Everyday Fallacies

Reductionism

(also, Oversimplifying, Sloganeering): The fallacy of deceiving an audience by giving simple answers or slogans in response to complex questions, especially when appealing to less educated or unsophisticated audiences. E.g., "If the glove doesn't fit, you must vote to acquit." Often involves appeals to emotion (pathos). E.g., "Moms! If you want to protect your little kids from armed terrorists, vote for Smith!"

Sending the Wrong Message

A dangerous fallacy that attacks a given statement or action, no matter how true, correct or necessary,because it will "send the wrong message." In effect, those who uses this fallacy are publicly confessing to fraud and admitting that the truth will destroy the fragile web of illusion that has been created by their lies. E.g., "Actually, we're losing the war, but if we admit it we'll be sending the wrong message to our enemies.

Just in Case

A fallacy by which one's argument is based on a far-fetched or imaginary worst-case scenario rather than on reality. Plays on pathos (fear) rather than reason. E.g., "What if armed terrorists were to attack your own neighborhood day-care center tomorrow morning? Are you ready to fight back? Better stock up on assault rifles!"

Testimonial (also Questionable Authority, Faulty Use of Authority)

A fallacy in which support for a standpoint or product is provided by a well-known or respected figure (e.g. a star athlete or entertainer) who is not an expert and who was probably well paid for the endorsement (e.g., "Olympic gold-medal pole-vaulter Fulano de Tal uses Quick Flush Internet, shouldn't you?"). Also includes other false, meaningless or paid means of associating oneself or one's product with the ethos of a famous person or event (e.g. "Try Salsa Cabria, the official taco sauce of the Vancouver Winter Olympics!") This is a corrupted argument from ethos.

Either-Or Reasoning (also False Dilemma, Black / White Fallacy)

A fallacy that falsely offers only two possible alternatives even though a broad range of possible alternatives are really available. E.g., "Either you are 100% straight or you are queer--it's as simple as that, and there's no middle ground!" Or, "Either you're with me all the way, or you're my enemy and must be destroyed!

Essentializing

A fallacy that proposes a person or thing "is what it is and that's all that it is," and at its core will always be what it is right now (E.g., "All ex-cons are criminals, and will still be criminals even if they live to be 100."). Also refers to the fallacy of arguing that something is a certain way "by nature," an empty claim that no amount of proof can refute. (E.g., "Americans are cold and greedy by nature," or "Women are better cooks than men.")

The Paralysis of Analysis (also, Procrastination)

A postmodern fallacy that, since all data is never in, no legitimate decision can ever be made and any action should always be delayed until forced by circumstances. A corruption of the argument from logos.

TINA (There Is No Alternative. Also "Get Over It," the "fait accompli")

A very common contemporary extension of the either/or fallacy, quashing critical thought by announcing that there is no realistic alternative to a given standpoint, status or action, ruling any and all other options irrelevant, or announcing that a decision has been made and any further discussion is simply a waste of time (or even insubordination or disloyalty) when there is a job to be done.

Broken window fallacy

An argument which disregards lost opportunity costs (typically non-obvious, difficult to determine or otherwise hidden) associated with destroying property of others, or other ways of externalizing costs onto others. For example, an argument that states breaking a window generates income for a window fitter, but disregards the fact that the money spent on the new window cannot now be spent on new shoes.

Naturalistic fallacy

Attempts to prove a claim about ethics by appealing to a definition of the term "good" in terms of either one or more claims about natural properties (sometimes also taken to mean the appeal to nature) citation needed or God's will.

Overgeneralization (also Hasty Generalization)

Incorrectly applying one or two examples to all cases (e.g. "Some college student was tailgating me all the way up North Main Street last night. This proves that all college students are lousy drivers, and we should pull their driver's licenses until they either grow up, learn to drive or graduate!").

Definist Fallacy

Involves the confusion between two notions by defining one in terms of the other. Eg. "Before we argue about the truth of creationism, let's define creationism as, "The acceptance of a set of beliefs even more ridiculous than those of flat-earthers."

Post Hoc Argument

The classic fallacy that because something comes at the same time or just after something else, the first thing is caused by the second. E.g., "AIDS first emerged as a problem during the exact same time that Disco music was becoming popular--that's too much of a coincidence: It proves that Disco causes AIDS!"

Diminished Responsibility

The common contemporary fallacy of falsely applying a specialized American judicial concept (that criminal punishment should be less if one's judgment was impaired) to logic in general. E.g., "You can't count me absent on Monday--I was hung over and couldn't come to class--it's not my fault." Or, "Yeah, I was speeding on the freeway and killed a guy, but I was high and didn't know what I was doing, so it didn't matter that much." In reality the death does matter very much to the victim, to her family and friends and to society in general. Whether the perpetrator was high or not does not matter at all, since the material results are the same.

Equivocation

The fallacy of deliberately failing to define one's terms, or deliberately using words in a different sense than the one the audience will understand. (E.g., Bill Clinton stating that he did not have sex with "that woman," meaning no sexual penetration, knowing full well that the audience will understand his statement as "I had no sexual contact of any sort with that woman.") This is a corruption of theargument from logos, and a tactic often used in American jurisprudence.

The Complex Question

The fallacy of demanding a direct answer to a question that cannot be answered without first analyzing or challenging the basis of the question itself. E.g., "Answer me yes or no! Did you think you could get away with plagiarism and not suffer the consequences?" Or, "Why did you rob that bank?" Also applies to situations where one is forced to either accept or reject complex standpoints or propositions containing both acceptable and unacceptable parts. A corruption of the argument from logos.

False Analogy

The fallacy of incorrectly comparing one thing to another in order to draw a false conclusion. E.g., "Just like an alley cat needs to prowl, a normal human being can't be tied down to one single lover."

Non Sequitur

The fallacy of offering reasons or conclusions that have no logical connection to the argument at hand (e.g. "The reason I flunked your course is because the government is now putting out purple five-dollar bills!"). (See also Red Herring.) Occasionally involves the breathtaking arrogance of claiming to know why God is doing certain things. E.g., "Obviously, God sent the earthquake to punish those people for their great wickedness."

I Wish I Had a Magic Wand

The fallacy of regretfully (and falsely) proclaiming oneself powerless to change a bad or objectionable situation, because there is no alternative. E.g., "What can we do about high gas prices? As Secretary of Energy I wish I had a magic wand, but I don't." [shrug] Or,"No, you can't quit piano lessons. I wish I had a magic wand and could teach you piano overnight, but I don't, so like it or not, you have to keep on practicing." The parent, of course, ignores the possibility that the child may not want or need to learn piano. See also, TINA

Reifying

The fallacy of treating imaginary categories as actual, material "things." (E.g., "The biggest struggle in youth culture today is between Goths and Emos.") Sometimes also referred to as "Essentializing" or "Hypostatization."

Guilt by Association

The fallacy of trying to refute or condemn someone's standpoint, arguments or actions by evoking the negative ethos of those with whom one associates or a collective to which he or she belongs. A form of Ad Hominem Argument. (E.g., "Don't listen to her. She's a Republican, so you can't trust anything she says.") See also "They're Not Like Us."

Fait Accompi

The fallacy of unilaterally declaring certain arguments, standpoints or actions to be "sacrosanct" or not open to discussion or arbitrarily taking some standpoints or options "off the table" beforehand. (E.g., "Don't bring my drinking into this," or "Before we start, I won't allow you to put my arguments down by saying 'That's just what Hitler would say!'")

Blood is Thicker than Water (also Favoritism, Compadrismo, "For my friends, anything.")

The reverse of the "Ad Hominem" fallacy, a corrupt argument from ethos where a statement, argument or action is automatically regarded as true, correct and above challenge because one is related to (or knows and likes, or is on the same team as) the individual involved. (E.g., "My brother-in-law says he saw you goofing off on the job. You're a hard worker, but who am I going to believe, you or him? You're fired!")

Lying with Statistics

Using true figures and numbers to "prove" unrelated claims. (e.g. "Gas prices have never been lower. When taken as a percentage of the national debt, filling up at your corner gas station is actually far cheaper today than it was in 1965!"). A corrupted argument from logos. (See also Half-truth, Non Sequitur, Red Herring.)

They're Not Like Us

A badly corrupted, bigoted argument from ethos where a fact, argument or objection is arbitrarily disregarded, ignored or put down without consideration because those involved "are not like us," or "don't think like us." E.g., "It's OK for Mexicans to earn half a buck an hour in the maquiladoras. If it were here, I'd call it exploitation and daylight robbery, but south of the border they're not the same as we are." Or, "Sure, the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima killed hundreds of thousands of innocent people, but over there they're not like us and don't think the same way we do about life and death." A variety of the Ad Hominem Argument, most often applied to non-White populations.

Political Correctness

A contemporary fallacy that the the nature of a thing or situation can be changed simply by changing its name. E.g., "We can strike a blow against cruelty to animals by changing the name of 'pets' to 'animal companions.'" or "What's going on in Juárez is not a 'war,' it is a fight between drug cartels. That means it's not that bad."

Transfer

A corrupt argument from ethos, falsely associating a famous person or thing with an unrelated standpoint (e.g. putting a picture of George Washington on an advertisement for mattresses or using Genghis Khan (a Mongol) as the name of a Chinese restaurant, or using the Texas flag to sell cars or pickups that were made in Detroit, Kansas City or Kyoto).

The Half Truth (also Card Stacking, Incomplete Information)

A corrupt argument from logos, the fallacy of telling the truth but deliberately omitting important key details in order to falsify the larger picture and support a false conclusion (e.g. "The truth is that Ciudad Juárez, Mexico is one of the world's fastest growing cities and can boast of a young, ambitious and hard-working population, mild winters, a dry and sunny climate, low cost medical and dental care, a multitude of churches and places of worship, delicious local cuisine and a swinging nightclub scene. Taken together, all these facts clearly prove that Juarez is one of the world's most desirable places for young families to live, work and raise a family.")

Playing on Emotions (also, the Sob Story)

The classic fallacy of pure argument from pathos, ignoring facts and calling on emotion alone. E.g., "Ifyou don't agree witchcraft is a major problem, just stop for a moment and think of all those poor moms crying bitter tears for their innocent tiny little children whose little beds and tricycles lie cold and abandoned, all because of those wicked old witches! Let's string'em all up!"

Slippery Slope Argument

The common fallacy that "one thing inevitably leads to another , asserting that a relatively small first step inevitably leads to a chain of related events culminating in some significant impact/event that should not happen, thus the first step should not happen. " E.g., "If you two go and drink coffee together, one thing will lead to another, and soon enough you'll be pregnant and end up spending your life on welfare living in the projects," or "If we cut and run in Iraq or Afghanistan, pretty soon all of southwest Asia will be run by Al-Qaeda." While this fallacy is a popular one, it is, in its essence, an appeal to probability fallacy. (e.g if person x does y then z would (probably) occur, leading to q, leading to w, leading to e.) The slippery slope is used when a person implies that if someone does one thing (A), it will inevitably lead to a domino effect of negative things that, in the end will result in something terrible. In other words, "A" is not so bad, but A leads to B and B leads to C and C is horrible! Imagine a mother lecturing her teenage daughter: "OK, maybe there is nothing wrong with a kiss, but remember where kissing leads and where that leads and that. Before you know it you'll be the mother of an unwanted baby! Your young life will be ruined forever!" Manipulators who use this argument conveniently forget that many people walk carefully on slippery ground and don't fall down.

MYOB (Mind Your Own Business; You're Not the Boss of Me, Appeal to Privacy)

The contemporary fallacy of arbitrarily prohibiting any discussion of one's own standpoints or behavior, no matter how absurd, dangerous, evil or offensive, by drawing a phony curtain of privacy around oneself and one's actions. A corrupted argument from ethos (your own). (E.g., "So I was doing eighty and weaving between lanes on Main Street--what's it to you? You're not a cop, so mind your own business!") (See also, "Taboo.") Rational discussion is cut off because "it is none of your business!"

"E" for Effort. (Also Noble Effort)

The contemporary fallacy that something must be right, true, valuable, or worthy of credit simply because someone has put so much sincere good-faith effort or even sacrifice and bloodshed into it. (See also Appeal to Pity, Argument from Inertia, or Sob Story.).

Finish the Job

The dangerous contemporary fallacy that an action or standpoint (or the continuation of the action or standpoint) may not be questioned or discussed because there is "a job to be done," falsely assuming all "jobs" are meaningless but never to be questioned. Sometimes those involved internalize ("buy into") the "job" and make the task a part of their own ethos. (E.g., "Ours is not to reason why / Ours is but to do or die.") Related to this is the "Just a Job" fallacy. (E.g., "How can torturers stand to look at themselves in the mirror? But, I guess it's OK because for them it's just a job like any other.") (See also "Blind Loyalty," "Argument from Inertia)

Blind Loyalty (also Blind Obedience, the "Team Player" appeal, or the Nuremberg Defense)

The dangerous fallacy that an argument or action is right simply and solely because a respected leader or source (an expert, parents, one's own "side," team or country, one's boss or commanding officers) say it is right. This is over-reliance on authority, a corrupted argument from ethos that puts loyalty above truth or above one's own reason and conscience. In this case, a person attempts to justify incorrect, stupid or criminal behavior by whining "That's what I was told to do," or "I was just following orders."

Name-Calling (ad-hominem variant)

The dangerous fallacy that, simply because of who you are, any and all arguments, disagreements or objections against your standpoint or actions are automatically racist, sexist, anti-Semitic, bigoted, discriminatory or hateful. E.g., "My stand on abortion is the only correct one. To disagree with me, argue with me or question my judgment in any way would only show what a pig you really are." Also applies to refuting an argument by simply calling it a fallacy or declaring it invalid, without proving why it is invalid. See also, "Reductionism."

Bribery (also Material Persuasion, Material Incentive, Financial Incentive)

The fallacy of "persuasion" by bribery, gifts or favors, the reverse of the Argumentum ad Baculam. As is well known, someone who is persuaded by bribery rarely "stays persuaded" unless the bribes keep on coming in, and usually increasing with time.