Exam 1

Nucleus

(1) The part of every cell that contains the chromosomes and governs activity in the cell. (2) A group of neuron cell bodies in the central nervous system.

How long did it take researchers to sequence all of the genes in the human genome?

15 years

Among identical twins, the concordance rate for schizophrenia is about 48%; among fraternal twins it is about ______.

17%

Heritability estimates range from about ______% for personality to about 80% for schizophrenia.

40

The sodium-potassium pump accounts for ______ per cent of the neuron's energy expenditure.

40

Heritability estimates for occupational interests are ______%.

40-50

how many chromosomes do we have

46

Approximately ______ different genetic combinations can be created through sexual reproduction of any two people.

60 trillion

Wernicke's Area

A brain area just posterior to the auditory cortex (in the left hemisphere in most people) that interprets spoken and written language input and generates spoken and written language.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A brain-imaging procedure that measures brain activation by detecting increases in blood flow and oxygen usage in active neural structures.

Absolute Refractory Period

A brief period following the peak of the action potential when the sodium ion channels are inactivated and the neuron cannot be fired again.

Tract

A bundle of axons in the central nervous system.

Nerve

A bundle of axons running together in the peripheral nervous system.

Neurotransmitter

A chemical substance released by a neuron (usually at a synapse) that binds to receptors on the same neuron, nearby neurons, or other tissues such as muscles or organs.

Reticular Formation

A collection of more than 90 nuclei running through the middle of the hindbrain and the midbrain with roles in sleep and arousal, attention, reflexes, and muscle tone.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

A condition caused by the mother's use of alcohol during the third trimester of pregnancy; neurons fail to migrate properly, often resulting in intellectual disability; the leading cause of intellectual disability in the Western world.

mRNA

A copy of one strand of DNA that moves out of the nucleus to direct protein construction.

Fissure

A deep groove between gyri of the cerebral hemispheres that is larger than a sulcus.

Stereotaxic Instrument

A device used for the precise positioning in the brain of an electrode or other device, such as a cannula.

Polarization

A difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of a neuron.

Hydrocephalus

A disorder in which cerebrospinal fluid fails to circulate and builds up in the cerebral ventricles, crowding out neural tissue and usually causing intellectual disability.

Neglect

A disorder in which the person ignores objects, people, and activity on the side opposite the brain damage.

DNA

A double-stranded chain of chemical molecules that looks like a ladder that has been twisted around itself; genes are composed of DNA

Myelin

A fatty tissue that wraps around an axon to insulate it from the surrounding fluid and from other neurons.

Zygote

A fertilized egg.

Growth Cone

A formation at the tip of a migrating neuron that samples the environment for directional cues.

Node of Ranvier

A gap in the myelin sheath covering an axon.

knockdown technique

A genetic engineering technique in which a gene's activity is reduced by interfering with its expression.

knockout technique

A genetic engineering technique in which a nonfunctioning gene mutation is inserted during the embryonic stage.

Pineal Gland

A gland located just posterior to the thalamus that secretes sleep-inducing melatonin; it controls seasonal cycles in nonhuman animals and participates with other structures in controlling daily rhythms in humans.

Ganglion

A group of cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system.

Neural Network

A group of neurons that function together to carry out a process.

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)

A hyperpolarization of the dendrites and cell body, which makes a neuron less likely to fire.

Human Connectome Project

A large-scale cooperative effort to map the circuits in the human brain.

Transmission Electron Microscope

A magnification system that passes a beam of electrons through a thin slice of tissue onto a detector plate that connects to a computer monitor, forming an image magnified up to 50 million times.

EEG

A measure of brain activity recorded from two electrodes on the scalp over the area of interest and connected to an electronic amplifier; this detects the combined electrical activity of all the neurons between the two electrodes.

Stroke

A medical condition caused by a loss of blood flow in the brain (also known as cerebrovascular accident).

Vesicle

A membrane-enclosed container that stores neurotransmitters in the neuron terminal.

Scanning Electron Microscope

A microscope that forms a three-dimensional image of up to 2 to 3 million times magnification by capturing electrons emitted by tissue when it is bombarded by a beam of electrons.

Hyperpolarization

A negative change in a neural membrane's voltage, which is inhibitory and makes an action potential less likely to occur.

Neurotoxin

A neuron poison; a substance that impairs the functioning of a neuron.

Motor Neuron

A neuron that carries commands to the muscles and organs.

Sensory Neuron

A neuron that carries information from the body and from the outside world into the central nervous system.

Interneuron

A neuron that has a short axon or no axon at all and connects one neuron to another in the same part of the central nervous system.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

A noninvasive stimulation technique that uses a magnetic coil to induce a voltage in brain tissue.

Glial cell

A nonneural cell that provides several supporting functions to neurons, including myelination.

Pons

A part of the brain stem that contains centers related to sleep and arousal.

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)

A partial depolarization of the dendrites and cell body, which makes the neuron more likely to fire.

Partial Depolarization

A positive change in a neural membrane's voltage, which is excitatory and makes an action potential more likely to occur.

Rate Law

A principle that the intensity of a stimulus is represented in an axon by the frequency of action potentials.

Immunocytochemistry

A procedure for labeling cellular components such as receptors, neurotransmitters, or enzymes by using a dye attached to an antibody designed to attach the component.

in situ hybridization

A procedure for locating gene activity; involves constructing strands of complementary DNA that will dock with strands of messenger RNA. The complementary DNA is radioactive, so autoradiography can be used to locate the gene activity.

Nondecremental

A property of the action potential, which travels through the neuron without any decrease in size.

Model

A proposed mechanism for how something works.

Metabotropic Receptor

A receptor on a neuron membrane that opens ion channels slowly via a second messenger and produces long-lasting effects.

Autoreceptor

A receptor on a neuron terminal that senses the amount of transmitter in the synaptic cleft and reduces the presynaptic neuron's output when the level is excessive.

Ionotropic receptor

A receptor that is part of the ion channel and opens the channel immediately to produce quick reactions required for muscle activity and sensory processing.

Compensation

A response to nervous system injury, in which surviving presynaptic neurons sprout new terminals, postsynaptic neurons add more receptors, or surrounding tissue takes over functions.

Gyrus

A ridge in the cerebral cortex; the area between two sulci.

Sulcus

A shallow groove or space between two gyri, not as deep as a fissure.

Reorganization

A shift in neural connections that changes the function of an area of the brain.

Reflex

A simple, automatic movement in response to a sensory stimulus.

Neuron

A specialized cell that conveys sensory information into the brain, carries out the operations involved in thought, feeling, and action, or transmits commands out into the body to control muscles and organs; a single neural cell, in contrast to a nerve.

golgi stain

A staining method that randomly stains about 5% of neurons, which makes them stand out individually.

Nissl Stain

A staining method that stains cell bodies.

myelin stain

A staining method that stains the fatty insulation on axons, thus identifying neural pathways.

Cerebellum

A structure in the hindbrain that contributes the order of muscular contractions and their precise timing to intended movements and helps maintain posture and balance. It is also necessary for learning motor skills and contributes to nonmotor learning and cognitive activities.

correlational study

A study in which the researcher does not control an independent variable but determines whether two variables are related to each other.

experimental study

A study in which the researcher manipulates an independent variable and observes its effect on one or more dependent variables.

Hypothalamus

A subcortical structure in the forebrain just below the thalamus that plays a major role in controlling emotion and motivated behaviors, such as eating, drinking, and sexual activity.

Axon terminal

A swelling on the branches at the end of a neuron that contains neurotransmitters; also called an end bulb.

Theory

A system of statements that integrate and interpret diverse observations to explain some phenomenon.

autoradiography

A technique for identifying brain structures involved in an activity; it involves injecting a radioactive substance (such as 2-DG) that will be absorbed most by the more active neurons, which then will show up on an X-ray image.

Twin Studies

A technique for studying the roles of heredity and environment by assessing how similar twins are in some characteristic; their similarity is compared with that of nontwin siblings, or the similarity between identical twins is compared with the similarity between fraternal twins.

family study

A technique for studying the roles of heredity and environment by assessing how strongly a characteristic is shared among relatives.

adoption study

A technique for studying the roles of heredity and environment by comparing the similarity of adopted children to their biological parents with their similarity to their adoptive parents.

antisense RNA

A technology that temporarily disables a targeted gene or reduces its effectiveness.

Postsynaptic

A term referring to a neuron that receives transmission from another neuron.

Presynaptic

A term referring to a neuron that transmits to another neuron.

Recessive

A term referring to an allele that will have an influence only when it is paired with the same recessive allele on the other chromosome.

Dominant

A term referring to an allele that will produce its effect regardless of which allele it is paired with in the fertilized egg.

Meninges

A three-layered membrane that encloses and protects the brain.

Oligodendrocyte

A type of glial cell that forms the myelin covering of neurons in the brain and spinal cord.

Schwann Cell

A type of glial cell that forms the myelin covering on neurons outside the brain and spinal cord.

Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)

A variant of MRI that measures movement of water molecules to image brain pathways and quantify their quality.

Graded potential

A voltage change in a neuron that varies with the strength of the stimulus that initiated it.

Which of the following would be a consequence of the sodium-potassium pump being inactivated?

Action potentials would not be able to be generated.

Which of the following is true about Christopher Reeve's spinal cord injury and recovery?

After three years of electrical stimulation therapy, Reeve regained two-thirds of his touch sensation.

Which of the following statements is true regarding animal research?

Almost every medical advance in the twentieth century has come from the study of laboratory animals.

Don is an ice hockey player who regularly experiences "checks" in which his head and body are slammed into the boards by other players. What would you expect to see if Don receives a medical examination later in his life?

Alzheimer's disease-like atrophy in the brain

event-related potential

An EEG technique for measuring the brain's responses to brief stimulation; it involves presenting a stimulus repeatedly and averaging the EEG over all the presentations to cancel out random activity, leaving the electrical activity associated with the stimulus.

Action potential

An all-or-none electrical signal of a neuronal membrane that contains an abrupt voltage depolarization and return to resting potential

Allele

An alternate version of a gene; can be dominant or recessive.

Inferior Temporal Cortex

An area in the lower part of the temporal lobe that plays a major role in the visual identification of objects.

Ion

An element or atom that is charged because it has lost or gained one or more electrons.

Axon

An extension from a neuron's cell body that carries informationto other locations.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

An imaging technique that involves measuring the radio-frequency waves emitted by hydrogen atoms when they are subjected to a strong magnetic field.

CT

An imaging technique that produces a series of X-rays taken from different angles; these are combined by a computer into a three-dimensional image of the brain or another part of the body.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

An imaging technique that reveals function. It involves injecting a radioactive substance into the bloodstream, which is taken up by parts of the brain according to how active they are; the scanner makes an image that is color coded to show the relative amounts of activity.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

An injury caused by an external mechanical force, such as a blow to the head, sudden acceleration or deceleration, or penetration.

Human genome project

An international project with the goal of mapping the location of all the genes on the human chromosomes and determining the base sequences of the genes.

Fetus

An organism after the initial prenatal period; in humans, after the first eight weeks.

Embryo

An organism in the early prenatal period; in humans, during the first eight weeks.

Agonist

Any substance that mimics or enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

Any substance that reduces the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Which scientific discovery provided support for localization?

Broca's autopsy of a patient who lost the ability to speak

Which of the following is the most precise tool for altering genes?

CRISPR

Ventricles

Cavities in the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

Neurotrophins

Chemicals that enhance development and survival in neurons.

Optogenetics

Control of neurons by creating light-responsive ion channels in the cell membrane.

Association Area

Cortical areas that carry out further processing beyond what the primary projection area does, often combining information from other senses.

Genes are made of ______.

DNA

Presynaptic Inhibition

Decreased release of neurotransmitter from a neuron's terminal as the result of another neuron's release of neurotransmitter onto the terminal (an axoaxonic synapse).

Polygenic

Determined by several genes rather than a single gene.

dales principle

Erroneous belief that a neuron was capable of releasing only one neurotransmitter.

Dendrites

Extensions that branch out from the neuron cell body and receive information from other neurons.

Which scientist adopted an extreme view of localization that has not held up to later scientific investigation?

Franz Gall

When you call your sleeping dog, his eyelids flutter; then, you call louder and his ears perk up. Finally, you call even louder, and he wakes up. Why does this sequence of events occur?

Greater stimulus intensities produce higher rates of action potentials.

Heterozygous

Having a pair of alleles for a specific characteristic that are different from each other.

Homozygous

Having a pair of alleles for a specific characteristic that are identical to each other.

Migration

In brain development, movement of newly formed neurons from the ventricular zone to their final destinations.

X-linked

In heredity, a condition in which a gene on the X chromosome is not paired with a gene on the shorter Y chromosome, so that a single recessive gene is adequate to produce a characteristic.

Phenotype

In heredity, the characteristic of the individual.

fabrication

In research, deliberately falsifying, altering, or manipulating data or results.

deception

In research, failing to tell the participants the exact purpose of the research or what will happen during the study or actively misinforming them.

Presynaptic Excitation

Increased release of neurotransmitter from a neuron's terminal as the result of another neuron's release of neurotransmitter onto the terminal (an axoaxonic synapse).

gene transfer

Insertion of a gene from another organism into a recipient's cells, usually within a virus.

What impact does the gene Robo1 have on brain development?

It controls a chemical that repels developing axons from the brain's midline.

Which of the following is a disadvantage of the CT scan?

It does not provide a measure of brain activity that changes over time.

Joy's mother is heterozygous for a dominant allele for brown hair and her father is homozygous for a recessive allele for brown hair. Joy has two siblings. What will Joy and her siblings have?

Keysha and her siblings will all have the same phenotype.

Sodium-Potassium Pump

Large protein molecules that move sodium ions through the neuron membrane to the outside and potassium ions back inside, helping maintain the resting potential.

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Liquid in the ventricles and spinal canal that carries material from the blood vessels to the central nervous system and transports waste materials in the other direction. It also helps cushion the brain and spinal cord.

genetic engineering

Manipulation of an organism's genes or their functioning.

What do we know about action potentials in axons?

Many action potentials are generated next to each other along the length of an axon.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

One of the two branches of the peripheral nervous system; it is composed of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which control smooth muscle, glands, and the heart and other organs.

What ethical issue occurred in Ax's study of human emotions?

Participants were not told the true purpose of his study.

How do scientists portray the knowledge that is obtained through careful observation?

Scientists treat this information as one step in a process of understanding a problem.

Radial Glial Cells

Specialized glial cells that provide a scaffold for most migrating neurons as they move perpendicularly from the ventricular surface to their final location.

lesioning

Surgical damage to neural tissue, typically using electricalcurrent, heat, a chemical, or a microscalpel. Lesions occur naturally as a result of trauma, disease, or developmental error.

Cranial Nerves

The 12 pairs of axonal bundles that enter and leave the underside of the brain; part of the peripheral nervous system.

Plasticity

The ability to be modified; a characteristic of the nervous system.

Broca's Area

The area anterior to the precentral gyrus (motor cortex) that sends output to the facial motor area to produce speech and also provides grammatical structure to language.

Motor Cortex controls

The area in the frontal lobes that controls voluntary (nonreflexive) body movements; the primary motor cortex is on the precentral gyrus.

Auditory Cortex

The area of cortex on the superior temporal gyrus, which is the primary projection area for auditory information.

Frontal Lobe

The area of each cerebral hemisphere anterior to the central sulcus and superior to the lateral fissure.

Gene

The biological unit that directs cellular processes and transmits inherited characteristics.

Neurogenesis

The birth of new neurons.

Blood-Brain Barrier

The brain's protection from toxic substances and neurotransmitters in the bloodstream; the small openings in the capillary walls prevent large molecules from passing through unless they are fat soluble or carried through by special transporters.

Dorsal Root

The branch of a spinal nerve through which neurons enter the spinal cord.

Ventral Root

The branch of each spinal nerve through which the motor neurons exit.

behavioral neuroscience

The branch of psychology that studies the relationships between behavior and the body, particularly the brain.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The branch of the autonomic nervous system that activates the body in ways that help it cope with demands, such as emotional stress and physical emergencies.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The branch of the autonomic nervous system that slows the activity of most organs to conserve energy and activates digestion to renew energy.

Genotype

The combination of genes an individual has.

correlation

The degree to which two variables are related, such as the IQs of siblings; it is measured by the correlation coefficient, a statistic that varies between the values of 0.0 and ±1.0.

Resting Potential

The difference in charge between the inside and outside of the membrane of a neuron at rest.

Voltage

The difference in electrical charge between two points.

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system that carries sensory information into the central nervous system (CNS) and motor commands from the CNS to the skeletal muscles.

Genome

The entire collection of genes in the chromosomes of a species.

Primary Somatosensory Cortex

The first stage in the cortical-level processing of somatosensory information - then passed on to the secondary somatosensory cortex.

Proliferation

The first stage of nervous system development, in which cells that will become neurons multiply at the rate of 250,000 new cells every minute.

Lateral Fissure

The fissure that separates the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes.

Saltatory Conduction

The flow of electricity down the axon in which action potentials jump from one node of Ranvier to the next.

Electrostatic pressure

The force by which like-charged ions are repelled by each other and opposite-charged ions are attracted to each other.

Circuit Pruning

The fourth stage of nervous system development, in which neurons that are unsuccessful in finding a place on the appropriate target cell, or that arrive late, die and excess synapses are eliminated.

What is the direct impact of a downregulation in gene activity?

The gene would make less of a protein.

Cortex

The grayish 1.5- to 4-mm-thick surface of the hemispheres,composed mostly of cell bodies, where the highest-level processing occurs in the brain.

Central Sulcus

The groove between the precentral gyrus and the postcentral gyrus that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe in each hemisphere.

Regeneration

The growth of severed axons

Precentral Gyrus

The gyrus anterior to, and extending the length of, the central sulcus; the location of the primary motor cortex.

Vulnerability

The idea that genes produce susceptibility to a disorder and that environmental challenges may combine with a person's biological susceptibility to exceed the threshold required to produce the disorder.

Localization

The idea that specific parts of the brain carry out specific functions.

Equipotentiality

The idea that the brain functions as a whole; the opposite of localization.

Monism

The idea that the mind and the body consist of the same substance.

Dualism

The idea that the mind and the brain are separate.

Nature vs Nurture

The issue of the relative importance of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).

Mind-Brain Problem

The issue of what the mind is and what its relationship is to the brain.

Longitudinal Fissure

The large fissure that extends the length of the brain, separating the two cerebral hemispheres.

Cerebral Hemispheres

The large, wrinkled structures that are the dorsal or superior part of the brain and that are covered by the cortex.

Corpus Callosum

The largest of the groups of neurons connecting the two cerebral hemispheres.

Cell Body

The largest part of a neuron, which contains the cell's nucleus, cytoplasm, and structures that produce proteins, convert nutrients into energy, and eliminate waste materials; also called the soma.

Medulla

The lower part of the hindbrain; its nuclei are involved with control of essential life processes, such as cardiovascular activity and respiration.

Midbrain

The middle part of the brain, consisting of the tectum (roof) on the dorsal side and the tegmentum on the ventral side.

Occipital Lobe

The most posterior part of each cerebral hemisphere and the location of the visual cortex.

What reduces the chances of an action potential being fired during the relative refractory period?

The neuron's membrane is slightly more negative than at rest.

Temporal Lobe

The part of each cerebral hemisphere ventral to the lateral fissure; it contains the auditory cortex, visual and auditory association areas, Wernicke's area, and structures involved in learning and memory.

Visual Cortex

The part of each occipital lobe where visual information is processed.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The part of the nervous system made up of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - what is it made up of?

The part of the nervous system made up of the cranial nerves and spinal nerves.

Inferior Colliculi

The part of the tectum in the brain stem that is involved in auditory functions, such as locating the direction of sounds.

Superior Colliculi

The part of the tectum in the brain stem that is involved in visual functions, such as guiding eye movements and fixation of gaze.

Heritability

The percentage of the variation among individuals in a characteristic that can be attributed to heredity.

Relative Refractory Period

The period during which a neuron can be fired again following an action potential but only by an above-threshold stimulus.

Spinal Nerves

The peripheral axonal bundles that enter and leave the spinal cord at each vertebra and communicate with the body below the head.

Force of diffusion

The pressure exerted by ions from an area of greater concentration to an area where they are less concentrated.

All-or-none law

The principle that an action potential occurs at full strength or it does not occur at all.

Natural selection

The principle that those whose genes endow them with greater speed, intelligence, or health are more likely to survive and transmit their genes to more offspring.

Empiricism

The procedure of obtaining information through observation.

Reuptake

The process by which a neurotransmitter is taken back into the presynaptic terminals by transporters.

Temporal Summation

The process of combining potentials that arrive a short time apart on a neuron's dendrites and cell body.

Spatial Summation

The process of combining potentials that occur simultaneously at different locations on the dendrites and cell body.

concordance rate

The proportion of cases in which a pair of related individuals shares a characteristic.

Which of the following concepts does the all-or-none law describe?

The size of an action potential does not depend on the amplitude of the stimulus that started it.

Synaptic Cleft

The small gap between a presynaptic neuron and a postsynaptic neuron.

Synapse

The structure in which a neuron passes electrical or chemical signals to another neuron, muscle, or organ.

Sympathetic Ganglion Chain

The structure running along each side of the spine through which most sympathetic neurons pass (and may synapse) on their way to and from the body's organs.

Plagiarism

The theft of or use without permission of another's work or ideas.

Phrenology

The theory in the early 1900s that "faculties" of emotion and intellect were located in precise areas of the brain and could be assessed by feeling bumps on the skull.

Dales principle

The theory that a neuron is able to release only one neurotransmitter.

Circuit Formation

The third stage of nervous system development, in which the developing neurons send processes to their target cells and form functional connections.

Gene expression

The translation of a gene's encoded information into the production of proteins, determining the gene's functioning.

Psychosurgery

The use of surgical intervention to treat cognitive and emotional disorders.

Materialistic monism

The view that the body and the mind and everything else are physical.

A neuron's cell membrane could become positive through either an inflow of positive ions or an outflow of negative ions. Why is the inflow of positive ions the most logical method for this depolarization?

There are already too many chloride ions outside of the cell.

How do the layers of the cortex differ from each other?

They contain different types and sizes of cells.

Which of the following is true of knockout techniques?

They have a gene that has been disabled or altered.

What happens to the number of neurons in a monkey's brain over the course of development?

They lose 40% of their visual cortex neurons between birth and adulthood.

How did Descartes' hydraulic model of brain functioning hold up to scientific testing?

This model is not supported by modern observations of brain functioning.

gene therapy

Treatment of a disorder by gene manipulation.

Stem Cells

Undifferentiated cells that can develop into specialized cells, such as neurons, muscle, or blood.

informed consent

Voluntary agreement to participate in a study after receiving full information about any risks, discomfort, or other adverse effects that might occur.

Which of the following statements is consistent with the vulnerability model as applied to mathematical ability?

Your ability to be successful in math classes can be expanded beyond genetic predispositions with good study habits.

blood-brain barrier

a filtering mechanism of the capillaries that carry blood to the brain and spinal cord tissue, blocking the passage of certain substances

Dr. Medina wants to locate the receptors for THC in the brain. What staining or imaging technique should she use?

a form of autoradiography

Limitations of using adult stem cells includes their ______.

ability to mature only into the kind of cells where they are located

Gene therapy has been used to produce an effective treatment for ______.

adrenoleukodystrophy

The relationship between disease and genes shows that ______.

all people with a mutant form of the huntingtin gene will develop Huntington's disease

Which type of research would separate biological psychology from other sciences?

analyzing the neurotransmitters associated with Bipolar Disorder

The secondary motor areas are located in the brain ______ to the primary motor cortex.

anterior

Mary overdoes it the weekend before the big test and drinks way too much alcohol. As a result, she gets very nauseous and throws up. She remembers the next day that one brain area is unprotected by the blood-brain barrier, which triggered her nausea by the excessive alcohol. This area was the ______.

area postrema

wernickes area

association area, interprets language, input arriving from nearby auditory and visual areas, also generates spoken language

Which stain or method can be used to visualize neurons as well as determine if the neuron in question was active in a particular task?

autoradiography

Axodendritic synapses result in hypopolarization or hyperpolarization of a neuron, while ______ synapses increase or decrease the release of neurotransmitter into the synapse.

axoaxonic

corpus callosum

band of fibers that carry information between brain hemispheres

Modern research tells us that brain functions or characteristics are ______.

both localized and distributed

The spinal cord's primary function is to transmit signals between the ______.

brain and body

Motor neurons in the spinal cord receive input from the ______.

brain and transmit to internal organs and muscles

From Descartes' work on the hydraulic model of brain functioning, we can see that models or theories ______.

can be incorrect

By stimulating taste pathways in the brains of rats who were not exposed to sucrose but using firing patterns of neurons that were recorded from rats who were drinking a sucrose solution, researchers determined that neural firing patterns ______.

can encode taste stimuli

During the relative refractory period, the neuron ______.

can fire again but only to a stronger-than-threshold stimulus

The absolute refractory period refers to when the neuron ______.

cannot fire again because the sodium channels are unable to open

Microdialysis requires a(n) ______.

cannula

cerebrospinal fluid

carries material from blood vessels to the CNS and transports waste materials in the other direction

association areas

carry out further processing beyond what the primary area does

stroke

caused by loss of blood flow to the brain - ischemic or hemorrhagic

neurons

cells that convey sensory information into the brain, carry out operations, and transmit commands to the body

Immunocytochemistry techniques exploit the ability of antibodies to carry a dye to specific ______.

cellular components

The ______ coordinates the speed and direction of body movements.

cerebellum

A loss of blood flow in the brain causes a(n) ______.

cerebrovascular accident

If you have ever awoken from sleep to scribble down a brilliant idea, you can probably relate to Loewi, whose own sleep was interrupted with notes with an insight about ______

chemical transmission at the synapse

The cortex of most mammals is organized into ______.

columns and layers

Of the following, the ______ microscopes can be used with thicker sections than usually required?

confocal laser scanning

Transcranial direct current stimulation could improve memory by increasing ______.

connections between brain areas

The stem cell lines "approved" for federal funding by the George W. Bush administration were ______ and thus, for all practical purposes, there was no federal funding for stem cell research in the United States during that time.

contaminated

hypothalamus

controlling emotion and motivated behavior

______ isn't well understood but plays a significant role in neural functioning.

corelease

After completion of surgery to correct syndactyly, the ______

cortex begins representing the fingers separately in just a few days

With ______, a low rate of neural impulses will trigger only one messenger.

cotransmission

Christopher suffered spinal cord damage at the cervical level of the spinal column. While he lost control of his legs and arms, he retained control over his ______.

cranial nerves

peripheral nervous system - what is it compromised of?

cranial nerves, spinal nerves, somatic nervous system, autonomic nervous system

IPSPs ______ the rate of neurons firing.

decrease

stereotaxic instrument

device allowing precise positioning of a probe in the brain

Raulo wants to determine if people diagnosed with major depression have more brain pathways connecting cortical and subcortical areas than do people without a depression diagnosis. What imaging technique should Raulo use in his study?

diffusion tensor imaging

Action potentials can transmit information over long distances because they ______.

do not become smaller as they occur down the length of an axon

phrenology

each 35 different types of emotion and intellect located in precise areas of the brain

Which of the following techniques stimulates the greatest portion of the brain at one time?

electrical stimulation

A microelectrode can be used to ______ neurons.

electrically stimulate

Luigi Galvani provided the first insights into the role of ______ in biological functioning.

electricity

Luigi galvani used

electricity to stimulate nerves - 1700s

Rosalind thinks that the hippocampus is needed for new memories to be formed. In order to determine if she is correct, she conducts a study in which people perform a memory task while having their brains scanned. Rosalind is using the method of ______ to learn about the brain.

empiricism

What type of approach did Helmholtz take in investigating how the nervous system works?

empiricist

Which of the following results in the greatest amount of brain damage following a stroke?

excess calcium entering neurons in the affected area

A large amount of erroneous data is potentially being used in new research as a result of ______.

fabrication

Most pregnant women undergo regular medical evaluations of their pregnancies beginning at 8 weeks after fertilization. At this point in development, the fertilized egg is referred to by scientists as a(n) ______.

fetus

What function do flawed theories have in science?

flawed theories encourage further observation

The force by which high concentrations of ions disperse away from each other and thus spread evenly through a solution is called ______.

force of diffusion

who dealt with phrenology

franz gall

The ______ lobe is located anterior to the central sulcus and superior to the lateral fissure.

frontal

Scientists have worked on describing genes in humans by identifying them and their ______.

function

The plans for cellular processes are contained within our ______.

genes

vulnerability

genes contribute to predisposition for a disorder

Optogenetic channels can be created in the brain using ______.

genes from bacteria

To view a small percentage of neurons among other neurons, researchers use ______ stain methodology.

golgi

Electricity flowing in power lines drops in voltage over distance, requiring your power company to use transformers to boost the voltage back to the original amplitude. This loss over distance is similar to the behavior of ______ potentials.

graded

Kian wanted to make a gelatin brain for his kids' Halloween party. If Kian was going to make the brain look realistic, he should color the gelatin for the cortex ______.

gray

sulcus

groove or space of brain

A nucleotide that makes up DNA is ______.

guanine

The hypothalamus ______.

has been implicated in the regulation of feeding and drinking

The olfactory and optic nerves are sometimes referred to as tracts because they ______.

have receptor cells that first develop in the brain

The percentage of variation in a given characteristic that can be attributed to genetics is known as ______.

heritability

Behaviors that are necessary to sustain life are most likely to be performed by structures in which portion of the brain?

hindbrain

equipotentiality

idea brain can function as a undifferentiated whole

The only human relatives known to have the same genotype are ______.

identical twins

If a researcher is allowed to use deception in a study with human participants, when should they reveal the true study purpose and procedures to the participants?

immediately after the study is completed

According to the ethical principle of informed consent, when should participants be told about the procedures involved in a study?

immediately before the start of the study

To understand the behavior of visual receptors in color-blind patients, a researcher could use ______ to better identify the receptors in a tissue sample.

immunocytochemistry

Sarah threw rocks of different sizes into a pond. Just as ripple size was a function of size of rock, graded potentials vary ______ as a function of stimulus intensity.

in magnitude

Which of the following methods uses radioactive DNA, which will dock with messenger RNA?

in situ hybridization

MAO inhibitors ______ in the synapse.

increase the amount of serotonin, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine

gene therapy uses what kind of stem cells

induced pluripotent stem cells

Larry heard a loud sound behind him and turned his head to look for the source of the sound. Larry was using the ______ of the brain structure here.

inferior colliculi

theory

integrates and interprets diverse observations in an attempt to explain a phenomenon

Many business deals involve a "middle man" who communicates between buyer and seller. The "middle man" between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron is a(n) ______.

interneuron

Prefrontal Cortex

involved in working memory, planning and organization of behavior, and regulation of behavior in response to its consequences. It also integrates information about the body with sensory information from the world to select and plan movements.

Which of the following is true of TMS?

it is a noninvasive technique

Recent research on emotionality produced a mouse with a nonfunctional gene for normal fear behavior. This mouse exhibits behavioral indications of being relatively fearless and is a typical example of ______ research.

knockout gene

fissure

large groove or sulcus of brain

After a few too many cups of coffee and having to find a restroom, Sal ironically remembered the meaning of the term vesicle, as in ______.

little bladder

The ______ separates the two cerebral hemispheres.

longitudinal fissure

Which mind-brain view is most likely to be held by a neuroscientist?

materialistic monism

Mary and Joe are having a baby. They have some concerns related to certain possible mental and medical disorders in their family histories. Gene information will be used in the future to treat ______.

medical and psychological disorders

Following the binding of a neurotransmitter, ______ can indirectly open ion channels.

metabotropic receptors

When the brain changes in response to psychotherapy, nonmaterial neuroscientists believe that the ______ is responsible for the brain changes.

mind

chemical stimulation via cannulation - microdialysis

more complex variation of cannulation

Observation is a better way to obtain accurate knowledge about the world than intuition because observation is ______ than intuition.

more objective

Fritsch and Hitzig first showed that ______ would result from electrical stimulation of the brain.

movement

Through their experiments, Fritsch and Hitzig showed that ______.

movement could be produced by providing electrical current to the brain

gustav fritshch and eduard hitzig produced

movement in dogs - 1870

Since a motor neuron's axon and dendrites extend from the soma in several directions, it is called ______.

multipolar

Luigi Galvani first observed that ______ would respond to electrical stimulation.

muscles

Multiple sclerosis occurs when the insulation around an axon begins to break down. Which chemical or method might be of interest to researchers studying this phenomenon because it can be used to identify axons affected by the disease?

myelin stain

You have been given the task of designing an animal that needs to have an efficient nervous system, and the animal can be no larger than a human. What feature can you include in the animal's nervous system to ensure that it can respond quickly to its environment?

myelinated axons

The proposition that heritable characteristics that provide a survival or reproductive advantage are more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations is known as ______.

natural selection

A bundle of axons in the CNS is called a tract but is referred to as a ______ if it is in the peripheral nervous system.

nerve

CNS - brain and spinal cord - are made up of?

nerve, tracts, nucleus, ganglion

hermann von heimholtz demonstrated

nerves do not behave like conducting wires

A behavioral neuroscientist might investigate the ______.

neurotransmitter systems responsible for drug addiction

______ are released from axon terminals and are detected by protein receptors on an adjacent neuron.

neurotransmitters

Which chemical or method can be used to stain the cell bodies of neurons?

nissl stain

glial cells

non-neural cells that provide a number of supporting functions to neurons - oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

noninvasive technique using a magnet coil to induce a voltage

Partial depolarization of a segment of membrane causes ______.

normally closed sodium ion channels to open

When an axon transmits an action potential, ______.

nothing physically moves down the axon

Dr. Gonzalez is comparing the brains of several different animals. What feature(s) will she look for to identify which animal is the most intelligent?

number of gyri and size of the cerebral hemispheres

Dale's principle, a recently discounted theory about synaptic function, stated that a neuron ______.

only released a single neurotransmitter

Organization in the spinal cord is ______.

opposite of the brain's organization, with the white matter on the outside and the gray matter in the interior

Which brain stimulation technique involves the use of light-sensitive channels?

optogenetics

The change in electrical charge from the peak of +30 or +40 mV back to -70 mV is due to ______.

outflow of potassium ions

Which of the following can be a consequence of a stroke?

paralysis

The ganglia in the ______ nervous system are interconnected and respond as a unit.

parasympathetic

Which division of the autonomic nervous system slows the activity of most organs to conserve energy but also activates digestion to renew energy?

parasympathetic division

locus

part of a pair of chromosomes that code for certain traits

The mind-brain problem was first debated by ______

philosophers in the fifth century BCE

who dealt with localization?

phineas gage, paul broca

When it is said that the cell membrane has a difference in electrical charge between its inside and the outside, this means the membrane is ______.

polarized

If you are having trouble getting to sleep, one area of the brain likely to be involved is the ______.

pons

______ tend to exit a neuron based on weaker electrostatic pressure than their force of diffusion.

potassium ions

meninges

protective 3 layered membrane for CNS

Genes provide the instructions for making ______.

proteins

laws of probability suggest results could be

random

thalamus

receives information from all sensory systems - except smell

Thalamus

receives information from all sensory systems except olfaction and relays it to the respective cortical projection areas. It has additional roles in movement, memory, and consciousness.

A ______ allele will produce its effects only when it is paired with a similar allele on the other chromosome.

recessive

Damage to the medulla is most likely to produce problems in ______.

regulation of respiration

Ablation

removal of brain tissue

In the mature human brain, most changes consist of ______.

reorganization of connections for existing neurons

gyrus

ridge of brain

Which of the following traits has the highest degree of heritability?

schizophrenia

empiricism

scientists method of acquiring knowledge

pineal gland

secretes melatonin - sleep

Tammy was rollerblading and hit the back of her head. According to the Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies, immediately after this fall, she will ______.

see stars

reorganization

shift in connection that changes function of an area of the brain

The correlation for IQ between parents and children is about 0.42, whereas the correlation between siblings in the same family is ______.

similar in strength, with correlation coefficients of about 0.47

______ would tend to move into the neuron based on both their electrostatic pressure and force of diffusion.

sodium ions

Which of the following occurs during an EPSP?

sodium ions enter the cell

The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus is called the ______.

soma

In people who are blind from birth, the cortex may reorganize such that ______.

somatosensory areas take over part of the occipital lobe

At the last home football game, Joel started a taunting chant that slowly spread to more and more fans. Eventually, all those in the stadium picked up the chant and made a roar so deafening that the opposition had to call a timeout. What Joel and fellow fans performed is analogous to the process of ______ at axon hillocks

spatial summation

Jonas suffered a stroke in Broca's area. The result is most likely an inability to ______.

speak in a coherent manner

A human might have an electrode inserted into their brain to ______.

stimulate the brain in a patient with Parkinson's disease

The midbrain includes the ______.

substantia nigra

lesioining

surgical damaging of neural tissue

ablation

surgical removal of brain tissue

Kerry wanted her son Alex to clean up his room for several days. Frustrated with the lack of response from Alex, she started asking him to clean his room every three minutes. Finally, he cleaned up his room because he didn't want to hear his mother's repeated requests anymore. His response is analogous to the process of ______ at axon hillocks.

temporal summation

The resting membrane potential is ______.

the difference in electrical charge inside and outside the inactive neuron

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

what accounts for the resting potential?

the force of diffusion, electrostatic pressure, the sodium-potassium pump

Which of the following statements is most consistent with the idealistic monist view of the mind-brain problem?

the mind and brain are not physical

The change in a neuron's potential caused by the arrival of neurotransmitter is called ______.

the postsynaptic potential

Myelinated axons consume less energy than unmyelinated axons because ______.

the sodium-potassium pumps have less work to do

Parietal Lobe contains

the somatosensory cortex and visual association areas.

Spinal Cord - what does it do?

the spinal nerves, which communicate with the body below the head, enter and leave the spinal cord.

During the development of the nervous system, ______.

there is an overproduction of neurons, with many of these later dying

Which of the following statements is true about the case of Phineas Gage?

this helped support localization

During development, the hollow interior of the nervous system develops into the ______

ventricles