA ethical Standards 10.03, Group Therapy; and 10.04, Providing Therapy to Those Served by Others.

Standard 10.03 requires psychologists providing therapy to a group that at the beginning of therapy they identify the limits of confidentiality and the responsibilities and roles of all individuals involved. Standard 10.04 warns psychologists that when they consider providing or offering their services to individuals who are already recipients of other mental health services, their decisions should be informed by careful contemplation of the prospective patient's or client's well-being, as well as of any other treatment concerns. This standard further advises psychologists to talk about these concerns with the patient or client, or with their legally authorized representative, for the purposes of eliminating or reducing conflicts and/or confusion; to consult as is indicated with other providers of services; and to employ sensitivity to therapeutic issues and caution as they proceed.

Report the provisions of APA ethical Standards 10.05, Sexual Intimacies with Current Therapy Clients/Patients; 10.06, Sexual Intimacies with Relatives or Significant Others of Current Therapy Clients/Patients; and 10.07, Therapy with Former Sexual Partners. Briefly explain the reasons for these.

Standard 10.05 forbids psychologists from engaging in sexual intimacy with their current therapy patients or clients. Standard 10.06 likewise forbids psychologists from engaging in sexual intimacies with people they know are significant others, guardians, or close relatives of their current therapy patients/clients. It also forbids psychologists from terminating therapy to enable them to engage in such intimacies. Standard 10.07 informs psychologists that they will not accept individuals with whom they have formerly engaged in sexual intimacies to be their therapy patients/clients. The reason for all these standards is that having sexual relationships—past or present—and also therapeutic relationships with the same person(s) constitutes a clear conflict of interest. The patient/client is more vulnerable to manipulation or influencing by the therapist; the therapist's objectivity is undermined; and neither therapist nor patient/client can focus objectively on therapeutic goals or gain new insights when their relationship is not exclusively professional and therapeutic, but includes personal and sexual elements.

Describe what is provided by APA ethical Standard 10.08, Sexual Intimacies with Former Therapy Clients/Patients, including a cross-reference to a related ethical standard.

Standard 10.08a proscribes the engagement of psychologists in sexual interactions with former patients/clients for a minimum of two years after therapy termination. Standard 10.08b elaborates that even after two years psychologists should not be sexually intimate with former patients/clients "except in the most unusual circumstances." The burden of proof that they have not exploited the former patient/client resides with the psychologists who do engage in such intimacy. This proof includes the following pertinent factors: (1) how much time has elapsed since therapy termination; (2) how long and how intense the therapy was, and its specific nature; (3) the conditions under which therapy was terminated; (4) the personal history of the patient/client; (5) the current mental status of the patient/client; (6) the probability that the interaction could have unfavorable impacts on the patient/client; and (7) anything the therapist may have done or said during therapy that offered or suggested the potential of a romantic or sexual relationship between therapist and patient/client following therapy termination. 10.08b cross-references Standard 3.05, Multiple Relationships.

Identify the provisions of APA ethical Standards 10.09, Interruption of Therapy, including a cross-referenced standard; and 10.10, Terminating Therapy.

Standard 10.09 provides that psychologists make realistic attempts to arrange for fitting means of resolving their responsibility for the care of the patient/client when they establish contractual or employment relationships, in case those relationships should be ended in the future. Their primary concern according to this standard is the patient/client's welfare. This standard cross-references APA ethical Standard 3.12, Interruption of Psychological Services. Standard 10.10a provides that (a) psychologists will terminate a course of therapy when they realize (i.e., "when it becomes reasonably clear") that the patient/client will probably not benefit anymore from the therapy; does not need the therapy anymore; or is being harmed by continuing the therapy. Standard 10.10b provides that if the patient/client, or another individual who has a relationship with the patient/client, threatens or endangers the psychologist. Standard 10.10c provides that psychologists will give pre-termination counseling and suggest other service providers as is applicable. The exception stated is if the actions of the patient/client or a third-party payer prevent the psychologist from providing these.

Identify three conditions named that constitute multiple relationships in Standard 3.05 of the APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Explain how this standard distinguishes between multiple relationships that are or are not unethical.

Standard 3.05 defines multiple relationships as meeting any of these three conditions: (1) the psychologist has a relationship with someone wherein the psychologist plays both a professional role and another, separate role; (2) the psychologist plays a professional role in a relationship with a person, and concurrently is in another relationship with someone having a close relation or association with the first person; or (3) the psychologist declares an intention or promise to become involved in a future relationship with somebody who has a close relation or association with a person who is in a professional relationship with the psychologist. This standard identifies multiple relationships that would be unethical as those that can interfere with the psychologist's efficacy, competence, or objectivity in doing his or her duties as a psychologist, and/or that carry risks of harming or exploiting the other party to a professional relationship. It defines multiple relationships that are not unethical as those not "reasonably" expected to cause or risk any such harm, exploitation, or impairment.

Describe what psychologists are expected to do by APA ethical Standard 8.08, Debriefing.

Standard 8.08 requires firstly that psychologists will timely give research participants opportunities for getting suitable information about the nature of the research, its results, and conclusions drawn by the researchers; and rectify any misunderstandings they know of that the participants may entertain. This ethical standard provides secondly that psychologists will take "reasonable" steps to minimize harm to research participants if any humane or scientific values should warrant the withholding or delaying of giving such information about the research to those participants. Thirdly, this standard provides that if psychologists ever find out that any of the procedures they have used in conducting their research have caused harm to any of the participants in their studies, they take "reasonable" actions to reduce such harm to the minimum amount that is possible.

Explain what is contained in Standard 3.06, Conflict of Interest, of the APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Also define what is prescribed by Standard 3.07, Third-Party Request for Services, of this code.

Standard 3.06 addresses conflicts of interest. It specifies psychologists will not assume any professional capacity wherein they could "reasonably" expect their competence, effectiveness, or objectivity to be compromised by any other professional, scientific, legal, financial, personal, or other relationships and/or interests. It also stipulates that psychologists not enter into any professional relationship that could expose the other person involved to any kind of exploitation or harm. Standard 3.07 states that whenever they are asked by a third party to provide an entity or individual with services, the psychologists initially try to make the nature of the relationship clear to all those involved. This includes defining the psychologist's role, e.g., as an expert witness, consultant, diagnostician, or therapist. It also includes identifying the client, how the services will likely be utilized, what information will be acquired, and confidentiality limitations. Standard 3.07 cross-references Standard 3.05, Multiple Relationships, and Standard 4.02, Discussing the Limits of Confidentiality.

Identify the examples of persons/roles named in Standard 3.08, Exploitative Relationships, of the APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Also identify all of the other standards cross-referenced by this standard. In addition, state the content and cross-reference of Standard 3.09, Cooperation with Other Professionals.

Standard 3.08 states that psychologists refrain from exploiting people they hold authority over, including such individuals as their supervisees, students, patients or clients, employees, and participants in their research. This standard cross-references the following other APA Standards: 3.05, Multiple Relationships; 6.04, Fees and Financial Arrangements; 6.05, Barter with Clients/Patients; 7.07, Sexual Relationships with Students and Supervisees; 10.05, Sexual Intimacies with Current Therapy Clients/Patients; 10.06, Sexual Intimacies with Relatives or Significant Others of Current Therapy Clients/Patients; 10.07, Therapy with Former Sexual Partners; and 10.08, Sexual Intimacies with Former Therapy Clients/Patients. Standard 3.09 states simply that psychologists will cooperate with other professionals in the interest of appropriately and effectively serving their patients or clients whenever such cooperation is appropriate professionally and is also indicated. This standard cross-references Standard 4.05, Disclosures of the same code.

Describe #3.10: "Informed Consent" in "Standard 3: Human Relations" of the ethical standards section of the APA's ethics code.

Standard 3.10: "Informed Consent" stipulates that (a) when psychologists do research or provide services using electronic or other forms of transmission, they use language understood by the individuals involved to get their informed consent. Exceptions are government regulations and legal mandates to conduct these activities without consent, and any provisions otherwise in the Ethics Code. The standard also stipulates that (b) with persons unable to give informed consent, psychologists regardless (1) give an explanation; (2) request agreement; (3) consider the individual's best interests and desires; and (4) when legally required or allowed, get permission or assent from a legally authorized proxy. When consent from such a legal substitute is not legally required or allowed, psychologists take reasonable actions to protect the well-being and rights of the individual. With court-ordered or mandated psychological services, psychologists inform the individual whether the expected services are court-ordered or mandated, of any limits on confidentiality, and anything else relevant to the nature of the services before continuing (c). Finally, psychologists document oral or written consent appropriately, as well as permission and assent (d).

Identify the main standard under which Standard 4.01, Maintaining Confidentiality, falls in the APA ethics code and describe its meaning. Identify another standard that it cross-references and why.

Standard 4.01, Maintaining Confidentiality, falls under main Standard 4: Privacy and Confidentiality of the APA Ethics code. Standard 4.01 specifically expresses that it is a foremost duty of psychologists to take realistic measures for the protection of confidential material they have acquired through or saved "in any medium," with the knowledge that laws, professional and scientific relationships, and/or existing rules of institutions may regulate the degrees and constraints upon the confidentiality of that material. This standard also cross-references Standard 2.05, Delegation of Work to Others, because when psychologists delegate work to other parties it is often necessary for them to share confidential records with those delegated, especially if the work delegated involves counseling, therapy, interviewing, follow-up, consultation, or serving as an expert witness. Thus, the psychologist must both share confidential information, and also protect the confidentiality of that information beyond sharing it with the delegated other(s).

Describe the content of the APA ethical code's Standard 4.03, Recording, including cross-references; and Standard 4.04, Minimizing Intrusions on Privacy.

Standard 4.03, Recording, requires psychologists to get consent from all involved people whom they serve or their legal representatives before they record their images and/or voices. This standard cross-references Standards: 8.03, Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in research; 8.05, Dispensing with Informed Consent for Research; and 8.07, Deception in Research. Standard 4.04, Minimizing Intrusions on Privacy, contains two requirements. The first (a) says that when psychologists make oral and written consultations and reports, they include only the information that is relevant to the purpose for which they are communicating through those consultations and/or reports. The second (b) stipulates regarding confidential information that psychologists acquire in their work activities, that they only discuss this information with people whose concern with the material is obvious; and only for professional and/or scientific reasons that are appropriate.

Explain what ethical principles are included under APA Standard 9.02, Use of Assessments.

Standard 9.02a tells psychologists that when they administer assessment instruments, tests, interviews, or techniques; adapt these, score them, interpret, or otherwise use them, they must do so for goals and in ways that are suitable considering the evidence of and/or research into evidence of their correct application and utility. Standard 9.02b instructs psychologists to utilize assessment instruments that have been found to be reliable and valid when used with members of the normative or representative population(s); or when assessment instruments do not have established reliability and validity, to communicate the limitations and strengths of the results and interpretation of these instruments. Standard 9.02c advises psychologists to employ methods of assessment that are congruent with the linguistic competence and language preference of the individuals being tested, unless using a different language is pertinent to assessment concerns [e.g., with ESL/ELL/TOEFL, etc.].

Explain what ethical principles are defined in APA Ethical Code Standard 4.05, Disclosures. Include a cross-reference to another standard in the same code.

Standard 4.05, Disclosures, requires psychologists to obtain consent from individual patients or clients, their agents or representatives with legal authorization on the patient's or client's behalf; or from organizations that are their clients, to disclose any confidential information about them. The exception to this requirement is if such disclosure and/or consent are illegal. This standard also specifies that psychologists can only disclose confidential information without client consent if a law mandates them to do so; if a law allows it for a valid reason, e.g., for giving necessary professional service, getting needed professional consults, protecting the patient or client, psychologist, and/or others against harm, or collecting patient or client payment for services the psychologist has rendered. In these aforementioned circumstances, the standard specifies that such disclosure without consent must be the minimum needed for accomplishing its objective. This standard cross-references Standard 6.04e, Fees and Financial Arrangements.

State what is covered in Standard 4.06, Consultations, and Standard 4.07, Use of Confidential Information for Didactic or Other Purposes, of the APA ethics code.

Standard 4.06, Consultations, states that when psychologists consult with their colleagues, they must not share confidential information that could identify the patient or client, research subject, or any other individual or group in a confidential relationship with the psychologists, unless the group or person has previously given consent, or such disclosure is unavoidable. When they do make such disclosures, the standard further specifies that they disclose only as much information as is needed to meet the objectives of the consultation. This standard cross-references Standard 4.01, Maintaining Confidentiality. Standard 4.07, Use of Confidential Information for Didactic or Other Purposes, prohibits psychologists from disclosing confidential information acquired through their work that could personally identify individual or organizational clients, patients, research participants, students, or other service recipients. This standard only allows such disclosure if psychologists disguise those who could be identified; or if those persons have given written consent; or if the psychologists are legally authorized to disclose the information.

Explain the content of Standard 5.02, Statements by Others, of the APA ethical principles and code of conduct for psychologists, including its cross-reference to another standard. Give an example of the third/last requirement of this standard.

Standard 5.02 articulates that psychologists are professionally responsible for any statements made by others engaged by those psychologists to make or disseminate public statements to promote the psychologists' professional practices, products, or actions. It also stipulates that if psychologists receive publicity from being included in news reports, articles, stories, etc., they do not give compensation to TV, radio, print, electronic, or other communications media employees in exchange for that publicity. This standard cross-references the same code's Standard 1.01, Misuse of Psychologists' Work, which relates to the same ethical issues. Standard 5.02 furthermore requires that psychologists must clearly identify or otherwise make clearly recognizable any paid advertisements of or related to the psychologists' work as being a paid advertisement. For example, advertisements on TV, in print, or online for a psychologist's services frequently include a line of small text at the bottom saying, "This is a paid advertisement for [psychologist name and degree or credentials]" or words to that effect.

Identify which responsibilities of psychologists are indicated in Standards 5.03, Descriptions of Workshops and Non-Degree-Granting Educational Programs; and 5.04, Media Presentations, of the APA ethical standards and code of conduct. Include the latter's cross-referenced standard and the reason.

Standard 5.03 charges psychologists with the responsibility, within their control, for assuring the accuracy of descriptions of the intended recipients, educational goals, presenters, and associated costs of educational programs, seminars, workshops, etc., that do not grant degrees in the advertisements, brochures, catalogs, or announcements that publicize such programs. Standard 5.04 assigns responsibility to psychologists for also assuring the accuracy of their own public comments, statements, or advice when they give these through print or electronic media. This includes seeing that such statements they make are consistent with their own professional experience, training, and/or knowledge and with relevant psychological practices and literature; are congruent with the APA Ethics Code containing the standard; and do not show a professional relationship having been formed with whoever is/are receiving their statements. Standard 5.04 also cross-references Standard 2.04, Bases for Scientific and Professional Judgments, as both pertain to the ethical consideration that psychologists' judgments and statements be based in the professional and scientific knowledge of their discipline.

Summarize the import of Standards 5.05, Testimonials, and 5.06, In-Person Solicitation, of the APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, including their reasons and two exceptions to Standard 5.06.

Standard 5.05, Testimonials, warns psychologists not to solicit any recommendations or testimonials about their services from their current patients or clients, because current patients or clients have greater vulnerability than others to being influenced unfairly by their therapists. This vulnerability is also the reason for Standard 5.06, In-Person Solicitation, which forbids psychologists to solicit existing or prospective patients or clients—directly or via others acting as their agents—to give the psychologists their business. There are two exceptions named in this second standard: (1) Psychologists may solicit persons to be ancillary contacts who would be of additional benefit to the psychologists' existing patients or clients; and (2) psychologists may "solicit" business from clients to whom they will be delivering psychological services as a part of community outreach or disaster relief outreach services.

Cite five purposes for which psychologists are tasked with managing records in their work, as identified by APA ethics code Standard 6.01, Documentation of Professional and Scientific Work and Maintenance of Records. Also summarize three aspects of confidential records management, as stated in Standard 6.02, Maintenance, Dissemination, and Disposal of Confidential Records of Professional and Scientific Work. Identify which standards are cross-referenced by each of these standards.

Standard 6.01 requires psychologists to produce data and records related to their work and, insofar as they have control, to be responsible for disseminating, maintaining, retaining, storing, and disposing of these data and records. Five reasons cited for these are: (1) expediting subsequent service provision by them and/or other professionals; (2) enabling research analyses and designs to be replicated; (3) fulfilling requirements of institutions; (4) making billing and payments accurate; and (5) complying with laws. This standard cross-references Standard 4.01, Maintaining Confidentiality. Standard 6.02 adds that (1) in management of records—printed, electronic, or in other media—psychologists preserve their confidentiality. Moreover, if confidential information is input to records systems or databases, others can access without patient/client consent, psychologists must (2) conceal patient/client personal identities using coding, etc.; and (3) plan ahead for transferring records and preserving their confidentiality if they leave their practices or positions. Standard 6.02 cross-references: Standards 4.01, Maintaining Confidentiality, as Standard 6.01 does; 6.01 itself; 3.12, Interruption of Psychological Services; and 10.09, Interruption of Therapy.

Summarize Standard 6.03, Withholding Records for Nonpayment of the APA ethical code; and Standard 6.04, Fees and Financial Arrangements, including which standards the latter cross-references.

Standard 6.03 prohibits psychologists from withholding patient/client records they control for nonpayment if these are needed for patient/client emergency treatment. Standard 6.04 enjoins psychologists to make agreements with patients/clients regarding billing and payment arrangements as soon as is practicable in the scientific or professional relationship. It also requires psychologists to use fee practices conforming to laws, and not to misrepresent their fees. Further, if psychologists expect limits on their services due to patient/client financial limitations, this standard enjoins psychologists to discuss this with patients/clients as soon as is practicable. This requirement cross-references Standards 10.09, Interruption of Therapy, and 10.10, Terminating Therapy. This standard moreover states that if the patient/client does not pay as agreed upon for the psychologist's services and the psychologist then plans to use a collection agency, the psychologist must first notify the patient/client of this and give the patient/client a chance to pay promptly before initiating this measure. This requirement cross-references Standards 4.05, Disclosures; 6.03, Withholding Records for Nonpayment; and 10.01, Informed Consent to Therapy.

Sum up the content of Standards 6.05, Barter with Clients/Patients; 6.06, Accuracy in Reports to Payors and Funding Sources; and 6.07, Referrals and Fees, including cross-referenced standards, of the APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct.

Standard 6.05 states that barter, i.e., trading services, goods, or other non-money forms of compensation, for services by psychologists is only allowed if (1) there is no clinical contraindication; and (2) a bartering agreement does not exploit either party. Standard 6.05 cross-references Standards 3.05, Multiple Relationships; and 6.04, Fees and Financial Arrangements. Standard 6.06 requires psychologists to assure that the nature of services delivered, research conducted; fees or payments; and provider identity, findings regarding patients/clients, and diagnoses where these apply, are reported accurately. This standard cross-references Standards 4.01, Maintaining Confidentiality; 4.04, Minimizing Intrusions on Privacy; and 4.05, Disclosures. Standard 6.07 stipulates that except for in employee-employer relationships, whenever psychologists are paid, pay, or split fees with other professionals, the payment each of them receives is not based on the referral, but on delivered services—consultative, administrative, clinical, or other. This standard cross-references Standard 3.09, Cooperation with Other Professionals.

Explain what is covered by APA ethics code Standards 7.01, Design of Education and Training Programs, including a cross-referenced standard; and 7.02, Descriptions of Education and Training Programs.

Standard 7.01 requires psychologists who are responsible for training and/or educational programs to see that the design of these programs affords the experiences and knowledge needed by students, and satisfies the necessities for licensure, certification, other credentialing, and/or other objectives the program claims to meet. This standard cross-references Standard 5.03, Descriptions of Workshops and Non-Degree-Granting Educational Programs. Standard 7.02 also addresses psychologists responsible for training and/or educational programs, enjoining them to assure accurate descriptions of the content of such programs. This includes whether courses or programs require course-related participation in psychotherapy, counseling, experiential groups, community service, or consulting projects. Psychologists are also required to assure accuracy in the descriptions of training objectives and goals; of requirements that must be fulfilled to complete the programs satisfactorily; and of any benefits and stipends. In addition to making this information accurate, psychologists must also make it easily accessible by all those interested.

Describe what is required of psychologists by APA ethical code Standard 7.03, Accuracy in Teaching, what is allowed by it, and which other standard in this code it cross-references. Summarize Standard 7.04, Student Disclosure of Personal Information, in the same ethical code.

Standard 7.03 requires teaching psychologists to make their course syllabi accurate concerning what subjects will be covered, the nature of experiences, and how student learning/performance will be assessed. This standard allows psychologist instructors to change course requirements and/or content as they see fit, providing they notify students of these changes such that the students are still able to satisfy the requirements. This part of the standard cross-references Standard 5.01, Avoidance of False or Deceptive Statements. Psychologists must also accurately present psychological information when training/teaching. Standard 7.04 prohibits psychologists from requiring students or supervisees to disclose personal information about history of abuse and neglect, sexual history, relationships with family/friends, or psychological treatment—either written or oral—in program-related/course-related activity, with two exceptions: (1) the requirement was clearly stated in program and admissions materials; or (2) this information is needed for evaluating and/or getting help for students whose personal issues could interfere with their conducting professional and/or training activities competently, and/or threaten themselves and/or others.

Identify what is contained in APA Ethical Standard 7.05, Mandatory Individual or Group Therapy, including cross-references to other standards of this ethical code.

Standard 7.05 of the ethical code stipulates that when an educational or training course or program for undergraduate or graduate students requires those students to participate in individual therapy or group therapy, the psychologists who are responsible for that course or program will give the students the choice of obtaining that therapy from practitioners who are or are not affiliated with the educational or training course or program in which the students are participating. This part of the standard cross-references Standard 7.02, Descriptions of Education and Training Programs, which requires teaching psychologists to make such course or program information accurate and accessible. The second part of Standard 7.05 stipulates that psychologists who are the faculty members responsible or likely to be responsible for assessing the academic performance of students taking courses that require attendance in therapy, those faculty psychologists must not also be the providers of that required therapy. This part cross-references Standard 3.05, Multiple Relationships, which addresses conflicts of interest, including this kind.

State the content of Standards 7.06, Assessing Student and Supervisee Performance, and 7.07, Sexual Relationships with Students and Supervisees, of the APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Include which standard is cross-referenced in Standard 7.07.

Standard 7.06 advises psychologists who supervise students, interns, and employees to give them information about the supervision process at its outset; and to have created specific, timely processes for giving their supervisees and students feedback, which information they will give them when they begin the supervisory interactions. This standard also enjoins psychologists to use existing and pertinent program requirements as bases for evaluating their supervisees and students, and to make such evaluations based on the supervisees' and/or students' actual performance. Standard 7.07 states that psychologists do not have sexual relationships with supervisees or students whom they have the authority to evaluate, or are likely to have such authority; or even those who are located in the same agency, training center, or department as the psychologists are. This standard cross-references Standard 3.05, Multiple Relationships, of the same ethical code, as such relationships constitute conflicts of interest.

State the content of the APA ethical code's Standard 8.01, Institutional Approval; and of its Standard 8.03, Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research including a cross-referenced standard.

Standard 8.01 specifies that when psychologists are required to obtain approval from an institution(s) for conducting research, they give correct information about their proposed investigations; acquire the necessary approval before doing their proposed research; and do it according to approved protocols. Standard 8.03 stipulates that psychologists get participants' informed consent before they record their voices and/or images for the purposes of collecting data. Exceptions to this rule are if: (1) naturalistic observations made in public locations comprise the data collection, and this recording of voices and images are not expected to be applied to identify participants personally or harm them; and (2) deception is a part of the research design, and the research includes debriefing during which consent to use the recordings is acquired. Standard 8.03 also cross-references Standard 8.07, Deception in Research, which is a part of the same ethical code.

State what two provisions are required of psychologists in APA ethics code Standard 8.04, Client/Patient, Student, and Subordinate Research Participants; and what two provisions are required by Standard 8.06, Offering Inducements for Research Participation, including a cross-referenced standard.

Standard 8.04a requires psychologists who will conduct research with participants who are their patients, clients, subordinates, or students, they protect these potential participants from any unfavorable consequences if they decline or withdraw from participating. Standard 8.04b requires that when psychologists make participating in research an opportunity to earn extra course credit or a requirement of a course, they also offer the potential participants choices of comparable activities as alternatives to research participation. Standard 8.06a enjoins psychologists not to offer monetary or other inducements that are inappropriate or overmuch and could constitute coercion to participate in research. Standard 8.06b provides that if psychologists offer professional services as incentives for participating in research, they must make clear the nature, limitations, risks, and obligations of the services offered. This section of the standard cross-references Standard 6.05, Barter with Clients/Patients under the same APA ethical code.

Explain what is contained in APA ethical Standard 8.05, Dispensing with Informed Consent for Research.

Standard 8.05 outlines the conditions under which psychologists are allowed to waive informed consent for research. One main category is as allowed by law, or by institutional or federal regulations. Another is if research is not expected to cause harm or distress. Under this category is further included the following conditions: (a) The research studies normal educational curricula, practices, or classroom management techniques that are performed in education settings; (b) The study protects participant confidentiality and uses only archival research, naturalistic observations, or anonymous questionnaires and participant responses would not risk damage to their reputations, employable status, or financial standing or risk civil or criminal liability; or (c) The research studies variables that are associated with organizational or job effectiveness, is conducted in organizational settings, places participants at no risks to their jobs or employability, and protects their confidentiality.

Explain the import of APA ethical Standard 8.07, Deception in Research, including a cross-referenced standard of the same code.

Standard 8.07a provides that psychologists do not use deception in their research studies unless they have previously ascertained that effective alternatives without deception are not practicable, and that the study will afford significant enough value educationally, scientifically, and/or in application to warrant its use of deceptive procedures. Standard 8.07b provides that if they expect their research to cause physical or emotional pain, psychologists will not deceive potential participants about this. Standard 8.07c provides that whenever any kind of deception is an integral part of their experimental research design, psychologists will explain that deception to their participants as soon as possible; i.e., as soon as their participation is complete, which is preferable, and when data have been collected at the very latest; and that psychologists will also allow participants to withdraw their data at that time. This standard also cross-references the following Standard 8.08, Debriefing, which concerns information psychologists should give to research participants at the end of a study.

Report the content of the first three sections of APA ethical Standard 8.09, Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research, including a standard cross-referenced in the third section.

Standard 8.09a provides that psychologists will comply with professional standards as well as with current federal, state, and local regulations and laws in the ways that they obtain, take care of, utilize, and dispose of animals in their research. Standard 8.09b provides that when laboratory animals are used in psychological research studies, all of the research procedures involving those laboratory animals are always supervised by psychologists who have training in methods of research and experience in how to care for laboratory animals; and that those qualified supervising psychologists are responsible for making sure that the humane treatment, health, and comfort of the animals is considered and ensured appropriately. Standard 8.09c requires psychologists to assure that all of the individuals whom they supervise and who work with animals have been instructed in research methods and in how to maintain, handle, and care for the species of animal(s) involved, to the degree(s) applicable to the research/work roles of those individuals. This section cross-references Standard 2.05, Delegation of Work to Others.

Indicate the provisions of the last four sections of APA ethical Standard 8.09, Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research.

Standard 8.09d requires psychologists to keep to the minimum any pain, discomfort, illness, and infection in animals that they use in research. Standard 8.09e provides that psychologists will not subject animals they use for research to deprivation, stress, or pain except if no alternative procedures are available and the potential applied, educational, or scientific value of the goal of the research justifies it. Standard 8.09f requires psychologists to use suitable anesthesia when performing surgical procedures on animals, and to adhere to infection prevention and pain reduction techniques during and following surgeries. Standard 9.09g provides that when it has been deemed necessary or appropriate to terminate the life of an animal used in research, psychologists will make efforts to keep pain to a minimum for the animal, proceed quickly with the termination, and do so according to the procedures that are approved for doing so.

State the provisions of APA ethical standards 8.10, Reporting Research Results; 8.11, Plagiarism; and 8.12, Publication Credit. Include any standards cross-referenced in any of these.

Standard 8.10a prohibits psychologists from fabricating data, and cross-references Standard 5.01a, Avoidance of False or Deceptive Statements. Standard 8.10b provides if psychologists find significant mistakes in their published data, they retract or correct them, publish errata, or use other suitable publishing methods. Standard 8.11 prohibits psychologists from representing any of others' data/work as their own, including cited sources. Standard 8.12a requires psychologists take credit, including as authors, and responsibility only for work they significantly contributed to or performed; cross-referencing Standard 8.12b, which requires publication credits, including for principal authorship, to reflect correctly relative professional/scientific contributions of involved individuals irrespective of status. Author credit is not warranted simply by department chairmanships or other institutional positions. Minor writing and/or research contributions require suitable acknowledgements, e.g., in introductions, footnotes, etc. Standard 8.12c requires doctoral dissertations to name doctoral students as principal authors among multiple authors (with some unusual exceptions); and faculty advisors to discuss publishing credits with students early and throughout the process as suitable. 8.12c also cross-references 8.12b.

Report what is required by APA ethical Standards 8.13, Duplicate Publication of Data, and 8.15, Reviewers.

Standard 8.13, Duplicate Publication of Data, prohibits psychologists from publishing previously published data as original data. However, it is acceptable and is not prohibited for psychologists to republish existing data as long as they give the correct acknowledgments to the previous publishers of those data. Standard 8.15, Reviewers, requires that when psychologists review any material that has been submitted for approval to be presented, to be published, as part of a proposal of research, or in a proposal of research that is part of an application for a funding grant; those psychologists will observe the proprietary rights of the persons who have submitted the material, and they will also observe the confidentiality of the information that those persons have submitted.

Describe the provisions of APA ethical Standard 8.14, Sharing Research Data for Verification.

Standard 8.14a provides that after psychologists have published the results of their research and other qualified professionals want to reanalyze the data the researchers used as bases for their research conclusions to confirm the "substantive" claims made by the publishing researchers—and will use those data for only that reason—the psychologists who published the research will not withhold those data. Though they may not withhold the data, psychologists are not prohibited from holding the other professionals responsible for the expenses related to providing it to them. Standard 8.14b provides that when psychologists ask other psychologists for data for the purpose of reanalyzing the data in order to confirm substantive claims, the requesting psychologists are allowed to use the data for only that purpose. This section of the standard also requires the psychologists requesting such data to acquire written consent in advance for using the data in any other way(s).

Summarize the import of APA ethical Standard 9.01, Bases for Assessments. Include any standards within the same code that are cross-referenced in this standard.

Standard 9.01a requires that when psychologists give forensic testimony, evaluations, diagnoses, reports, or recommendations, they base their opinions therein on methods and information adequate to corroborate them. This section cross-references Standard 2.04, Bases for Scientific and Professional Judgments. Standard 9.01b, noting 9.01c as an exception, requires psychologists to conduct adequately supporting examinations of individuals before making conclusions or statements about their psychological characteristics. When such examination is not feasible, this standard requires psychologists to document their attempts and the outcomes; make clear the expected effects of their limited information on the validity and reliability of their opinions; and limit accordingly the degree and character of the recommendations or conclusions they make. This section cross-references Standards 2.01, Boundaries of Competence; and 9.06, Interpreting Assessment Results. Standard 9.06c provides that when giving supervision or consultation, or doing records reviews, and their opinions do not require individual examinations, psychologists explain that and provide the information sources that are the bases for their recommendations and/or conclusions.

Summarize the provisions of APA Standard 9.03, Informed Consent in Assessments, including other standards in the same code that it references or cross-references.

Standard 9.03a requires psychologists to get informed consent for diagnostic, assessment, or evaluation services, referencing Standard 3.10, Informed Consent. Exceptions are if: (1) laws or government regulations mandate testing; (2) routine organizational/institutional/educational procedures, as for job applications, imply informed consent; (3) assessing decision-making ability is part of testing. Explaining the purpose and nature of assessment, third-party involvement, fees, confidentiality limits, and adequate opportunities to ask and have questions answered are included under informed consent. 9.03b requires psychologists testing persons with dubious capacity to consent, and/or when government regulations or laws mandate testing, to inform those to be tested of the purpose and nature of assessment, using language understandable to them. 9.03c requires psychologists to get informed consent to use interpreter services; preserve test security and confidentiality of test results; and include any data limitations in their testimony, reports, evaluative or diagnostic statements, or recommendations. 9.03c cross-references 2.05, Delegation of Work to Others; 4.01, Maintaining Confidentiality; 9.01, Bases for Assessments; 9.06, Interpreting Assessment Results; and 9.07, Assessment by Unqualified Persons.

Describe the content of APA ethical Standard 9.04, Release of Test Data, including a cross-referenced standard from the same code.

Standard 9.04a defines "test data" as responses of patients or clients to stimuli or test questions; raw scores; scaled scores; and psychologists' recordings and notes about patient or client behavior and statements they have made during examinations by the psychologists. It allows psychologists to give such test data to patients or clients, or identified others, if the patient or client has executed a release of this information. It also allows psychologists to protect patients or clients or others from harm and/or misrepresentation or misuse of data or tests by refusing to release such data, adding that under such conditions, the release of such confidential information is often regulated by laws. Standard 9.04a also cross-references Standard 9.11, Maintaining Test Security. Standard 9.04b states that psychologists will only furnish test data as mandated by court order or by law when there is no patient/client release of information.

Identify what is prescribed in APA ethical Standards 9.05, Test Construction; and 9.06, Interpreting Test Results.

Standard 9.05 requires psychologists who create assessment methods or instruments, including tests, to utilize current professional or scientific knowledge and applicable psychometric practices for designing the tests, validating them; standardizing the tests; eliminating or reducing biases in the tests; and making recommendations for using them. Standard 9.06 requires that when psychologists interpret test results, including the use of automated interpretations, they will keep in mind the reasons for the testing; the variables within the test; the characteristics of the individual being tested, including linguistic, cultural, situational, and personal differences, test-taking abilities, etc., that could decrease the veracity of the psychologists' interpretations or influence their judgments. Psychologists are also directed to communicate any significant ways in which their interpretations of assessments are limited. This standard also cross-references Standards 2.01b and 2.01c under 2.01, Boundaries of Competence; and Standard 3.01, Unfair Discrimination.

Describe the content of APA ethical Standards 9.07, Assessment by Unqualified Persons; and 9.08, Obsolete Tests and Outdated Test Results. Include a cross-referenced standard.

Standard 9.07 prohibits psychologists from advancing the utilization of psychological testing methods by people who are unqualified to do so. The only exception to this rule is during appropriately supervised training, as when psychologists supervise and/or train students, interns, or employees in conducting psychological assessments. This standard cross-references APA ethical Standard 2.05, Delegation of Work to Others. Standard 9.08a prohibits psychologists from making recommendations or decisions about interventions or assessments on the bases of test results or data that are out of date relative to the current purposes for such intervention or assessment recommendations or decisions. Standard 9.08b adds that psychologists will not use tests and measurements that are "...obsolete and not useful for the current purpose" as the bases for their recommendations or decisions.

State what is included in APA ethical Standard 9.09, Test Scoring and Interpretation Services, including a cross-referenced standard.

Standard 9.09a specifies that that when psychologists provide or offer their services for testing or test-scoring to other professionals, they will correctly depict the procedures used; any special requirements for using them; their purposes; their norms; their validity and reliability; and their applications. Standard 9.09b requires psychologists to choose services for scoring and interpretation, including automated ones, based on evidence that the procedures and programs involved in those services are valid, and based on other applicable factors. Standard 9.09b also cross-references Standards 2.01b and 2.01c under 2.01, Boundaries of Competence, of the same ethical code. Standard 9.09c assigns to psychologists the responsibility for correctly using, applying, and interpreting assessment instruments. This responsibility is applicable regardless of whether the psychologists themselves do the scoring and interpretation of the tests, or they use other services including automated services for test scoring and interpretation.

Summarize the content of APA ethical Standards 9.10, Explaining Assessment Results, and 9.11, Maintaining Test Security, including a cross-reference to an associated standard.

Standard 9.10 enjoins psychologists to see that explanations of test results are communicated to the person(s) tested or their designated representative(s), irrespective of whether the psychologists score and interpret these tests or others do. Exceptions to providing explanations of test results include forensic evaluations, security screenings, pre-employment screenings, and some organizational consulting, wherein the nature of the interaction prohibits explaining test results; in which case they must explain this prohibition clearly to individuals being tested before testing. Standard 9.11 defines the term "test materials" as stimuli, test questions, protocols, instruments, and manuals. It states that "test materials" do not include "test data" as defined in Standard 9.04, Release of Test Data, which is cross-referenced herein. Standard 9.11 obliges psychologists to preserve the integrity of assessment methods including test materials according to contractual requirements and laws, and in ways allowing compliance with the APA Ethics Code containing these standards.

Describe the last four of eight points under "Standard 1: Resolving Ethical Issues" in the ethical standards of the APA's code of ethics for psychologists.

The fifth point, #1.05: "Reporting Ethical Violations," says that if an apparent violation of ethics has significantly harmed an individual or group (or is likely to do so), and the informal resolution advocated under Standard 1.04 is inappropriate (or was attempted and failed), psychologists take additional steps appropriate to the circumstances. These can include making referrals to the applicable institutional authorities, state licensure boards, or state or national professional ethics committees. Exceptions are when confidentiality rights would be violated, or when psychologists are hired to review another psychologist's work for questionable conduct. The sixth point, #1.06: "Cooperating With Ethics Committees," says psychologists cooperate with APA and its state affiliates in ethics investigations, proceedings, and ensuing requirements, while addressing confidentiality rights. "Failure to cooperate is itself an ethics violation." The seventh point, #1.07: "Improper Complaints," says psychologists do not encourage or file complaints with "reckless disregard" or "willful ignorance" of facts. The eighth point, #1.08: "Unfair Discrimination Against Complainants and Respondents," says those who made or were the subject of ethics complaints are not denied employment, promotion, advancement, academic or other admissions, or tenure by psychologists on that basis alone.

Describe #2.02: "Providing Services in Emergencies," #2.03: "Maintaining Competence," and #2.04: "Bases for Scientific and Professional Judgments," which are found in "Standard 2: Competence" of the ethical standards section of the APA's ethics code for psychologists.

The standard #2.02: "Providing Services in Emergencies" states that when other mental health services are not available to certain people, and a psychologist has not acquired the training relevant to their needs, the psychologist can provide services to such people temporarily so they are not denied services. Psychologists must discontinue such services as soon as the emergency is over or appropriate services are available. Standard #2.03: "Maintaining Competence" states that psychologists engage in continuing activities to maintain and further develop their professional competence. Standard #2.04: "Bases for Scientific and Professional Judgments" is a statement that psychologists base their work upon the established scientific and professional knowledge in the discipline of psychology. This standard includes cross-references to Standard #2.01e: "Boundaries of Competence" and Standard 10.01b: "Informed Consent to Therapy."

Summarize "Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence," one of the general principles in the APA's ethics code.

This principle says that psychologists seek to "do no harm," something also stated in the Hippocratic Oath for physicians. The principle also says psychologists will attempt to benefit people with whom they work. Psychologists strive in their professional acts to protect the rights and well-being of the people they interact with and the animals they use for research. If psychologists' duties and issues conflict, they resolve such conflicts responsibly to prevent or mitigate harm. They are aware of, and avoid, "personal, financial, social, organizational, or political factors" that could result in misusing their influence, because their professional and scientific judgments and activities can affect others' lives. According to this first general ethical principle, psychologists also work to be cognizant of any potential effects that their own physical and mental health could have on their capacity to help people with whom they are working.

State what a psychologist is expected to do regarding the development of unethical multiple relationships according to Standard 3.05 of the APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct.

This standard 3.05 under Standard 3, Human Relations, prescribes that if because of unexpected variables, a psychologist discovers that a multiple relationship has developed and it has the potential to cause harm, the psychologist takes "reasonable steps" to address this, keeping in mind both the involved person's best interests and the psychologist's complying with the Code of Ethics to the maximum extent possible. This standard also indicates that if a psychologist must play more than one role in administrative or judicial proceedings as mandated by legal requirements, policies of institutions, or "extraordinary circumstances," that psychologist must first make clear what things are expected of each role they are required to play as well as the limits of the confidentiality required of them. They must also make these conditions clear anew as needed whenever anything changes them. This standard cross-references to Standard 3.04, Avoiding Harm, and Standard 3.07, Third-Party Requests for Services.

Summarize the conditions of Standard 5.01, Avoidance of False or Deceptive Statements, of the APA code of ethics.

This standard defines "public statements" as not being limited to but including the following: curricula vitae or personal resumes; applications for licensure or other credentials; comments to be used in printed or electronic media; published materials; oral presentations given in public; statements made in legal proceedings; directory listings; brochures; printed materials; grant applications; product endorsements; and unpaid or paid advertising. The standard requires psychologists not to publicly make statements they know are untrue, fraudulent, or misleading about their practice, research, or other work or that of groups or individuals affiliated with them. Psychologists are also prohibited from making such statements about their own expertise, training, experience, credentials, academic degrees, affiliations with associations or institutions, services, clinical or scientific bases for outcomes of their services or the extent of their services' success; fees, publications, or research findings. Additionally, psychologists can only cite their degrees as credentials for their services if the degrees came from regionally accredited educational institutions, or were bases for their state licensure to practice.

Relate what is covered under Standard 4.02, Discussing the Limits of Confidentiality, of the APA's ethical code, including a cross-reference.

This standard specifies that when psychologists form professional or scientific relationships with groups and individuals—including insofar as is practicable with individuals legally judged incompetent to give their consent and those legally representing them—they discuss with those people (1) the confidentiality limitations that are pertinent; and (2) how the information that psychologists acquire via their work can be predicted to be utilized. The first section of this standard (a) cross-references Standard 3.10, Informed Consent, of the same code. This standard also states that such a discussion of confidentiality should take place at the beginning of the professional relationship, and subsequently as changing conditions may dictate, unless this is contraindicated or is not practicable. It moreover includes that when psychologists provide services, information, or products using electronic transmission methods, they must inform their patients or clients of the associated confidentiality limits and privacy risks.

Describe what is specified in Standard 3.11, Psychological Services Delivered to or Through Organizations, of the APA code of ethics.

This standard specifies that when psychologists provide services to organizations or through organizations, they give certain information in advance to clients and anyone else whom the services would directly affect when appropriate. This includes information about the goals of the services and their nature; which people are meant to receive the services; who are clients among those people; what relationship the psychologist, the organization, and each individual involved will have; how the services will likely be utilized; what information will be acquired in the process; which persons will have access to the information acquired; and confidentiality limitations. Psychologists are also to inform the appropriate people with information about the outcomes of these services, and the conclusions they draw through the services, as soon as is practicable. This standard also specifies that if psychologists' roles in an organization or any laws prohibit them from furnishing this information to any specific group(s) or individual persons, they notify those groups or individuals at the beginning of services.

Describe the first four of eight points under "Standard 1: Resolving Ethical Issues" in the ethical standards of the APA's ethics code for psychologists.

Under "Standard 1: Resolving Ethical Issues," #1.01: "Misuse of Psychologists' Work" says psychologists take reasonable actions to correct or mitigate the misuse or misrepresentation of their work if they discover it. The second point, #1.02: "Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other Governing Local Authority," says if psychologists' ethical commitments conflict with legal measures, they clarify the nature of the conflict; communicate their obligation to the Ethics Code; and take reasonable steps to resolve the conflict by applying the Ethics Code's general principles and ethical standards. Point #1.02 further states that this standard must never be used to defend or justify any violation of human rights. The third point, #1.03: "Conflicts Between Ethics and Organizational Demands," says that if an organization a psychologist works for or is affiliated with makes demands that conflict with the ethics code, the psychologist takes the same steps described in #1.02. The fourth point, #1.04: "Informal Resolution of Ethical Violations," indicates that when psychologists believe another psychologist has violated ethics, they attempt informal resolution by bringing it up to the other psychologist, as long as it seems appropriate and does not violate confidentiality rights.

Summarize the import of Standard 3.12, Interruption of Psychological Services, in the APA ethics code. Include the other standard it cross-references and briefly explain why.

Under Standard 3, Human Relations of the APA Ethics code, standard 3.12, Interruption of Psychological Services, includes the exception "Unless otherwise covered by contract" and requires psychologists to establish plans whereby psychological services can still be provided in case of the psychologists' own service provision should be ended or disrupted by their death, illness, retirement, relocation, or anything else that would make them unavailable; or by the financial constraints or the relocating of their patients or clients. This standard also cross-references Standard 6.02c, Maintenance, Dissemination, and Disposal of Confidential Records of Professional and Scientific Work. This is because if the psychologist's services are ended or interrupted by any of the factors identified above, the confidential records of those services may need to be provided to other psychologists or professionals to continue or resume the needed services; or to be disposed of safely if those services by anybody are terminated instead.

Summarize the content of Standards 3.03, Other Harassment, and 3.04, Avoiding Harm, of the APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct.

Under Standard 3: Human Relations, Standard 3.03, Other Harassment, of the APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct states that psychologists are not to behave consciously in their work in ways that demean or harass people in their work interactions on such bases as the race, ethnicity, national origin, culture, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, religion, language, disability, or socioeconomic status of those people. Standard 3.04, Avoiding Harm, says that psychologists take actions that are reasonable to keep from hurting the patients or clients they work with; as well as any students they teach or work with, supervisees they supervise, subjects who participate in research conducted by the psychologists, members of organizations that are clients, and any other people with whom the psychologists work. Avoiding harm in this standard also signifies that psychologists keep even inevitable and predictable harm to a minimum.