Ethics Final

Quantitative vs Qualitative Comparison of types of pleasures

A type of pleasure is quantitatively superior to another, if it is more frequent and/or longer lasting and/or more intense.

act vs. rule utilitarianism

Both forms of utilitarianism use the concept of general utility to explain why an action is right/wrong. AU applies the criterion of general utility directly to individual actions, and thereby determines whether the action is right/wrong. RU applies the criterion of general utility directly to rule-governed practices, and only indirectly to individual actions. RU thus allows for the possibility that an action is wrong even if in a particular case it promotes the greatest utility.

Hobbes strategy

His thesis is that moral rules are rules that it is reasonable for everyone to agree to abide by in "the state of nature". Moral rules are based on informed consent, rules that any rational being would consent to. They are products of what after Hobbes has come to be known as a "social contract."

Give an example of what Kant calls a "hypothetical imperative."

If I want to be healthy, I should eat fruits and vegetables. This tells someone that they should eat fruits and veggies if they want to be healthy. Being healthy in this case is the end and the instructions for it is to eat fruits and vegetables.

virtuous person

Knows what is right, wants to do what is right, and does what is right

how do we decide which laws are laws of justice?

This where utilitarianism comes in: "To have a right, then, is, I conceive, to have something which society ought to defend me in the possession of. If the objector goes on to ask why it ought, I can give him no other reason than general utility." (391)

Objection 4 Mills

Utilitarianism is too demanding, since it requires that everyone always act from the motive of increasing the general happiness. In other words, can't I, at least sometimes, be motivated to increase my own happiness and that of those who are close to me, not the general happiness? Mill's response: A) Utilitarianism is a theory of right action, not correct motivation. B) For the Utilitarian the best motivation is whatever motivation is going to maximize the general happiness. In most cases, that will be the motivation to increase one's happiness or that of those who are close to you: "the great majority of good actions are intended not for the benefit of the world, but for that of individuals, of which the good of the world is made up." (372)

Consequentialism

an action if right if it has the best consequences overall

According to Hobbes there is no utmost aim or greatest good because people can't agree on what the utmost aim or greatest good is.

false

the function of a human being is to

pursue one's aims according to a standard of practical widsom.

Parts of the soul

rational and irrational (vegetative and appetitive); the irrational element also appears twofold. For the vegetative element in no way shares in a rational principle, but the appetitive and in general the desiring element in a sense shares in it, in so far as it listens to and obeys it..." - the vegetative and the appetitive.

Utilitarianism

the best state of affairs is the one with the greatest general happiness; an action is right to the extent that it tends to promote the greatest general happiness; wrong to the extent that it tends to promote the greatest unhappiness.

Perfect or Narrow Duties

they prescribe an action that one must not perform in the circumstances; I will do A, for the sake of P, in circumstances C (When I am short of money, i will make a lying promise, for the sake of obtaining money)

Imperfect or Broad Duties

they prescribe an end that one ought to pursue, while leaving it open what one it to do to further the end. (I will not help others in need (nor ask for help)

According to Aristotle a temperate person delights in abstaining from bodily pleasures.

true

According to Aristotle virtue (in the strict sense) implies practical wisdom

true

The idea of justice

1) First, an unjust action violates a rule or law of right: "there can be no doubt that the idée mere, the primitive element, in the formation of justice was conformity to law." (387) Need to distinguish between legal right and moral right (387):"the sentiment of justice came to be attached not to all violations of law, but only to violations of such laws as ought to exist, including such as ought to exist but do not..." (388) 2) Second, an unjust action is one that is appropriately punished. A) "Duty is a thing that can be exacted from a person, as one exacts a debt." (388) B) Need to distinguish between formal or institutionalized and informal or personal methods of "punishing" wrongdoers: "nobody desires that laws should interfere with the whole detail of private life." (388) "We do not call anything wrong unless we mean to imply that a person ought to be punished in some way or other for doing it - if not by law, by the opinion of his fellow creatures; if not by the opinion, by the reproaches of his own conscience." (388)

Aristotle gives two reasons why he disagrees with those who identify happiness with a life of honor. What are they>

1. If we seek a life of honor we are seeking out other peoples opinions of us and not seeking the end of ourselves. This is where practical wisdom comes in. Honor is found within other peoples practical wisdoms of us. 2. Honor is given to us but happiness is something that is gained by ones own doing. Those who seek honor seek to be worthy of it, so seek virtue

The test of Competent judges

A judge is competent in comparing two types of pleasure if he or she is acquainted with both. If one type of pleasure is preferred by competent judges to a second type of pleasure to such an extent that the judge would not resign the first type for the second type, no matter how much of the second type the judge could have, then the pleasure of the first type is qualitatively superior to the pleasure of the second type.

act utilitarianism

An action is wrong if and only if it fails to promote, among the alternatives, the greatest general happiness. Otherwise, an action is right.

rule utilitarianism

An action is wrong if it violates a rule-governed practice, whose enforcement by the threat of punishment, tends to promote the greatest general happiness. Otherwise, an action is right. "To have a right, then, is, I conceive, to have something which society ought to defend me in the possession of. If the objector goes on to ask why it ought, I can given him no other reason than general utility." (390)

An unjust action

An unjust action is thus an action that violates a law whose violators are appropriately punished: "To recapitulate: the idea of justice supposes two things - a rule of conduct and a sentiment which sanctions the rule." (390) The sentiment that sanctions the rule is the feeling that violators are deserving of punishment.

Using an example explain what Aristotle means when he says that moral virtue aims at the "mean" or "intermediate."

Aristotle describes that moral virtue is found between excess and deficiency. These two vices are canceled out when the mean is found. For example, courage, courage is the mean between rashness and cowardness. So, if a person came into the vicinity of a bear, a rash person would jump in immediately and try to fight the bear. A coward person would hide immediately and not even go somewhere where there is a slight possibility of seeing the bear. The mean between these would be the courage to stand your ground when it is right to do so, but also feel fear when necessary.

Hobbes Vs. Aristotle

Aristotle made a distinction between a life of virtue and a life of pleasure.•A) For Aristotle virtue isn't a means to happiness, for if virtue were merely a means to happiness, then it would be possible to conceive of happiness independently of virtue. As Aristotle sees it, living well (happiness) and living virtuously are one and the same thing. Happiness = a life of virtue.•B) Furthermore, his conception of flourishing was a social conception: •The flourishing of each individual is attained by virtue. The virtues are social: it is only by living among the virtuous that I can as an individual flourish. Thus, to live well is something that I do together with others. Individual flourishing is dependent on social flourishing. •The chief good is what holds the society together.

Doctrine Worthy of Swine Objection

Could what is ultimately valuable for humans be the same as something that any animal could achieve?

According to Kant the only thing that is good is good will

False

Kant Example: It has been reported that during the current Coronavirus crisis, individual people, doctors, and hospitals have been engaging in troubling acts of "hoarding": people have been hoarding daily necessities, like toilet paper; some doctors have been hoarding the anti-malaria drug, chloroquine, and some hospitals have been hoarding equipment. Can Kant's Universal Law formula be used to explain what is morally objectionable about such practices?

For Kant what's wrong with the practice of hoarding in these circumstances is that if everyone were to follow the maxim of hoarding it would be impossible to achieve one's purpose by those means.

problem of rule mongering

For RU the reason that there should be certain rule-governed practices is that having those practices promotes utility. But now suppose that in an individual case violating the practice would promote the greatest utility. RU says that even in such a case we should adhere the practice, but what reason can the RU give for demanding conformity with the practice? It seems that RU is in the absurd position of saying that we should obey the rule simply because it's the rule.

What according to Kant is the relevant moral difference between (what we called in class) the "naturally sympathetic person" (NSP) and the "dutiful or grief-stricken philanthropist" (DP)? (By "relevant moral difference" I mean relevant for determining whether an action has "moral worth".) Explain why Kant thinks that of these two only the dutiful or grief-stricken philanthropist's action has "moral worth"

For an action to have moral worth, it should be done from duty and not inclination. The maxim of the action shows its moral worth. The Naturally sympathetic person does not have a "why" to the action just an inclination to do so. This person does not realize universal law and is doing it for reasons besides moral law. For instance that are acting in accordance with duty whereas the Dutiful Philanthropist is acting from duty. He understands he is grieving himself but it is his job to put that aside and deny the inclination not to help people. The Dutiful grief-stricken philanthropist does not have an inclination to do the action, but knows it is his duty to perform the action. He realizes that his maxim is for the moral law. An action done out of duty is considered to be morally worthy due to the maxim of the action. Not because of desire but because of obligation to the duty.

In his "function argument" Aristotle arrives at what he calls a "sketch" of happiness, or a flourishing human being, by using analogies with other things that have a function, such as a knife. Explain by using these analogies what, according to this argument, happiness, or a flourishing human being, is.

Happiness in the view of a flourishing human being is one who is able to execute his function well. For example, a lawnmower's function is to cut the lawn; A knife's function is to cut food; a flute players function is to play the flute well. The same is for human beings, our function is to perform our human function well. Human good is the soul exhibiting excellence. If one is to perform a function well, it shows excellence. Also, the pathway to happiness or a flourishing human is being able to reason well to obtain the excellence. Human function is activity of soul according to reason

Objection 2 Mills

Happiness is unattainable; This is an objection to Mill because he thinks that happiness is the purpose of our actions. How can something that is unattainable be a purpose?; Mill's response: A) Happiness is a balance of "excitement and tranquility" (not a state of constant bliss). B) The obstacles to happiness are: physical, social, and want of mental cultivation. All of these can, in principle, be overcome.

Hobbes in achieving peace

Hobbes has completed the first step of his argument: the state of nature is a state of war. This is not because humans are wicked, selfish, uncaring for others. It is because humans are rational! In a state of nature, fighting is the rational thing to do. Hobbes argues that just as reason gets us into war, reason can get us out of it; "a man be willing, when others are so too,... to lay down this right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty against other men; as he would allow other men against himself." (p. 242) He calls this the "second law of nature."

The problem with utilitarianism

In examples such as the ones we discussed in class, it seems that utilitarianism would sanction trampling against another's rights in the name of promoting the greatest general happiness. Mill is well aware of this line of objection. He writes, "in all ages of speculation one of the strongest obstacles to the reception of the doctrine that utility or happiness is the criteria of right and wrong has been drawn from the idea of justice." (384)

According to Aristotle, in what ways is moral virtue like an artistic skill? In what ways is virtue different from an artistic skill? Explain. (Note: the question is about comparing and contrasting moral virtue, not practical wisdom, with artistic skil

Moral Virtue is like an artistic skill because Aristotle believes it takes practice of habit to become virtuous. You must practice over time to reach a virtuous life. With this is learning the excess and deficiency and finding the mean which in the end is virtue. This is like art because you are born with the ability to do so but the artist has to work to find the excess and deficiency of their skill. This takes practice and learning habit to be able to successfully and skillfully create art. You must study the work as a whole and the strategies to create art before you can ever begin. The difference between these two is that for artistic skill you can have the skill practiced and be able to perform it over and over again because you have made this habit. For being a truly virtuous person you must be able to perform virtuous acts and mean them. They must not just be learned knowledge or practical wisdom, they must stem from the soul. It is about changing your soul and its reasoning to be a virtuous person. The morality of the two differ. Aristotle stresses that to have virtue, you not only need to perform virtuous actions but as the virtuous person does the, specifically you have to desire to do the virtuous action for its own sake.

Objective 1 Mills

People sometimes choose lower over higher pleasures.; This targets Mill's view that the higher pleasures are more valuable than the lower pleasures. If people choose lower over higher pleasure, doesn't that show that they place greater value on the lower pleasure?; Mill's response: A) infirmity of will B) Capacity for higher pleasures not cultivated

Objection 3 Mills

People sometimes renounce, or deny themselves, happiness. This objection targets Mill's view that happiness is the ultimate end. Mill's response: Self-sacrifice is noble, but only if it is for the sake someone else's happiness. This confirms that happiness is the ultimate end.

Aristotle says, "temperance and courage, then, are destroyed by excess and defect, and preserved by the mean." What are the extremes, or the "excess" and the "defect", with regard to which courage is the "mean?

The excess of courage is when someone fears nothing and goes all in on self indulgence of pleasure and searches for danger to experience it. The deficiency of courage is when someone cowards when they experience fear. This person does not stand their ground and runs from fear. The mean of courage is learning over time and getting in the habit of disregarding things that are fearful and when we encounter fearful things, we should stand our ground against it bravely.

In book I, chapter 13, Aristotle says that the human soul has parts. Describe all the divisions he draws in the human soul.

The human soul has rational and irrational parts. The rational part is considered to be virtues of thought, which come from teaching and experiencing over time. The rational part of the soul leads the person to good and best things. The irrational part goes along with the rational part.

The social contract (Hobbes)

The idea is that it is reasonable to agree to restrict one's liberty in certain definite respects on the condition that others agree to do the same. For example, it is reasonable to agree to refrain from attacking others on the condition that they agree not to attack you.

Objection to Doctrine Worthy of Swine

The objection rests on a debased, beastly conception of pleasure, since it assumes that the only types of pleasure that humans are capable of attaining are those that other animals, like pigs, are capable of attaining. Higher pleasures (distinctively human): engages intellect, imagination, distinctively human emotions E.g., conversation, movies, music, visual arts, reading Lower pleasures (shared with other animals): sensory E.g., independence (freedom from constraint), eating, pleasant sensations, falling asleep, resting, running, jumping in water. The higher pleasures are more valuable than the lower pleasures.

Kant regarded the principle of the categorical imperative in its universal law formulation to be the fundamental principle of morality. Explain this principle by showing how it is applied to derive particular moral duties both in the example of the false promiser and in the example of the person who acts on a maxim of non-beneficence (the person who makes it his maxim not to help others in need). (Remember that in each case it is important that you first identify the maxim of the action.)

The principle of the categorical imperative is that one should act on a maxim in which it would turn out to be a universal law. The false promiser asks to borrow money, promises he will pay it back, but that promise is false. The maxim here is that it is okay to break promises. This false promise cannot pass the universality test because it is not rational to lie making the false promise morally wrong. Along with that, the maxim is a contradiction to itself if it were to be universalized. This being because if it was okay to break promises everyone would, so the end idea of promises is meaningless. The example of a person whose maxim is to not help others in need is also a contradiction. This being because if it was universalized, no on one would give to charity, and individuals whose maxim is to give to charity would no longer be true desirable so they would cancel out. The second maxim can't be consistently willed because one may need the help of others at some point.

Hobbes argues that the second law of the state of nature is: "that a man be willing, when are others are so too, as far-forth, as for peace, and defense of himself, he shall think it necessary, to lay down this right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty against other men; as he would allow other men against himself." Using the prisoner's dilemma explain how Hobbes derives this "law of nature". (In other words, using the model of the prisoner's dilemma explain first, why, according to Hobbes, the state of nature inevitably becomes a state of war and second, how are we able to escape this state)

The state of nature inevitably becomes a state of war because human behavior is grounded in self interest. This is because all human are rational beings and they have the obligation to preserve their life by any means necessary. So, all men believe that their wisdom and power is greater than others. So individuals are in a constant battle with each other over safety defense, competition, and maintaining a strong reputation. In order to escape this, Hobbes formulates the Laws of Nature. In the second law of nature, like was stated in the question, when men are willing to lay down the right to all things when others do the same. For example, in the Prisoner's dilemma, you are stranded with one other person. The only resources you have are coconuts. You have several options, you could attack the other person for coconuts and win them. They could attack you, so you are left with none. Or, you could both either attack or not attack. In order to escape the state of war, the second law of the state of nature is brought into play. To maintain peace, you both agree to either not attacking or attacking each other. Therefore you lay down both of your liberties, in communal agreement, to maintain peace with one another.

According to Aristotle, what word do both "the general run of men" and "people of superior refinement" use to name the highest good achievable by action?

They say that happiness is the highest good achievable by action. But, they all have different accounts to what happiness actually is.

External Goods (aristotle)

Trees need water, soil with the right chemical composition, sun, in order to survive, but if its own internal structure is unsound, these "external goods" will not help. Water, soil and sun are conditions that enable the tree to flourish: they are enabling conditions of flourishing, but having water, good soil and sun isn't what flourishing consists in. Flourishing consists in the growing activity of the tree, activity that exhibits the tree's health. Similarly, human flourishing has enabling conditions - these are what Aristotle calls "external goods". But flourishing isn't simply having the external goods, but rather in order to flourish one must make use of the external goods in the appropriate way, in the best way.

Objection 5 Mills

Utilitarianism as a guide to action is impracticable: "there is not time, previous to action, for calculating and weighing the effects of any line of conduct on the general happiness." A) Utilitarianism isn't meant to be a guide to action, but is a doctrine of right and wrong action. B) Utilitarianism doesn't preclude the use of "secondary principles", general moral rules of thumb concerning what's right/wrong, as a guide to action.

How according to Aristotle do we acquire moral virtue such as courage?

We acquire moral virtue such as courage by performing courageous acts. It is in the act of habituation that we develop moral virtues such as courage.

Give an example of an end that we choose for its own sake and an end that we choose for the sake of something else. Explain what Aristotle finds absurd about a situation in which all of our ends are chosen for the sake of something else.

We choose to seek happiness for the sake our ourselves and no one else. Happiness is the purpose of human life. But, whenever we seek pleasure or wealth we are seeking happiness but also acknowledgment from other people. So, it wouldn't just be seeking it from ourselves if we looked for other peoples guidance. Aristotle says that we cannot live a good life if we are working to achieve other ends. There has to be a final end in which we week for the sake of that end and nothing else. The end must be self sufficient.

Which description best captures the central question that Mill addresses in Utilitarianism?

What is the criterion of right and wrong action?

good to human (aristotle)

a flourishing human is one that performs the human functions well

flourishing human

a human that performs rational activity of the soul well

Aristotles fundamental target of moral evaluation

a person's character rather than individual actions. The right actions are conceived of as those that would be performed by the person of noble character.

There is therefore only one categorical imperative and it is this: act only on that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become

a universal law

The general principle of categorical imperatives

act only on that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law

what is the human function?

activity of the soul that implies a rational principle: rational activity of the soul

The general principle of Hypothetical Imperatives

always posit a relation between means and ends; based on the general principle that I ought to take the means to my ends. Violation of the principle is irrational.

Who does aristotle say is not a "proper hearer" of lectures on political science?

aristotle believes that a young man is not a proper hearer of lectures because he is inexperienced in the actions of life. He will only follow his passions and not reasons.

Mills Hedonic Dilemma

better to be a pig satisfied or socrates dissatisfied? Pig: has lots of pleasures, but entirely of the lower variety.•Socrates: has few pleasure, but has mixture of the lower and the higher.

Unlike aristotle, Hobbes...

conceives of the good as independent of virtue. If virtue is to play any role in the attainment of good- which for Hobbes is just the satisfaction of one's desires- it could only be as a means to the good.

the good will is good no matter its

consequences; isn't based on consequences

Hobbes believes there is not greatest good only a greatest evil which is

death

According to Aristotle the final good (the chief good) is

desirable for its own sake and never for the sake of something else

According to Aristotle, practical wisdom is the capacity to deliberate well about the means to any given end

false

According to Aristotle, the moral virtues arise in us by nature

false

According to Aristotle, the virtuous perform virtuous actions for the sake of the pleasures they receive from doing them

false

According to Hobbes the state of nature ("the natural condition of mankind") is only sometimes a state of war

false

According to Hobbes the state of nature ("the natural condition of mankind") is preferable to living under governmental authority.

false

According to Hobbes there is a limit to how much "power" it is reasonable to seek

false

According to Kant "the compassionately disposed" person's action does not have moral worth

false

According to Kant if the "fourth man's attitude" (of not helping others in need) were a universal law of nature, the human race could not survive

false

According to Kant moral imperatives (categorical imperatives) are based on what is to a person's advantage in the long run

false

According to Kant morality requires us never to use the humanity in another as a means

false

According to Kant we must never perform an action that goes against another's wishes

false

According to Kant, categorical imperatives apply only to those who have desire to do what duty commands

false

According to Mill it is possible to show by a direct proof what our ultimate end is

false

According to kant the good will is the only thing that is good

false

Kant held that an action has moral worth only if one doesn't receive pleasure from doing the action

false

according to aristotle, an educated man should only believe those things that can be given a demonstrative proof

false

what is the chief good? (aristotle)

happiness

Hobbes says that

happiness is pleasure in the absence of pain

Utilitarian Theory of Value

happiness: please in the absence of pain; Unhappiness: pain and the absence of pleasure; What is intrinsically valuable, desirable as an end: pleasure and the absence of pain; what is intrinsically evil: pain and the absence of pleasure. Everything else of value is valuable as a means to pleasure or the absence of pain.

According to Kant what makes the good will goos are/is

his/her motives in performing the action

In order to achieve the good life for human beings, one must possess (aristotle)

human good turns out to be activity of the soul exhibiting excellence

Humans are different from animals in that

humans are capable of sympathizing with all human, and even all sentient beings: "the human capacity of enlarged sympathy" (390) ii) humans are capable, due to superiority of intellect, of grasping a "community of interest" between oneself and the human society of which one forms a part, of seeing that the interest of human society is one's own interest as well. Mill calls this "intelligent self-interest". (390) iii) The combination of (i) and (ii) is what we call the sentiment of justice, a moral feeling - a feeling of impersonal, as opposed to merely personal, resentment: a resentment we feel toward those who damage the interests of human society.

Hypothetical Imperatives

if I have purpose P, I ought to do action A

2 conceptions of reason (aristotle)

instrumental: reason seeks to find the means to an end. A football coach uses instrumental reason to devise a strategy for achieving victory. Practical Wisdom: we call someone who lacks practical wisdom foolish. A person who lacks practical wisdom doesn't understand the true value of things

what really distinguishes the truly virtuous person?

is not what she knows or does, but what she wants/feels. Virtue thus resides in the appetitive part of the soul. Aristotle says that virtue consists in having a character in which the appetitive and rational sides of the soul "speak with the same voice." Virtue is harmony between the two sides of the soul.

what explains the idea anyone who acts unjustly is deserving of punishment?

it has its basis in an animal instinct: "every animal tries to hurt those that have hurt, those it thinks are about to hurt itself or its young

According to Hobbes "Fool", there is no such thing as

justice

The one whom Hobbes calls "the fool" says "there is no such thing as ______"

justice

Aristotle: If, then, there is some end of the things we do, which we desire for its own sake (everything else being desired for the sake of this), and if we do not choose everything for the sake of something else (for at that rate the process would go on to infinity, so that our desire would be empty and vain), this must be the good and the chief good."

meaning we cannot choose all of our ends for the sake of some other end. If all of our ends get their value from some other end, nothing we do would have any point

Aversion

motion away from an object that is absent

hate

motion away from an object that is present

Desire

motion towards an object that is absent

Love

motion towards and object that is present

Kant writes, "all imperatives are expressed by a _______"

must

how do we acquire virtue?

neither by "teaching: nor by nature; we possess by nature the potentiality to become virtuous through habitual exercise

Aristotle defines happiness as: a life of enjoyment a life of honor a life of wealth none of the above

none of the above

Categorical Imperatives

not contingent on a particular purpose, even the purpose of happiness; apply to all rational beings; apply to you regardless of your inclinations, desires; I ought to tell the truth, I ought to keep my promises

Give an example of something that Aristotle calls and "external good"

pleasure by wealth, honor, or political power

Rational Beings are bound by

practical laws: self conscious laws. Everything in nature works according to laws; only rational beings act according to laws that they themselves recognize to be a law; rational beings act from the recognition of practical rules, or imperatives.

Happiness is

pursued for its own sake and only for its sake; it is self sufficient

activity of soul according to reason means

pursuing one's aims according to a standard of practical wisdom.

what is happiness according to aristotle and the human function

pursuing one's end according to a standard of practical widsom

Hobbes two laws

right of self-preservation: everyone has a right to do what deems necessary to preserve ones own life. law of nature: everyone is forbidden to do anything that is destructive of his life"; Since everyone has a right of self-preservation, "every man has a right to everything; even to one another's body." (from 1) 4) Thus, there can be "no security to any man, how strong or wise soever he be, of living out the time, which nature ordinarily alloweth men to live." (from 3)5) Hence, "it is a precept, or general rule of reason" to seek peace. (from 2 and 4) (The First Law of Nature)6) Therefore, "a man be willing, when others are so too,... to lay down this right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty against other men; as he would allow other men against himself." (p. 242) (The Second Law of Nature) (from 5)

What, according to Aristotle, is the "function" of a flute player?

the function of a flute player is to play a flute. If the flute is played well then he deserves a good flute. How he plays the flute is found in the action and function of actually playing the flute.

What according to Aristotle is the "function" of a human being?

the function of a human being is having activity in the soul that contributes to a greater good and presents the human being as noble. If this person contributes to the rational principle then they are said to have activity of the soul exhibiting excellence.

The motive of the good will (Kant)

the good will acts from duty, not merely in accordance with duty, that is, does the right action not because she wants to, or because it is a means to some purpose, but simply beacause duty requires it. The good will acts from "respect for law. The good will acts from a "categorical imperative"

what is unconditionally good?

the good will; it is good in itself

what do we need to perform our function well?

the proper excellence; human good turns out to be activity of soul exhibiting excellence. Excellences are virtues

what makes the good will good?

the right motive

Aristotle says that everything we do is done for

the sake of a particular end; the chief good

According to Aristotle, a friendship based on virtue is easily dissolved

true

According to Aristotle, young children can't be happy

true

According to Hobbes an object is good because it is desired; it is not desired because it is good.

true

According to Hobbes in a state of nature (in what Hobbes calls "the natural condition of mankind") there is equality of strength and equality of cunning

true

According to Hobbes in a state of nature there is no notion of right and wrong, or of just and unjust, action

true

According to Hobbes in a state of nature we have a right to do anything to secure the preservation of our life.

true

According to Hobbes in a state of nature we have an obligation to seek peace

true

According to Hobbes in order to achieve peace I must lay down my right to all things provided that others do the same

true

According to Hobbes what is the object of someone's appetite or desire and what is evil is the object of someone's hate or aversion.

true

According to Hobbes, we have moral obligations to others only insofar as we can reasonably expect that they will meet their moral obligations to us

true

According to Kant 'thou shalt not lie' is a command that holds with absolute necessity

true

According to Kant moral commands rest on pure reason

true

According to Kant the prudent shopkeeper's action does not have moral worth

true

According to Mill what determines whether an action is right or wrong are its consequences

true

According to hobbes in a state of nature there is nothing that is rightfully mine.

true

Aristotle believed that a "mixed action" is voluntary

true

For Aristotle happiness is dependent on "external goods"

true

Mill defines happiness as pleasure in the absence of pain

true

The following is an invalid argument: a) societies have different moral codes or beliefs b) Therefore, there is no absolute, objective truth in morality

true

What Mill calls "the greatest happiness principle" states that action is right that tends to produces the greatest central happiness

true

according to Aristotle someone who does not enjoy being just isn't just.

true

according to aristotle, all actions aim at the good

true

the person who "finds himself driven to borrow money" cannot consistently will his maxim to be a universal law

true

What according to Aristotle are the 3 types of friendships?

utility, pleasure, and good

two views by aristotle

virtue is knowledge (Plato's view) - on this view virtue is acquired through teaching - and virtue is feeling or desire - on this view virtue is possessed by nature. For Aristotle virtue is neither acquired by learning nor possessed by nature. Rather, it is rooted in nature but perfected by habit.

Aristotle begins book ii by saying, "virtue, then, being of two kinds." What are the two kinds of virtue

virtue of thought and virtue of character. Virtue of thought comes from learning something and experiencing it over time. Virtue of character is a result of habit

incontinence

we exhibit incontinence or weakness of the will when we knowingly do what we don't think is good, or take what we think is not the best option

continence

we take what we think is the best course of action, but we really don't want to; we do the action with gritted teeth

definition of good

x is good if it performs its proper function well; flute player to play the flute; sculptor to sculpt