Evsc 2220 Final

a feral animal

an animal living in the wild that is descended from domesticated individuals -feral species introduced to non native regions may disrupt ecosystems

resilience

the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and still retain its basic function and structure "learning how to change in order not to be changed" (not building fail-safe systems)

California Sea otters

-sea otter = a keystone species; their feeding habits affect carbon levels, sea urchin, shellfish, and kelp populations -california's near shore marine ecosystem is currently suffering due to decline of the female sea otter -heavily poached for fur trade; rebounded but lost almost 50% of their heterozygosity, making them nearly all genetically identical; this poses a major threat to their resilience -female otters dieing at higher rates than males; because they are smaller, less mobile, rear pups, and are more susceptible to diseases -humans have introduced infectious diseases to the population (cat feces); agricultural runoff further pollutes the water

Walking Catfish

-successful invasive species in SE USA (Florida) -catfish walk on land; breathe -they are neither eaten nor fished for sport in the US -not native to Florida

Possum

-the opossum serves as a biological buffer between the Lyme bacterium and humans, because they pull off and kill ticks -therefore when deforestation destroys the opossum's old growth habitat in the NE USA, humans are more susceptible to lyme tick disease -when the opossum does not carry the lyme bacterium it is than carried instead by the white-footed mouse - which thrives in suburban and edge areas -opossum can only really survive in the wooded forest -lyme tick disease rates have been rising as old growth forests have been being destroyed

species richness equilibrium

-the predicted species richness in Island biogeography is the intersection of the immigration and extinction curves -when equilibrium is reached the number in the cast remains about the same while the actors can change (some species go extinct but some more new species enter)

k - strategists

-thrive when population is at carrying capacity. Have long lives and slow reproduction rates. Ex) humans -will thrive best in conservation phase

Socio-Ecological Systems (SES)

4 general phases of all SES -rapid growth (r) -conservation (k) -release (omega) -reorganization (alpha) - the four phases tend to cycle in that order

the white Rhino

Rhino's importance in Africa -one of the "big five" of Africa; attracts tourism -maintains grass heights which prevent large fires -removal of poisonous plants due to strong immune systems -rhino's are endangered because of poaching --> demand for their horns for cultural and medicinal purposes -conservationists have combated poachers by dyeing rhinos' horns pink and by poioning to humans

The adaptive cycle

- cycle of SES. composed of two loops: the Fore Loop and the Back Loop Fore Loop = relatively slow accumulation of social and ecological capital (fairly predictable) -rapid growth= exploitation of readily available sources -conservation= slow change; resources "locked up" (rigidity trap) Back Loop = relatively fast collapse and release of capital; outcomes are unpredictable -release= rapid change and release of resources triggered by crisis (poverty trap) -Reorganization and innovation

Nigerian-Cameroon chimpanzee

- deforestation in Nigeria as a result of illegal marijuana cultivation is causing serious declines in the Nigerian chimpanzee population (cusp of extinction) -Nigeria is exploited by developed countries for its oil, timber, and land, and marijuana -Boko Haram a terrorist group funds its terrorist activities with the marijuana cultivation $$

Limitations of the classic Island Biogeography Model

- model makes relative predictions making quantitative tests difficult - species turnover rates on islands are difficult to determine -individual species considered to be more-or-less interchangeable, therefore ignoring sometimes unique aspects of a particular species -mostly ignores evolution/speciation

Preserving the Cork Forest

-1/2 of cork oak forests are found in the iberian peninsula -cork is harvested off the trees for wine corks and flooring -change in consumer preference to wine bottles with plastic tops has led to a decline in protective measures for these forests. (if it doesnt pay, it doesnt stay) -iberian lynx is endangered; losing its habitat of cork forest

Dingo

-Australian aboriginal dog - half dog half wolf -dingo is on its way to becoming a dog

Worms

-Banau Rice terraces in the Phillipines; represent an ancient way of life; very beautiful; "8th wonder o the world" -these terraces have fallen victim to an infestation of giant earthworms -increased tourism is diverting water away from the rice terraces, deforestation lessens water supply -the earthworms searching for water have contributed to the collapse of the terraces -the profitability of the rice patties make restoration of the terrace necessary

Cocoa Ivory Coast

-africa's ivory coast is the source for at least 40% of the world's cocoa supply, and cocoa supplies in the region have been steadily declining -huge demand for chocolate and decreasing supply will lead to huge price increase in chocolate -trees producing less cocoa b/c of climate change -increased exploitation of the land used for cocoa farming in order to keep up with demand -pesticides poison the soil, the habitat is fragmented, and biodiversity is threatened -young trees are best for yielding cocoa so this is leading to destruction of older forests

The european rabbit in Australia

-an invasive species; big pest problem -example of feral species -in 1859, Thomas Austin brought 24 rabbits to his property in Victoria (Barwon Park). Within 6 years, the population grew to 2 million plus! (portmanteau biota) By 1890, the rabbit population reached plague levels -weapons deployed against it: fur, fences, fleas, poison, food -rabbit proof fences built all across Australia. (failed) -myxomatosis a virus was introduced to population (dropped the population by 500mil) - European flea introduced. Lots of the fleas died in the heat.

european rabbit

-domesticated rabbit also known as the old world rabbit -exact origin is unknown but scientific evidence shows that after the last glacial period, the rabbits were only found on the Iberian Peninsula -they quickly spread west to some mediterranean countries as well as other parts of Europe -domesticated breeds can be much larger than wild rabbits - an invasive species in Australia

Which is better? engineering resilience or ecological resilience?

-ecological resilience is a better fit for studying the dynamics of ecological-social systems - the interplay between stabilizing and destabilizing properties is at the heart of present issues of development and the environment -engineering resilience reinforces the dangerous myth that the variability of natural systems can be effectively controlled, that the consequences are predictable, and that sustained production is an attainable and sustainable goal

Rockstrom's "quadruple squeeze" humans are putting on the earth

-ecosystem decline -climate change -population growth -surprise

Loss of Dispersal Ability in organisms

-feature of distant islands -once you're on those islands you're on those islands

Gigantism and nanism

-feature of distant islands -tend to evolve in different directions from mainland ancestors - miniature elephants and giant swans

Analyzing Ball and cup model

-initial steady state = bottom of a cup -resilience = height from bottom of a cup to top of cup -threshold = rim of cup (hill) -decreasing resilience = lowering thresholds

Habitat fragmentation

-is an anthropogenic disturbance (caused by human activity) wit two components: 1) a reduction in area of the focal habitat type 2) a change in habitat configuration; remaining patches are smaller and more isolated than in the original configuration - disturbance = a discrete event that removes biomass (creates patchiness)

Titikaka Scrotum Frog

-lake titikaka = on border of peru and Bolivia (highest lake in world; extreme conditions) -titkaka frog has saggy skin that can directly absorb oxygen. frog is in danger of extinction. frog is a sacred animal. -overharvesting of the frog by natives and the introduction of invasive species of trout = reasons for extinction threat (both are for economic reasons) -have slow rate of reproduction

Dyeing River

-large textile factories that make clothes of major brands like A&F, calvin clein, and GAP dump their waste wter into public waterways -this illegal disposal of water has acunted for arsenic, fluorine, and sulfates to enter Chinese waterways which has lasting effects on Chinese citizens -high demand for textiles by western nations -factories save money disposing of waste water illegally -chinese media suppresses info about toxicity of Chinese rivers -due to excess pollution, the former Chinese water system has surpassed its thresh holds and has become a new system; new system is stable and resilient but undesirable

Lynx-Fox-Hare Predator Prey Triangle

-lynx provides deer carcasses which foxes eat, but lynxes also kill foxes -this negative impact is stronger because fox population declines where lynx is abundant -fox suppresses mountain hares, brown hares, grouse and pine marten. And lynxes suppress fox so lynx indirectly favors the hares, grouse, and pine marten. Ex. in Finland -lynx had negligible impact on fox in SW Finland, where fox instead were governed by productivity (high productivity implies a mild climate and high food availabiltiy) -in the NE lnyx regulated fox on a low level, which allowed hare population to escape fox suppression. Hence, hare numbers were determined by productivity- not predation.

Viruses introduced to European rabbits in Australia

-myxoma (through fleas) -Rabbit hemorrhagic disease (through flies) VVI = a work in process disease that will render the rabbits infertile

albatrash

-pacific trash island made up of microscopic pieces of plastic and trash is located between California and Hawaii and is twice the size of Texas and still growing -ocean dumping act of 1972 - only protects 12 miles off the coast -the Laysan Albatross population is declining b/c of the Pacific Garbage island - birds eating the trash -best solution now is to clean beaches -soap company called method makes soap bottles out of ocean plastic

Potential (adaptive cycle)

-potential refers to wealth and capital as well as potential -limits what is possible, number of alternatives and options available (y-axis)

island

any area of suitable habitat surrounded by an expanse of unsuitable habitat -doesn't have to be surrounded by water

Eastern cottontail rabbit

chief wild rabbit of North America -feeds on a wide variety of plant material: grasses, buds, twigs, leaves, bark etc -remains motionless in face of danger to avoid notice -swims well

engineering resilience

defined as rate at which a system returns to a stable state following a perturbation -assumes that a system does not, after a perturbation, shift into an alternate state -ball and cup model (one cup)

Connectedness (adaptive cycle)

degree to which the system can control its own destiny, resilience to external forces (x-axis)

orcytolagus

genus of all European rabbits

Hares in the spring

hares are normally shy animals but in the Spring their behavior changes -chase eachother around and box with eachother -competition to attain dominance and more access to breeding females -boxing actually often involves a female hare striking a male (in order to test his determination or say she is not ready)

top-down regulation

herbivory and/or predation predominantly regulate ecosystem structure and function

Hydraxes and Petra

hydraxes build stick nests that are preserved in arid environments to preserve a record of the vegetation -inspection of hydra middens (nests) indicate the gradual degradation of the landscape in Byzantine Petra mediterranean forest with many trees --> Maquis (a degraded forest) --> garigue (a further degraded shrubby forest) --> batha (very open shrubby vegetation) - caused by intensive grazing

response diversity

important that different organisms that form part of a functional group have different responses to disturbances -resilience is built around maintaining functional and response diversity

Noah Webster

observed that Winters became more variable after Europeans deforested North America

Distant Islands

oceanic islands far from mainland (source of immigrants) -distant islands tend to have common characteristics that distinguish them from near islands - Loss of dispersal ability in organisms - gigantism and nanism - ecological release - one feature of biota on distant islands is their apparent vulnerability to environmental change

Paradox of Efficient economy

optimization is supposedly about efficiency, however if it is applied to a narrow range of values and a particular set of interests, optimization can result in major INEFFICIENCIES socio-ecological systems rarely if ever behave as linear systems

Functional Diversity

refers to the different functional groups of organisms that are represented in a system

bottom-up regulation

resource abundance is the dominant factor determining structure and function of ecosystem

Antidepressants and stream fish

small amounts of antidepressants (prozac etc) from human consumption find their way into streams around the world -species of small fish such as minnow and perch eat it and are vulnerable to changes in their mating behavior, eating habits, and a loss of schooling behaviors -when fish leave their schools they are much more vulnerable to predators solutions: -get people to take less antidepressants -more advanced waste water processing systems - membrane distillation = can separate drug residue from water

Biogeography

the study of the *distributions* of plants and animals over the surface of the earth in both space and time

As systems increase in connectedness...

they lose resilience

Panarchy

- connects the adaptive cycles of many different systems and levels -large scale systems are at the top and have sow changing cycles (ex: US government) -small scale systems are at the bottom and have a smaller, faster changing cycle (ex: local municipal government) -connects adaptive cycles through remembrance (remember) and revolt

Eastern Grey Squirrels "Kicked in the Nus"

-Eastern grey squirrels are seen as a pest -they damage trees, compete with other species for food, damage crops, dig through public trashcans -have high population growth rates and low mortality rates -squirrels are able to breed earlier b/c of global warming -because of habitat destruction, squirrels are crossing ecotones -Human solution: give birthcontrol to squirrels (contraceptive-laced sunflower seeds) -Problem: Humans are narrow minded. killing squirrels will affect there prey and predator populations. Do we need to Affect the system (ie terminate the squirrels)

Lagomorphs

-order that includes rabbits, hares, and pikas -have four incisors in upper jaw -herbivores -eyes set high on the head

Extinction Curve

-part of Island biogeography theory - as species richness increases, the extinction rate increases -principles of competitive exclusion -small islands have greater extinction rates as species richness increases compared to larger islands - b/c larger islands tend to have a greater quantity and diversity of habitats and resources on them. (on small islands, individuals are more likely to disperse off the island)

Are rabbits / Lagomorphs rodents?

No -b/c the rabbit's epiglottis is engaged over the soft palate except when swallowing -the rabbit is an obligate nasal breather - rabbits have TWO sets of incisor teeth, one behind the other - testicals are in front of the penis

Can rabbits attack people?

Typically Not. but Jimmy Carter was once "attacked" by one while he was in a boat

Francis Galton's prediction

that all wild animals will be gone as agriculture spreads because they will be seen as useless consumers of cultivated produce - landscapes of agriculture and animal husbandry only; no wild animals -Francis Galton wrote book on how to domesticate animals

2 dimensional Adaptive Cycle

- Buzz Holling came up with idea - adds the dimensions of POTENTIAL (y axis) and CONNECTEDNESS (x axis) to the fore loop and back loop

Remembrance / remember

- connects the conservation phase of a larger cycle to the rapid growth phase of a smaller cycle -facilitates renewal at the lower level by drawing on the capital stored in the slower larger cycle

noise pollution and Whales

- sound pollution with technological advances like oil rigs, military sonar and others are affecting the echolocation of whales -whales use echolocation for feeding, communication, navigation, and reproduction -sound pollution is leading to mass injury and death of whales -is an international issue -sonar is used for mapping ocean floor, finding fish, finding enemies, and finding oil

r - strategists

- thrive best when population is far below carrying capacity. these populations reproduce quickly. Ex) mice. -will thrive best in rapid growth phase

3 dimensional adaptive cycle

- x-axis = the degree of connectedness among controlling variables - y-axis = the wealth/capital (or potential) that is inherent in the accumulated resources - z-axis = resilience

wolverines

-arctic, subarctic, alpine, and subalpine habitats -small, isolated, widely scattered groups. Very dependent on eachother. removal of a few individuals can terminate an entire group. -slow growth rates -temperature increases and habitat fagmentation from urban growth have endangered the wolverine (found in Canada and Alaska and Montana)

revolt

-connects the release phase of a small scale system to the conservation phase of a large scale system - critical change at one level cascades upwards and precipitates change at a higher level -failure cascades upwards

Mountain Gorilla

-critically endangered; found in Africa -main threats are poachers-who trade gorilla cubs on the black market and sell gorilla heads and hands as souvenirs, war and instability, oil and gas exploration, human disease, and habitat destruction -slow reproduction rates -government and militia have contrasting plans. government tries to protect gorillas -rwanda, uganda, and congo

Irrawaddy Dolphin

-dark blue/gray dolphin found in SE asia (Mekong River of Laos) -the irrawaddy dolphins are critically endangered -dolphins prefer estuaries and shallow, fresh and brackish water like the Mekong river -creation of the Dong Sahong Dam threatens the dolphins because it reduces the water flow which could lead to sediment build up and pollution -construction of dam also threatens the fish population -dam is being builby big corporation for hydropower

What makes island species more vulnerable to extinction?

-definitive boundaries and the isolation -ecologists use islands as natural experiments regarding the consequences of landscape structure on biodiversity

The Chesapeake Bay and Ecological Resilience

-despite deforestation and diminished wetlands, the Chesapeake Bay existed in a stable state until the 1970s -however, over time the accumulated loss of oysters, forests and other buffers weakened its resilience and left the Bay vulnerable to the torrential runoff brought by Tropical Storm Agnes in 1972 -since 1972, Chesapeake bay has found a new steady state -one with far fewer grasses and many more algal blooms -getting to a state that more closely resembles the past will require a difficult push up a hill made steeper by the loss of the Bay's buffers

The potential, connectedness, and resilience of all four phases

-exploitation = low potential, low connectedness, high resilience -conservation = high potential, high connectedness, low resilience -release = low potential, high connectedness, low resilience -reorganization = high potential, low connectedness, high resilience

Leporidae

-family that contains rabbits and hares - thick, soft fur, large ears, and limbs adapted for running

Ecological Release

-feature of distant islands -island species often diversify into a wider range of roles than those of their mainland counterparts - the opportunity for habitat partition / resource partition is much greater (the warblers)

Shark Finning

-high demand for shark fin soup in east asian nations results in excessive shark finning -sharks drown without fin (cant swim) - a sign of privilege and affluence -loss of shark population is hurting coral reefs and their inhabitants in the Pacific (25% of marine species in coral reefs) -population decline in sharks leads to more predator fish that than over-prey on herbivorous fish. this causes the algae levels to increase which limits the oxygen getting to coral reefs predator. is harder for them to recover from population loss -sharks also hunted for medicinal purposes top level of panarchy is the culture system

Trends with colonization

-in many parts of the world we are replacing a native biotic diversity with exotic invasive flora and fauna that are well adapted to humans and to evading our attempts at control (species turnover) -decreasing the biodiversity of the plane

European Hare (Brown Hare)

-native to northern and central Europe and Western Asia -adapted to temperate open couny -breeds on the ground rather than in a burrow and relies on speed to ecape -feeds on grasses, leaves, twigs, bark etc -Original Easter bunny was a European hare -jackrabbit = faster hare

Immigration Curve

-part of island biogeography theory -illustrates new species from source area disperse to an island at a rate depending on the distance of the island from the source area and the number of species already on the island -species near immigrate at a faster rate than species fr -as species richness increases, immigration rates decrease, because with a FINITE number of species on the mainland, fewer new species can reach the island

Rainfall and trees

-presence of trees results in more rainfall -therefore deforestation can affect the climate by reducing rainfall -(goats in trees)

Difference between Rabbits and Hares

-rabbits are born blind and hairless (altrical) -hares are born with hair and sight (precodial) -all rabbits except cottontail rabbits live underground in burrows or warrens; while hares live in simple nests above the ground (as do cottontails) -rabbits live in groups; hares usually do not -hares are larger, have longer ears, and have black markings on their fur -hares have not been domesticated; many rabbits are (european rabbits). Domesticated rabbits are typically kept in hutches - small wooden house-like boxes outside. -hares can run within a few minutes of birth; rabbits spend first days of life in a fur lined nest 9b/c they have no fur)

system's resilience can be measured by:

-the distance of the current state of the system to the threshold that delineates a different system state

Where were dogs first domesticated?

China

Island biogeography

a field within biogeography that attempts to establish and explain the factors that affect the *species richness* of natural communities on islands and pseudo-islands (# of species on island?) Island Biogeography Theory - Robert MacArthur and Edward Wilson two main predictions: 1) islands close to a source area should have a higher number of species than islands further from the source area 2) Larger islands should have more species than smaller islands for islands located at similar distances from the source area -the theory is important because it helps scientitsts predict how many species should thrive in a given area

ecological resilience

measured by the magnitude of disturbance that can be absorbed before the system changes its structure -applies to both ecological and social systems -assumes from the outset that there exist multiple stable states for any given system -ball and cup model (multiple cups)