Exam 1

general administrative support for sport organizations

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national basketball association (NBA)

- Commissioner: Adam Silver; 30 teams - 29 in US and 1 in Canada; 108 international players form 42 countries/territories; average team is worth $1.65B; yes CBA

national hockey league (NHL)

- Commissioner: Gary Bettman; average team worth $594M while highest team is valued at $1.5B; yes international members from Canada, Europe, and Australia; yes CBA

national football league (NFL)

- Commissioner: Roger Goodell; typically each team has owner or ownership "group"; international players from Canada, Germany, UK; average franchise valued at $2.3B; total league value is $62.9B; yes CBA

NASCAR

- National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing; the governing body makes the rules, runs the events and makes sure rs follow the rules; consists of several series similar to "leagues" and divisions like other sports; Chairman is Brian France; 36 charter teams from 19 organizations and charter owners may transfer their charter to another team once over the first five years of the agreement; yes international members - Italy, Canada, Mexico, Nigeria, Brazil, Australia; No CBA; most valuable team worth $325M

NAIA

- National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics; 65,000 student-athletes; 250 schools; 21 conferences; encourage coach- student mentoring; character-driven athletics; earn athletic and academic aid; focus on leadership opportunities

NJCAA

- National Junior College Athletics Association; mission is to promote and foster two-year college athletics; 504 members; 25 sports; structured with a Board of Regents

sport product

- a good, a service, or any combination of the two designed to provide benefits to a sports spectator, participant, or sponsor - difference between goods and services?

national collegiate athletic association (NCAA)

- a member-led organization dedicated to the well-being and lifelong success of college athletes; includes 1,117 colleges and universities, 100 athletics conferences, and 40 affiliated sports organizations; member representatives serve on committees that propose rules and policies surrounding college sports

collusion

- a secret agreement or cooperation especially for an illegal or deceitful purpose

sports marketing

- an activity involving physical exertion and skill in which an individual or team competes against one another or others for entertainment - the specific application of marketing principles and processes to sports products and to the marketing of nonsports products through association with sports - sport and entertainment marketing is part of a larger body of marketing known as "lifestyle marketing"

amateurism

- athletes who do not receive compensation for playing the sport (Shank & Lyberger)

amateurism

- athletes who do not receive compensation for playing the sport (Shank & Lyberger) - someone who does not have a written or verbal agreement with an agent, has not profited above his/her actual and necessary expenses or gained a competitive advantage in his/her sport

Sherman Antitrust Act

- based on the constitutional power of Congress to regulated interstate commerce, was enacted to curb concentrations of power that interfere with trade and reduce economic competition

facilities, equipment, and programming

- college or high school intramurals - country clubs, resorts, marinas - commercial facilities (e.g. bowling alleys) - corporate, industrial, military, ski recreation - camps - public and nonprofit agencies - sporting goods companies - e-sports

marketing of sport

- concerned with promoting a sport product - viewpoint: sport property (i.e. team, retailer, event, etc.)

formula one (F1)

- considered the most prestigious form of racing with lightweight, aerodynamic, extremely fast, and ultimately difficult cars to race, formula 1 is governed by the FIA based in France. Events are held at circuits across the world with international members and is not related to American racing leagues

marketing

- creates utility through the exchange process - "the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners and society at large"

the sport product is invariably intangible and subjective

- each customer views an event differently - fans leave an event with intangible memories of that event (except for the t-shirt or hat they bought)

FBS

- football bowl subdivision - conducts a 'bowl' for post season games - games are less organized in structure - has I-AA Committee for Playoff Selection; authority falls under an independent body "the Bowl Championship Series (BCS), whose authority is above that of the NCAA - gives 85, mostly full, scholarships to 85 different and qualified players

FCS

- football championship subdivision - concentrates on a sort of playoffs that will eventually end with a grand championship game finale - usually 16 teams that battle it out through the process of single elimination - mostly gives away only partial scholarships - can give full scholarships but are limited to 6

major league baseball (MLB)

- has a commissioner (Rob Manfred); 30 teams divided into two leagues then divided into three, five team divisions; average team is worth $1.645 billion; 27% of players are foreign-born from Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Cuba, Mexico, Japan, Canada, South Korea, Colombia, Curacao, Australia, Brazil, Nicaragua, Panama, Aruba, Germany, Lithuania, Netherlands, South Africa, and Taiwan; Yes CBA

major league soccer (MLS)

- has commissioner (Don Garber); teams have investor operators where all operators are invested in MLS and then receive a share of the profits if/when MLS generates a profit; players from 67 different countries including Canada, Argentina, England, and Ghana; most valuable MLS team valued at $315M; 23 teams and 650 players; yes CBA

outsourcing

- hiring a party outside a company to perform services and create goods that traditionally were performed in-house by the company's own employee and staff

"packaged" events for players

- intercollegiate athletics - interscholastic athletics - run/walk 5K, 10k, half marathon, marathon, ultra distance - obstacle racing

grassroots participation

- issues of obesity in our nation has brought out competition for participatory sports - some argue we are becoming more like European "sport for all" systems - this has shown changes in marketing efforts at all levels

the sport product (in an event form) is a perishable commodity

- it must be pre-sold. - it is simultaneously produced and consumed - you cant sell a ticket to yesterday's game - expectations and competition are critical factors in preselling.

port is generally publicly consumed and consumer satisfaction is invariably affected by social facilitation or lack thereof

- less than 2% of people attend a sporting event alone. - marketers must create special products and activities to enhance group attendance. - social identity theory

NCAA Division III

- over 190,000 student-athletes at 450 institutions; academics are primary focus; minimizes the conflicts between athletics and academics and helps student-athlete progress through shorter practice and playing seasons and regional competition that reduces time away from academic studies; focus on being a student first

NCAA Division II

- over 300 NCAA colleges; focused on a balance for academic success, athletics contributions, and campus/community involvement; generally don't have the financial resources to devote to their athletic programs or choose to place a heavy financial emphasis; located in 45 states, Canada, and Puerto Rico; between 2,500 and 25,000 student enrollment per school; partial scholarship model

premier League (EPL)

- premier league is a private company wholly owned by its 20 member clubs who make up the league at any one time; each of the 20 clubs are a shareholder in the league; 20 teams and 577 players; 390 foreign players; average market value is 12.02M Euros; yes CBA

"packaged" events to spectators

- professional team sport franchises - professional tours such as golf and tennis - arenas, stadiums, coliseums - racetracks

marketing through sport

- promotes a business by associating itself with a sport property - examples: sponsorship, promotions at events, etc. - viewpoint: firm - IMG Sports Marketing - Super Bowl commercial

NCAA Division I

- subdivided based on football sponsorship; schools generally have biggest student bodies, manage the largest athletics budgets and offer the most generous number of scholarships; commit to maintaining a high academic standard for student-athletes; nearly 350 colleges and universities in membership; over 6,000 athletic teams, over 170,000 student-athletes

sports marketing characteristics

- the demand for sports goods and services has grown tremendously over the past several decades - with increased demand, there is increased competition - sports marketers are competing with everyone for the consumer's entertainment dollar - no other product evokes such a strong personal identification and emotional attachment as sport

why is sports marketing unique

- the man who uses Callaway golf clubs, drives a Jaguar, and wears Ralph Lauren apparel makes a statement about his identity. He is a man separate and apart from the man who uses a Penn fishing reel, drives a Dodge Durango, and wears Levi's - American football is an occasion at which dancing girls, bands, tactical huddles, and television commercial breaks are interrupted by short bursts of play

the sport product is inconsistent and unpredictable

- there is no guaranteed win, or quality and consistent performance - greater emphasis must be placed on the product extensions rather than the core product - if you can control the core product (the game) then you have to guarantee the sizzle satisfies the fans needs and wants (the concessions, parking, kids area, etc.)

sport has an almost universal appeal and pervades all elements of life

- therefore, sport marketers have a vast array of target markets and must create product variations (i.e. price and time) to meet the needs and wants of these segments

how sports marketing is different

- what other industry causes you to celebrate successes of the company and reject them when they don't do well? 1) BIRGing (basking in reflective glory) - "we won" 2) CORFing (casting off reflective failure) - "they lost" 3) BIRFing (basking in spite of reflected failure) - "they lost, but I support them anyway" - no business other than sport is viewed so simplistically to point where the consumers view themselves as experts in terms of product knowledge - according to MillerLite Report, 52% of fans feel they could play, 74% officiate, and 51% coach

many sport organizations simultaneously compete and cooperate

- while competing on the field, they cooperate to insure stability and existence - bowl revenue sharing - where else will you find yourself rooting for your rival?

four segments of the sport industry

1) "packaged" events to spectators 2) facilities, equipment, and programming 3) "packaged" events for players 4) general administrative support for sport organizations

Three Types of Ticket Markets (Price):

1) Fixed (Static/Traditional) Pricing - a uniform, set price for all customers 2) Secondary Ticket Market - the ticket market that exists between fans, brokers, etc. of event tickets after they have been purchased from the primary ticket market 3) Participatory Ticket Market - involves the consumer

sport consumer influences

1) competition 2) television 3) grassroots participation

types of sport marketing

1) marketing of sport 2) marketing through sport

the recurrent patterns of attitudes and activities are often measured by

1) psychographics (personalities, behaviors, and values) 2) demographics (gender, age, household income) 3) geographics (where the consumer lives and works) 4) product and media usage (where, when, and how do they "play")

Campus Recreation and a Marketing Initiative

A goal for many campus recreation programs is to acquire new customers and maintain interest in current participants. In order for campus recreation profes- sionals to offer and maintain quality programs and services, they must evaluate their participants' respective needs. Encouraging campus recreation professionals to focus their marketing agenda based on participants' needs, wants, and identifi- able characteristics makes it increasingly important to develop a sound marketing campaign. This study reinforces the view that marketing initiatives, or at least marketing plans, are effective techniques that support customer acquisition and potential long-term success for practically any campus recreation program. Marketing within a campus recreation program is a concept that is not easily defined. Its meaning and scope is constantly evolving. According to various sources (Bass & Keathley, 2008; Farley, 1985; Weese & Sutton, 1987), campus recreation marketing is responsible for spreading the word about a product, service, and event while relying on the deployment of a marketing plan. Depending on the structure of a campus recreation program, marketing campaigns must ask various questions: What exactly are you attempting to market?Who is your target audience?How can you best reach them?How can you differentiate what you are marketing? According to Liass (1986), marketing consists of controllable variables those of which include "marketing research, the product itself, brands, trademarks, logos, price, discounts, advertising, promotion, displays, and packaging" (p. 17). Of course, this is only a small snapshot of a marketing-oriented approach. Invariably, campus recreation programs need to identify goals for the marketing campaign. This translates into reaching potential participants and customers with a "consistent message that often revolves around enhancing the collective student experience, and promoting individual health and well-being" (Steinbach, 2002, p. 48). Marketing efforts should be purposefully created and implemented effectively to attain the desired results campus recreation programmers are seeking. Campus recreation decision makers are seeking marketing strategies to main- tain or increase the quality of their programs and services. Marketing campaigns of campus recreation programs and services should concentrate on communicating the product to past, present, and future participants (Ko & Pastore, 2007; Liass, 1986). This becomes difficult when there is a student turnover rate of 80% every five years and 25% every year on campuses (Weese, 1986). This type of turnover for potential campus recreation participants mandates that campus recreation professionals "continually 'sell' their programs and services to new 'consumers' while 're-selling' it to the previous participants" (p. 6). Implementing and select- ing marketing strategies for a campus recreation program can be a first step in an ever-changing university and college environment.

The Influence of Campus Recreation Beyond the Gym (Analyses)

A series of analyses were run between the question "have you ever used campus recreation facilities" and various student demographic characteristics to examine differences between certain demographic groups. In addition, some of the benefits from participating in campus recreation facilities and programs were also exam- ined. The statistical program SPSS version 18 was used for the statistical analyses. Two statistical tests were used to examine the data: chi-square and Cramer's V. The chi- square test is used with nominal data to determine whether two variables are independent or related (Pagano, 2004). Cramer's V is an index of association that indicates whether there is a relationship between categorical variables (Warner, 2008). When examining statistical significance, the data were analyzed using an alpha level of .05.

marketing of sport definition

According to the amateur sports organisations, sports marketing was about building the awareness and the profile of the sport. Although professional teams want to build their brand as well, there were additional marketing activities to help build the support and relationship with the sport's sponsors. Amateur sports struggled with building sponsor relationships

advantages of sports marketing

All of the sports marketers and managers agreed that it came down to revenue and numbers. For professional sports it was audience numbers and for amateur sports it was participation numbers. Professional teams could leverage off the national brand with the TV exposure and the numbers turning up to watch games. Amateur teams may have the participation numbers, so their priority was getting teams on the field throughout the season

advertising

All the sports had very similar advertising programmes and most of them mentioned the importance of their website. The difference, however, was that professional sports could afford large mainstream advertising like TV, radio, newsprint, public relations activities and billboard space. Amateur sports did not advertise and instead relied on traffic to their website. Professional sports employed people to design advertising campaigns for the franchise; they had the time, the people and the money where amateur sports did not

BIRGing -

Basking in reflective glory; the WE phenomenon (Chapter 1 PPT)

BIRFing -

Basking in spite of reflective failure; "they lost, but I support them anyway" (Chapter 1 Powerpoint)

competition

Rugby is New Zealand's highest profile sport with a big audience that helps to attract sponsors. All sports competed with each other, but rugby was the biggest competitor in sponsorship and attracting spectators. In terms of participation, all sports competed with TV and computer games for increased participation. The rugby manager, however, believed that they were competing with mothers who think that rugby is a rough sport and that other sports such as soccer are safer for their children to play

Conclusion

Campus recreation has the unique privilege of being able to undertake activities directly affecting students' attitudes, abilities, and quality of life. Weese (1986) suggested campus recreation professionals have an obligation to strengthen their marketing efforts to enhance awareness and involvement. Effective marketing is not a 'hit or miss' process, but a course of action which requires systematic planning (Bright, 2000; Weese & Sutton, 1987). Likewise, Kuh, Buckley, and Kinzie (2007) believed that one direct way marketing efforts affect participation is by "intentionally designing programs and practices that channel behavior into purposeful activities" (p. 79). With the growing number of campus recreation program and service oppor- tunities available on campus, marketing efforts by campus recreation professionals have a powerful influence on participation and student learning. If a marketing plan is structured for the betterment of the campus community, the campus recreation department will benefit by experiencing more coordination in all marketing efforts. Campus recreation marketing efforts should continue to explore and assess the impact their marketing strategies have on their potential participants. When considering the challenges that face today's campus recreation professional, it is imperative to use any method to enhance the program's marketing effectiveness. Weese and Sutton (1987) suggest that "intramural-recreational sports programs cannot be promoted in a piece-meal fashion. If they are to flourish in a very com- petitive market, they must be marketed with specific strategies in place" (p. 16). This approach calls for systematic and professional strategies that enable campus recreation marketing to develop new ideas, improve their services, and enhance program offerings. Campus recreation professionals have felt the pressure to introduce, implement, and evaluate new trends that affect how programs and ser- vices are marketed to the university campus. One significant piece of a successful campus recreation marketing department is having an organized marketing plan. It remains an essential goal for the campus recreation profession to establish marketing theories, concepts and methods. Therefore, it is vital that individuals responsible for marketing campus recreation programs and services manage the marketing landscape so that recreational sport remains a successful endeavor.

CORFing -

Casting off reflective failure; the THEY phenomenon (CH 1 PPT)

Descriptive Analysis

Descriptive analysis was conducted to examine the need for marketing efforts at four-year public and private institutions. Respondents were asked if their campus recreation department currently had a strategic plan for marketing. Overall, 40% of the respondents indicated that they did have a strategic marketing plan, while 60% indicated they did not have one. It was reported that 46% of campus recreation departments do not have an individual(s) specifically responsible for marketing efforts. Of the 46% who indicated they did not have an individual responsible for marketing, 84% indicated that it would be beneficial to have an individual(s) des- ignated to be responsible for the overall direction of all marketing efforts. An inquiry was made to determine what factors respondents thought were important for a campus recreation department when marketing its programs and services. Of the 218 respondents, 75% answered that their campus recreation department was doing a good job of introducing new, innovative marketing strat- egies and initiatives. Furthermore, 79% indicated the overall marketing plan is better today compared with a year ago. Regarding marketing strategies used within respondents' campus recreation departments, 77% indicated that the leadership of campus recreation is fully committed to the long-term success of marketing strategies and initiatives. When asked if campus recreation departments should use more marketing media, strategies, and initiatives then they currently use, 78% agreed. Overall, 86% of the respondents agreed that utilizing marketing strategies and initiatives is an essential component of campus recreation. Finally, 96% of the respondents indicated that hiring professionals who possess marketing abilities and/or experience is important to a campus recreation department. A summary of the results is presented in Table 2. Implications Given the practical significance of this study, campus recreation professionals must take the basic steps to identify those marketing strategies to advance the campus recreation profession. This study has provided much information regarding ideas for carrying out effective marketing strategies and initiatives. In regards to the "chal- lenges to the campus recreation profession" provided by respondents of this study, they can mostly be summarized in four areas: employee skills and responsibilities, external guidelines, budget constraints, and marketing mediums. Employee Skills and Responsibilities Most campus recreation professionals indicated that this profession demands they "wear multiple hats" and complete "other duties as assigned." These expectations are just part of the daily routine. By wearing many hats, campus recreational profes- sionals may face having to not only administer and facilitate their own programs and services, but market and advertise them as well. Respondents suggest that full integration of a strategic plan for coordinated marketing efforts requires staff that has both advertising/public relations experience combined with market planning backgrounds. Ultimately, the competence and ability of a staff will dictate the effectiveness of its marketing efforts. External Guidelines Respondents agree that the most recognizable challenge to campus recreation marketing efforts is a university marketing department. At most universities, marketing departments oversee all marketing operations on a given campus. These marketing departments, for various reasons, set marketing guidelines that include marketing logos, colors, language, mediums, and use of outside market- ing entities. Often this functionality presents challenges to campus recreation departments. Respondents indicated brand-management strategies imposed by campus administration hampers imaging and staging of information. In addition, university exclusivity agreements limit the use of potential advertisers and spon- sors. In many cases, campus recreation professionals feel that there is simply too much administrative red tape to even try any marketing strategies. Campus recreation professionals who are eager to implement a marketing plan should be open minded and willing to build professional relationships. They should have open communication with university marketing professionals. Creating an envi- ronment where constant dialogue is actively pursued assists the campus by having a marketing landscape that avoids or addresses problems before conflict strikes. Budget Constraints Campus recreation departments are faced with challenges that affect their marketing strategies' effectiveness. Budgeting can be a common internal challenge for any department. Respondents suggest that getting staff members to buy in and commit to a clear and specific marketing strategy or strategic plan on little to no budget can be difficult. The secret to creating a high-impact campus recreation marketing plan is to optimize your limited budget (Weese, 1986). Marketing impact can be greatly improved by using multiple marketing channels. The further a campus recreation marketing dollar can be stretched to reach the target, the higher the impact of the marketing message. Marketing Media A marketing plan and its effectiveness can be defined based on its ability to reach the masses. The respondents of this study indicated that campus recreation pro- grams and services are being marketed through technological media such as web- sites, e-mail blasts, listserves, social media (i.e., facebook, twitter, hot hand), and electronic newsletters. The use of flyers, bulletin boards, table tents in residence and dining halls, outdoor portable signage (i.e., Windmasters), program guides, restroom advertising, promotional items, brochures and calendars are accepted media in which university and colleges are utilizing to market their campus recre- ation programs and services. Respondents indicated that word-of-mouth is still is an effective and efficient marketing method that reaches the potential target market. As a result, this approach can continue to help create awareness of campus recreation programs and ser- vices, therefore creating a product that people will talk about. In instances where announcements and events need to be communicated campus wide, respondents indicated that people prefer acquiring information through one-on-one conversa- tions, orientations for students as well as faculty and staff, informational booths, and student organization and residence life meetings. These types of marketing strategies have the opportunity to promote service quality while simultaneously creating a blueprint to guide future marketing efforts.

Study Rationale

Every campus recreation program could create a marketing plan. Each type of institution, whether public or private, has a repertoire of characteristics that define "who they are" and the various roles and contexts that give them identity (Kreiner & Ashforth, 2004; Pratt & Foreman, 2000; Serpe, 1987). Campus recre- ation programmers need to design their programs around their goals, institutional climate and culture, and decision making when evaluating marketing strategies of their programs and services being offered (Dill, 1984). Although not all campus recreation programs can have separate marketing departments, staff, and initia- tives, they are encouraged to market their programs and services, and enhance the quality of their programs and services (Osman, Cole, & Vessell, 2006). This study lends support to examine the need for marketing efforts at four-year public and private institutions.

The Influence of Campus Recreation Beyond the Gym (Results)

Facility Users Results A correlation was used to investigate the relationship between the use of campus recreation and students' class status (Cramer's V = 2.22, p < .05). This relationship is statistically significant, but there is only a small relationship between these two variables. A chi-square analysis was run to further investigate the relationship between the use of campus recreation and students' class status. The undergraduate students (freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors) were compared with the graduate/ professional/continuing education students [χ2(1) = 7.26, p < .01]. This analysis indicated there were statistically significant differences between undergraduate and graduate/professional/continuing education students. Graduate/professional/continu- ing education students had the most students respond they had not used any of the campus recreation facilities or programs (31%), whereas 3% of freshmen, 26% of sophomores, 8% of juniors, and 15% of seniors responded they had not used any of the campus recreation facilities or programs. The results of chi-square analysis showed there was not a statistically significant relationship between use of campus recreation facilities and students' gender [χ2(1) = 3.64, p = .056]. In this sample, female students (25%) were more likely to respond they never used any campus recreation facilities or programs when compared with male students (12%). Furthermore, chi-square analysis revealed a significant differ- ence [χ2(1) = 7.27, p < .01] between students' living accommodations and use of the campus recreation facilities; 5% of on-campus students versus 25% of off-campus students reported they never used the campus recreation facilities. Recruitment/Retention The results showed that campus recreation facilities and programs influenced some stu- dents' decisions to attend and continue to attend the university. When deciding to attend the university, 28% of all survey participants responded that the recreational facilities and programs had a strong or moderate influence on their decision. In addition, when deciding to continue at the university, 31% of all survey participants responded that the recreational facilities and programs had a strong or moderate influence on their decision. Benefits From Participating in Campus Recreation Facilities and Programs The results of the survey showed that students perceived a variety of benefits derived from participating in campus recreation facilities and programs. The majority of all survey participants (65%) responded that they currently participated in some type of physical extracurricular activities, and 85% of students reported they had previously used the campus recreation facilities and programs. The bulk of facility users responded they enjoyed participating in campus recreation facilities and programs (93% of students strongly agreed or agreed). The majority of facility users (96%) strongly agreed or agreed that campus recreation facilities and programs improved the quality of student life at the university. Facility users reported a variety of benefits from participation in campus rec- reation facilities and programs. For example, 86% of students agreed or strongly agreed that participating in campus recreation activities and programs has expanded their interest in staying fit. The results of the survey showed that 57% of students felt their overall health had strongly or moderately improved from their participation in campus recreation activities. Furthermore, 59% of students felt their fitness level strongly or moderately improved from participating in campus recreation activities. The results also showed that 51% of students felt their feelings of well-being had strongly or moderately improved from participating in campus recreation activities. Finally, 48% of students felt their stress management has strongly or moderately improved from participating in campus recreation activities. Social Benefits of Campus Recreation Facility users also reported a variety of social benefits from participation in campus recreation facilities and programs. The results showed 81% of students agreed that participating in recreation activities has helped them to feel more at home at the university. Furthermore, when students were asked how they most often used the campus recreation facilities, 48% of students used campus recreation facilities alone, 38% of students used campus recreation facilities with a partner, and 14% of students used campus recreation facilities with two or more people. Thirty-four percent of students felt their sense of belonging/ association strongly or moderately improved from participating in campus rec- reation activities. In addition, 33% of students felt their opportunity to develop friendships had strongly or moderately improved from participating in campus recreation activities. Factors Impeding Students' Use of Campus Recreation Facilities and Programs All survey participants were asked to report factors that impeded their use of campus recreation facilities and programs. In the open response question asking students what changes could be made that would increase their likelihood of using the campus recreation facilities, parking was the most common response (11 of 54 student comments). Whenever students were asked to rank a list of factors that impeded their use of campus recreation facilities, programs or services (with one being the factor that impeded their use the most), 86% of students ranked park- ing as one of the top three factors, with 42% of students ranking it as the number one factor. If students selected "other" when asked what factors impeded their use of campus recreation facilities, they were asked to specify which factors impeded their use of the facilities. The most frequent response that students living on- and off-campus reported was that the campus recreation facilities were not conveniently located (10 of 26 student comments). On an individual basis, students listed a variety of factors that impeded their use of campus recreation facilities such as having a busy schedule, lacking the motivation to work out or using other facilities.

The Influence of Campus Recreation Beyond the Gym

Increasing student retention is an important issue on college campuses. Research- ers have found that nonacademic aspects of campus such as campus recreation can positively influence students' lives (Belch, Gebel, & Maas, 2001; Lindsey & Sessoms, 2006). The purpose of this study was to examine some ways in which participation in campus recreation positively influenced students' lives. After receiving IRB approval, students were randomly selected to complete the campus recreation survey. The survey was based on the NIRSA/Student Voice Campus Recreation Impact Study survey. Of the students who answered the demographic questions, 45% were graduate/professional/continuing education students and 55% were undergraduate students; 43% were male, 56% were female, and < 1% transgender; and the majority of the sample was White (78%). The results showed that students reported a variety of benefits including health and social benefits from their participation in campus recreation facilities and programs. Keywords: college students, social integration, health benefits, recruitment/reten- tion, higher education Increasing student retention is currently an important issue on college campuses across the United States (U.S.). College faculty, administrators, and researchers examine the classroom to seek ways to promote student success and retention; however, researchers have found that nonacademic aspects of campus, such as campus recreation can positively influence student success. Lindsey and Sessoms (2006) stated that "recreational sports has received increased attention on college campuses across the U.S., and issues of recruitment, retention, and student satisfac- tion have emerged as institutional priorities" (p. 30). Astin's (1984) theory of involvement contended that participating in extracur- ricular activities contributes to the success of students. According to the theory, as the amount of student involvement in a university increases, the amount of student learning that takes place will also increase. Both campus recreation activities and intramural sports provide opportunities for students to be involved at a university. According to Astin (1993), student participation in intramural sports is related to students' overall satisfaction with college. Participation in intercollegiate athletics and intramural sports facilitates student-student interaction and these are forms of student involvement with the university. In addition, participation in intercollegiate athletics and intramural sports is related to students' satisfaction with campus life (Astin, 1993). Tinto (1993) created a model of retention that emphasized the importance of nonacademic environment in student retention. Tinto (1993) proposed that colleges are made up of both academic and social systems. The social system of the college focuses on the daily life of students; it consists of the recurring interactions among students that take place primarily outside the formal academic areas of the college. Students' involvement with their peers both inside and outside the classroom is positively related to learning and persistence, as students are more likely to devote additional effort to learning when they function as active members of the college community. In addition, a lack of integration into the social system of the college may lead to low commitment to that social system and may increase the probability that students will decide to leave the college to pursue other activities (Tinto, 1975). There is a growing body of literature that indicates campus recreation programs play an important role in involving and integrating students in campus life (Artinger et al., 2006; Bryant, Banta, & Bradley, 1995) Students' participation in extracurricular activities (e.g., campus recreation) often leads to friendships that continue beyond the initial formal social activities. Interactions among students in the college system are seen as crucial to the devel- opment of the social bonds that integrate the student within the social communi- ties of the college (Tinto, 1993). Students who better integrate their social lives at an institution are more likely to remain at school (Tinto, 1975). Students' use of campus recreation facilities and programs can facilitate their integration into the social aspects of campus.

The Influence of Campus Recreation Beyond the Gym (Methods)

Instrumentation The campus recreation survey was based upon the National Intramural Recreational Sports Association/Student Voice Campus Recreation Impact Study survey. The survey included questions that addressed a variety of areas such as recruitment, retention, satisfaction, involvement, and benefits students have received from participating in campus recreation facilities and programs. The survey consisted of both multiple-choice items and open-ended items where students gave written feedback about the campus recreation facilities and programs. The response scales varied depending upon the question; for example, some questions asked students to rate their level of agreement with a statement (strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly disagree) and other questions asked students to rate their level of sat- isfaction (very satisfied, satisfied, dissatisfied, or very dissatisfied) with a campus recreation facility or program. The entire survey included 109 items and took students approximately 10 to 20 minutes to complete. When completing the survey online, students were able to stop taking the survey, save it and continue later. The survey incorporated an initial routing question that queried whether the respondent had ever used the campus recreation facilities or programs; if they had never used the facilities or programs, the student completed a shortened version of the survey (23 items) that omitted questions that involved rating campus recreation facilities and programs. Participants Before administering the surveys, approval was obtained from the university's Institutional Review Board (IRB). After receiving IRB approval, 2,500 students at a southeastern university were randomly selected to complete the campus recreation survey. The students were sent an e-mail which included a link to the survey, and were informed that participation was voluntary and confidential. The students were also apprised that the purpose of the survey was to obtain students' opinions about the campus recreation programs and services for future improvement. In addition to the original e-mail, students were sent up to three reminder e-mails with a link to the survey if they had not yet taken the survey. Although 316 students began the survey, only 237 students completed the survey. A cross-tabulation was run to determine whether students who completed the survey included both users and nonusers of the campus recreation facilities and programs. The results of the cross-tabulation showed that 74% of students who began the survey had previously used the campus recreation facilities or programs completed the survey, and 84% of students who began the survey had never used the campus recreation facilities and programs completed the survey. Of the students who answered the demographic questions, 45% were gradu- ate/ professional/continuing education students and 55% were undergraduate students (13% freshmen, 12% sophomores, 17% juniors, 13% seniors). In the sample, 43% of students were male, 56% were female and < 1% were transgender. The majority of the sample was White (78%); however, the sample also included < 1% Native American, 10% Asian/Pacific Islander, 3% Black, < 1% Latino, 2% multiracial, and 2% other; 3% of students preferred not to report their race or ethnicity. The responding students ranged in age from 18 to 66. Overall, the demographics of the students who completed the survey were comparable to the population at the institution where the survey was given, but the student popula- tion of the university had more undergraduate students when compared with those who completed the survey.

media

Media had a huge impact, both positive and negative, for professional and amateur sports, in different ways. Professional sports were lucky as they were constantly in the news and received a massive amount of free advertising. The down-side was that some of the publicity was negative.. The media response was mostly dependent on the team's performance and the reputation of team's players. Amateur teams believed that media coverage had a huge impact on their sports. Hockey tended to get pushed aside in newspaper articles and soccer clubs did not manage the media very well. The amateur sports managers felt that media was the only way to get recognition for their sport

Professionalisation of Sport Mason (1999) explains that there are several activities that

distinguish professional sports from other businesses. These include stadium lease arrangements, broadcasting rights, territorial rights in geographic markets, and the capital depreciation of player contracts (Daly, Kemp, MacPhail, Garvey and Noll 1977; Noll 1974; Zorn 1994). One of the most notable distinctions of sport is the relationship it has with its consumers. As explained by Whannel (1992, p200), "while there are clearly aesthetic pleasures in merely watching a sports performance, the real intensity comes from identifying with an individual or team as they strive to win." The relationship between sport and consumers has helped make sport a vehicle for the promotion of corporate interests. When professional team sports emerged in the nineteenth century, the relationship between sports teams and fans relied on community ownership and involvement, and this is still the case with much European sport (Taylor 1992). Now however, an American model of private ownership is influencing professional sport throughout the world (Nauright and Phillips 1997). Professional sports leagues are often able to operate as monopolies (Quirk and Fort 1992), as historically the organisation has controlled elite competition in their given sport. This has been achieved through merging with rival leagues (Cruise and Griffiths 1991; Harris 1986; Pluto 1990), and expanding leagues to preclude new entrants into the market (Ross 1989). In doing so, leagues have been able to achieve an enviable position, with reduced professional sporting substitutes for spectators and players (Nester 1990). The growth in the professional sports industry over the years, combined with an increase in corporate involvement, would suggest that the monopolistic power held by leagues in producing, marketing, and selling a unique product has transformed sport altogether. Professional sports leagues are now a part of the powerful entertainment industry (Euchner 1993). The global marketplace has made sport less attached to specific places, particularly those sports which have world-wide appeal such as soccer (Eucher,1993). In effect, fans of professional sport can follow their favourite teams or leagues despite the fact that the team may be operating from cities in other parts of the world. Satellite television, the internet and other technological advances hasten this process of delocalisation. Because of media interest in sport as program material which attracts audiences, the corporate marketer, through advertising support and sponsorship, has become a partner in the commercialisation of sport (Wolfe, Meenaghan and O'Sullivan 1997/1998). According to Wolfe, Meenaghan and O'Sullivan (1997/1998) the media have always shown a strong interest in sport because it has always attracted audiences. In addition, sport has been a strong driver of pay television subscriptions (Wolfe, Meenaghan and O'Sullivan 1997/1998). Marketing and Funding of Amateur Sport The influences of commercial sponsors and media have forced sports bodies to become more market oriented (Wolfe, Meenaghan and O'Sullivan 1997/1998). This form of sports marketing is referred to as the marketing of sports (Milne and McDonald 1999). The sports organisation attempts to reach many consumers, with sport as the end product. Marketing of sports has become an important way to reach many consumers so that the sportingorganisation can receive financial benefits, frequently in the form of sponsorship deals. Some sports have transformed from amateur to professional with subsequent increased pressures of commercialisation and funding requirements. In some cases amateur sports have been marginalised at the expense of professionalism and the pursuit of elitism (Whitson and Macintosh 1989). Financial issues arise in these marginalised organisations and marketing has been presented as the solution to these financial problems (Slack 2010). Stier and Schneider (1999) explain that one of the major responsibilities of sports managers is the financial health of their sports organisation and associated sport organisations (Wieberg and Witosky 1991). Sports managers in the 21st century face a growing challenge in terms of providing quality and competitive sport programs for their constituencies. Inflation, increased popularity of sports and an increase in the number of participants provide three financial challenges for sports (Stier and Schneider 1999). Also, many central administrators are reluctant or unable to fully fund sport programs. Sport administrators are now expected to generate resources from outside the organisation via external fundraising. Rarely will a single sports manager be able to operate alone in the planning, organising and implementation of a major fundraiser. Other people, either paid or volunteers, will be needed. In addition to sponsorship, donations form part of funding in sport and not-for-profit organisations. Donations are made for any number of reasons, but essentially, people contribute to or buy from fundraisers for three basic reasons (Stier and Schneider 1999). Firstly, the donors perceive that the group is deserving of support and the individuals subscribe to the same philosophy as the organisation (Stier 1994). Secondly, if the money raised is going to a worthy cause there is greater likelihood of people to support them. Thirdly, the item purchased is worth the money in terms of its inherent value and the convenience of being able to secure it direct from the representative of the sport organisation - the supermarket approach (Bronzan 1984). The purpose of the fundraising project needs to be considered as worthwhile by potential supporters and contributors (Hall and Mahony 1997).

Methodology

Participants and Procedure Participants for this study were 532 campus recreation administrators from four-year public and private institutions listed in the National Intramural Recreational Sports Association's Recreational Sports Directory (NIRSA, 2010). A total of 218 surveys were returned completed. The researcher's goal was at least 200 participants since a power analysis indicated that a sample of at least 200 provided a 95% confidence level (Krejcie, & Morgan, 1970). Five surveys were returned incomplete due to respondents not finishing the survey; these surveys were deemed unusable for the purpose of this study and were discarded. Study participants completed a series of questions related to their opinions about marketing efforts within campus recreation. Participants were asked to anonymously, and on a voluntary basis, fill out an online questionnaire through Survey Monkey. The data collection process was completed in five weeks within the 2010-2011 academic year. Instrumentation The survey, which was specifically developed for this study, included a total of nineteen questions (seventeen response items and two open-ended questions). Responses of the seventeen questions were recorded on a five-point Likert-type scale in which responses included: 1 = strongly agree, 2 = somewhat agree, 3 = neither, 4 = somewhat disagree, and 5 = strongly disagree. Responses of the two open ended questions addressed marketing media used within campus recreation and limitations that would limit campus recreation professionals from carrying out marketing strategies. Face validity was established by asking five campus recreation sports pro- fessionals, who are involved with the marketing of campus recreation, to judge language of the statements in the questionnaire. The campus recreation sports professionals were deemed to be representative of those chosen to participate in the study. To determine the reliability of the instrument, Chronbach's alpha was employed. The reliability coefficient was determined to be .734, which is well within the acceptable range for the interpretation of scores (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2003). Descriptive data were used to measure the use of marketing strategies, effort, and implications within campus recreation.

The Marketing Mix

Product Price Place Promotion

attracting sponsors

Professional sports have an advantage over amateur sports because they are followed by a large audience and are in the news frequently, which helps with exposure and attracting sponsors. Sports like hockey and soccer struggled to gain sponsors in New Zealand because they cannot offer the same high profile product, high profile players and exposure. These organizations used the number of participants playing the game to attract sponsors. Sports organisations had difficulty attracting sponsors. What the sponsor wanted from the sponsorship deal and what they were willing to spend influenced sponsorship interest. It was up to the sports organisation to convince the potential sponsor that sponsoring a team for a season had more benefits than a TV advertising campaign or radio campaign. Professional sports had the advantage over amateur sports. They had more staff, more resources, more money and could offer their sponsors hospitality and entertainment options. Amateur sports could not, and relied more heavily on volunteer labour

sponsors

Rugby is the highest profile sport in New Zealand, and generates a large audience because of the popularity and quality of the sport. Because of this, and its players, the rugby team could offer their sponsors a large amount of exposure to a large audience. This is why rugby got big contracts with large well-known international companies. Hockey and soccer were unable to offer the same kind of exposure as professional sports in New Zealand. Amateur sports teams lacked the profile and popularity

sport and recreation New Zealand (SPARC)

SPARC affects amateur sports more than it affects professional sports. SPARC had no impact on the marketing ability of professional rugby and netball. For cricket, all the money coming from SPARC goes into sports development. This is seen as an investment where they can leverage off cricketers that "make the big time" through the development programme. SPARC affects hockey and soccer nationally rather than regionally. Hockey was demoted to the second tier of funding and Hockey New Zealand had to restructure their operations as there would be less money coming from SPARC. SPARC provided soccer with funding based on participation numbers and did not provide funding for the elite element of soccer

Amateur Sports -

Sporting competition for athletes who do not receive compensation for playing the sport (Shank & Lyberger)

Licensing -

The act of granting a second party permission to use a mark, name, symbol, or likemess (CH 9 PPT)

sports marketing and improvement

The professional sports managers believed that in order to improve they could do more research, listen to their audiences and maximize what they were in control of. The cricket organization, for example, believed they could improve by adjusting from a marketing platform to a commercial platform. Hockey and soccer had little in the way of resources, but they both believed that the employment of a marketing person would benefit their sport greatly

Impact of Marketing Strategies on Campus Recreational Sports Departments

The purpose of this study was to examine the need for marketing efforts and a marketing plan within the campus recreation profession. Participants consisted of 218 campus recreation administrators from four-year public and private insti- tutions affiliated with the National Intramural Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA). Results from this research suggest that established marketing strategies and marketing plans provide the campus recreation profession coordination with their marketing efforts. The second component of this research requested that respondent's identify marketing techniques being used in the campus recreation profession. Results from this research suggest that employee skills and responsi- bilities, external guidelines, budget constraints, and marketing mediums provide challenges to the campus recreation profession. Keywords: campus recreation, higher education, advertising On university and college campuses there are many programs and services that provide an outside-the-classroom experience. Campus recreation has emerged as one of the top institutional services that every individual has the opportunity to enjoy (Osman, Cole, & Vessell, 2006). A fundamental building block of the campus recreation community is being able to advertise and offer exciting, accessible, and innovative programs and services that encourage participants to become more actively involved in their personal well-being (Byl, 2002; Ellis, Compton, Tyson, & Bohlig, 2002; Haines, 2001; Mull, Bayless, Ross, & Jamieson, 1997; Young & Ross, 1998). As campus recreation administrators recognize the significance of creating social environments these administrators may be expected to play key roles in the transformation of the campus environment. Since Princeton University held the first intramural event in 1869, campus rec- reation has gone through numerous changes (Lewis, Barcelona, & Jones, 2001). The campus recreation arena is more than just intramurals and sports activities. Recently, many recreational programs have expanded their offerings to include a) special events on and off campus; b) leadership development programs; c) competitive sporting events for their intramural teams that involve regional, state, and national competi- tions; d) club sports; e) fitness programming; and f) informal recreation (Brown, 1998; Lewis et al., 2001). In addition to these new types of programs and service offerings, campus recreation has seen the age range of its participants change. No longer is campus recreation just for the student, but it is now available to faculty, staff, and the community who have different levels of ability and interests.

Demographics

The subjects surveyed were members of NIRSA who are campus recreation professionals of four-year public and private institutions in the United States. Demographics of the respondents revealed that 63% identified themselves as male and 37% as female. Participation by type of institution was 66% public and 34% private. Current position of respondents: 74% Directors; 5% Associate Director; 10% Assistant Director; 7% Coordinator; and 4% were listed as other. Regarding years in position, 3% reported they had been working for the organization for less than one year, 20% between 1-3 years, 18% between four and six years, and 58% more than six years. As to the total enrollment of the institution, 9% had less than 2,500 students; 15% were between 2,501 and 5,000; 22% between 5,001 and 10,000; 24% between 10,001 and 20,000; 17% between 20,001 and 30,000; and 13% had over 30,001. The number of full-time professional staff employed in the campus recreation department was 42%, 0-4; 26%, 5-10; 22%, 11-20; 10%, 21 and more. Description of the participant demographic composition is presented in Table 1.

Sports Promotion -

a fully integrated set of communication activities intended to persuade consumers toward a favorable belief or action as a tactical component of the overall marketing campaign (CH9 PPT/Irwin & Sutton & McCarthy)

Product Line (Product) -

a group of products that are closely related because they satisfy a category of needs, are used together, are sold to the same consumer groups, distributed through the same outlet, and fall within a certain price range (CH 7 PPT)

Personal Seat License (PSL) (Price)-

a one-time payment that gives a fan the right to buy season tickets (Winfree & Rosentraub)

Social Identity Theory -

a person's sense of who they are depends on the groups to which they belong; ex: not going to a sporting event alone since enjoyment of a sport is a function of interaction with other people (https://www.learning-theories.com/social-identity-theory-tajfel-turner.html; Mullin, Hardy, & Sutton)

free agency

a status that allows a professional athlete to negotiate an employment contract with the team of his or her choosing instead of being confined to one team

Sponsorship (Promotion) -

exchanging money or product for the right to associate a name or product with a sporting event (Shank & Lyberger)

Abstract. In the economic sense, the term

f sport product describes the sport good or service, offered to the consumer in order to satisfy his need for sport, be it spectator, viewer, active participant or sponsor. The sport product has a series of unique features that differentiate it significantly from the products corresponding to other fields of activity. The present article is presenting those features, starting with the ones corresponding to sport as a human activity, then going to the particularities of the sport consumer behavior and finishing with the characteristics of sport as part of the services sector. For each specific feature there are a series of recommendations for the marketing activity in order to better adapt the offer to the needs and demand of the sport consumer.

lifestyle marketing

a strategy for seizing the concept of a market by its most meaningful recurrent patterns of attitudes and activities and then tailoring products and their promotional strategies to fit these patterns

Atmospherics (Promotion) -

all efforts to design the place of purchase or consumption so as to create specific cognitive or emotional effects in consumers (Irwin, Sutton, & McCarthy)

revenue

all of the sports organisations were funded from similar income streams. In addition, the only team that did not receive trust money was the fully professional Super 14 team, which had no participation interests. The development of this team came from the regional teams within and around the area. How much money each sport received from trusts depended on the numbers and the profile of the sport within New Zealand. A notable observation was that, unlike the professional sports, the two amateur sports referred to player subscriptions and affiliation fees as major sources of revenue. It appears amateur sports are supported by bottom-up sources of revenue while professional sports appeared to be funded top-down

The Sports Market -

all ticketing, media, and marketing revenues for major sports (https://www.atkearney.com/communications-media-technology/article?/a/the-sports-market)

Sport -

an activity involving physical exertion and skill in which an individual or team competes against one another or others for entertainment (CH1 PPT)

virtual reality

an artificial environment which is experienced through sensory stimuli (such as sights and sounds) provided by a computer and in which one's actions partially determine what happens in the environment

augmented reality

an enhanced version of reality created by the use of technology to overlay digital information on an image of something being viewed through a device

Publicity (Promotion) -

any nonpersonal stimulation of demand for a good, service, or business unit

Advertising (Promotion) -

any paid form of nonpersonal presentation of ideas, goods, or services by an identified sponsor (CH9 PPT)

The need to collaborate in order to offer a more

attractive sport product is base also on the interdependence existing among the clubs that are part of the same league. They are attempting, through the performance offered, to contribute to the increase of the level of attractiveness of the league, considering that each participant team depends on the interest the audience is showing in that particular league. Although the final product is offered by the sport club, the league is the one offering the framework to realize the product (few people would be interested in the outcome of a match if it would not be carried within a competition that is appreciated by the public). From the marketing specialist point of view, the league represents the sport product, considering that all teams are collaborating to attract the consumer to the events offered by that specific league. b) The sport product is usually subjective and cannot be measured preciselyThe experience of the spectators of a sports event is entirely subjective. This makes it very difficult for the marketing specialist to measure the success that the event had. For example, a number of supporters of a team will indicate different degrees of satisfaction obtained after participating to the respective event. Most of the time, even if the event was well organized, it may receive a bad review from the supporters of the losing team. Thus, the marketing specialist must establish precisely the indexes through which he will measure the level of individual satisfaction, and also the method of analysis (qualitative or quantitative), in order to avoid as much as possible the paraphrase errors in the question asked. c) The sport product is not constant and is entirely unpredictableA game played today will probably give different results if played a week later, although it assumes the participation of the same players and use of the same facilities. If other variables are added, such as weather conditions, injuries of the players, changes in the team and audience participation, totally different sport products will emerge. The unpredictable result of the sport product leads to a higher psychological participation from the players, supporters and other involved parties. We must add also the fact that the result of the sport event is only known at the end of the competition, fact that is not possible in other fields, meaning that the consumer normally wants to know the final product before the purchase is done. But, within a sport competition, one cannot know, for example, what is the final score of a game before it ends. At least, this is how it is supposed to happen. There are also some exceptions that only hurt the sport image as a whole. The unpredictability that characterizes the sport product as a whole is actually one of the main factors of attractiveness for the public that wants to enjoy thrilling and emotional moments within the sport event. This characteristic of sport has an increased importance for spectators and viewers, fact that influences indirectly the decision of two other categories of "sport consumers": the mass-media (that wants to broadcast the sport events with the biggest attractiveness to the public, the show events that keep the viewers watching until the end) and the sponsors (that wish to associate their image with the sport events that are attractive to the public in order to expand their potential customer base for the products that they promote during the event). d) The focus is on the expansion of the sport product and not on the product itselfAs the organizers of a competition cannot predict or control its final result, they tend to focus on the quality of the games and on the performance of the participants to the competition. The same result may have different meaning for the supporters of two rival teams, that is why, the organizers are trying to emphasize primarily the sports show offered by the two teams (even if the final outcome is unsatisfactory for one of them). The emphasis is placed on the consumer experience during the event, the most important aspect being that of the arena/stadium/hall where the event is taking place. Considering that sport in included in the services category, the ambiance is of highly importance when considering the final level of satisfaction for the consumer.

Tafa (2008) believes sports marketing gives a

company the opportunity to leverage on the passion that consumers have for sports. Sports marketing is one of the most effective ways to reach a specific target consumer (Tafa 2008). According to Tafa (2008) consumers' preferences are changing on a daily basis, and marketing strategies have to follow this constant change if they want to be effective. Companies must be flexible and ready to change their marketing tactics. Companies using sports marketing need to select, from among the different sports, the one which gets the greatest audience in their selected target market. Just as every product has a target of consumers, every sport has a target of fans, viewers and followers. Sports teams are funded and sponsored by many organisations that aim to market through sports or target consumers. Sports teams are seeking this funding, sponsorship and promotion and marketing of sport. The growing contribution of funds provided for sports has developed both professional sports teams and amateur sports teams. Professional team sports are likely to generate revenue from these commercial links, while amateur team sports lack audiences so are expected to gain funding from other sources. The aim of this research is to achieve a broader understanding of sports marketing, and to identify, from the teams' perspective, the differences in sports marketing undertaken by professional and amateur team sports. The results on team sports marketing may assist not- for-profit amateur sports bodies to achieve revenue goals. Sports marketing is designed to meet the needs and wants of sports consumers through an exchange process (Fullerton and Merz 2008; Milne and McDonald 1999). Organisations sell products or services and consumers receive the benefit of participation or association to the sport. Organisations that affiliate with spectators and participants in order to reach their own consumers have been referred to as being engaged in sports marketing and considered to be marketing through sports (Milne and McDonald 1999). Affiliation includes such things as advertising, sponsorship and endorsements. Brand associations can be influenced when a brand becomes linked with a celebrity through an endorsement or linked with a sporting event through sponsorship activities. The image of the celebrity or event is transferred to the brand. Brand associations are developed from a variety of sources including brand and product category experiences, product attributes, price information, positioning in promotional communications, packaging, user imagery and usage occasion (Gwinner and Eaton 1999). By categorising goods and services as either sports products or non-sports products and by differentiating between traditional strategies and sponsorship-based strategies, Fullerton and Merz (2008) identified four sports marketing approaches. These approaches are the theme- based, product-based, alignment-based, and sports-based strategic domains. Categorising sports marketing using sports versus non-sports products allows sports marketing to be categorised using marketing of sport for spectators or participants. Marketing using non- sports goods has been traditionally referred to as marketing through sports. Marketing through sports is further classified according to the integration of the sport and business organisation (Fullerton and Merz 2008). The least integration refers to advertising, while the most integration refers to a formal arrangement of sponsor and sponsored.

Media Relations/Sports Information (Media Relations)

company's interactions with editors, reporters, and journalists (http://everything-pr.com/public-relations-media-relations/52598/)

professionalism

competition in which athletes receive compensation, commonly classified as major or minor league status (Shank & Lyberger)

In most situations, there are two

conditions to be met in order to provide a service: the existence of a direct contact between the supplier and the buyer, and the active participation of the consumer during the use of the service (for example the services provided by a fitness club). Not only the consumer behavior is very different, but also the one of the suppliers, as it is linked to the level of professional qualifications, the talent, skill, fairness and passion they are using to provide their services. Therefore, there is a difficulty when attempting to standardize services, as there are a limitless number of possibilities to differentiate the offer. This feature involves a series of consequences, such as: any mismatch of time or location leads to losses in the offer and/or unsatisfied demand (if a sports event has a demand exceeding the number of seats in the arena, then the potential customers that will not have their demand met will be unsatisfied and this may reflect on the global image of the respective sport event); changing a provided service is not possible, as it cannot be returned if it does not meet the expectations of the customer (although the big companies are using instruments to guarantee the quality of the service provided, it is not possible to exchange or return the sport service and this is influencing directly the consumer's decision to use for the first time a certain supplier of sports services); risk reduction can be done through extensive information and through building a trust relationship between the customer and the provider (there is a direct relationship between the fame of a sports club and the trust the consumer has on the quality of the sports event offered by that club). An important aspect, linked to this characteristic is the fact that the performance of the service is dependant on the movement of the customer to the company's premises or the other way around. The consumer's travel to the sport event may bring the opportunity to spend the day with family/friends, which translates into business opportunities for the companies associated to the sports event. Such opportunities are measured annually by the companies that specialize in sports marketing and the information resulted are used to shape the sports offer according to the needs and demands of the consumers. An example in this respect is the company Team Marketing Report that computes an annual index of the participation cost within a game at the major American sports events. This index (FCI)2 has grown from an average of 158$ in 1992 to 288$ in 2010, corresponding to the participation to a game in the North American Basketball league (NBA). d) Variability (heterogeneity) of the services Variability refers to the impossibility of repetition of the service, in identical manner, from one performance to the other. This feature is influence by the specific of the provider, by the involvement and participation of the user, by the specific environment conditions, etc. Variability has significant influence on the quality of services, making it difficult to standardize them. In most cases, standardization is also not wanted, as it would limit the degree of attractiveness of the sports event. A more relevant solution is the personalization of the sports services, so that they better accommodate the needs and demands of the consumers. The heterogeneity is a feature of the sport with a strong influence on the decisional process of the consumer; it characterizes the sports industry and influences the perception of the consumer towards the sport and the reasons behind the choice of a certain sport to practice. Considering this characteristic that is appreciated by the public, the sports marketing specialist does not need to rely on standardization, but rather to adapt the offer to the customer's needs (for example a fitness gym organizes separate classes for beginners and advanced, making the offer suitable for the variouslevelsofconsumers). 2 FCI (Fan Cost Index) presents the costs incurred by a family of four members and includes: the average price of two tickets for adults, the average price of two tickets for children, four small drinks, two small beers, four hotdogs, two game schedules, parking and two adult caps.

Spectators -

consumers who derive their benefit from the observation of the event (Shank & Lyberger)

There has been much debate about the

definition of sports marketing, with some references equating sports marketing with sports sponsorship (Van Heerden 2001). Since initial attempts to define sports marketing, a link has existed between sports marketing and sports sponsorship. Sports marketing is often regarded as the application of the retail marketing mix, and sponsorship has traditionally been a component of sports marketing. Sponsorship is discussed below, followed by further discussion on other types of sports marketing. Sponsorship Corporate sponsorship of sport is a fast growing form of marketing communications used to reach target audiences (Roy and Cornwell 2001). In the US the sponsorship industry has grown from less than $1 billion in 1985 to around $8 billion in 1999 (International Events Group 1999; McDaniel 1999). Figures for marketing and sponsorship are difficult to obtain due to the commercial sensitivity of the data, so no values are known for smaller nations such as New Zealand. What appears consistent across nations is that sponsorship of sport is by far the most popular sponsorship medium. This type of sponsorship accounts for at least three-quarters of all sponsorship spending in both the UK and the US (Thwaites 1995). Sponsorship occurs when a corporation or business funds a media broadcast (for example television or radio) or an event and includes promotional material into the program or event (Mason 2005). Potential sponsors have a lot of entities and activities which they can choose to support. These include sports, arts, community activities, charities, teams, tournaments, individual personalities or events, ad hoc competitions, fairs and shows. According to the International Events Group (IEG), sporting events are the most popular event type, with an estimated 67% of all sponsorship money invested in sporting events. In Europe, up to 69% of total club incomes are made up from sponsorship and ticket sales (Uhrich and Koenigstorfer 2009). The two broad forms of sports sponsorship are considered to be field sponsorship and televised broadcast sponsorship (Lardinoit and Quester 2001). Field sponsorship refers to the placement of a logo on sports equipment or billboards at the scene of the event (Lardinoit and Derbaix 2001). Broadcast or television sponsorship refers to a practice favoured by advertisers who want their name associated with a specific television program or its promotion (Lardinoit and Quester 2001). With field sponsorship there is the potential for distraction from other sponsors and the event (Lardinoit and Derbaix 2001). Highly involved fans strive to know everything related to the sport or event (Lardinoit and Derbaix 2001). These knowledgeable fans, who strive to learn more about the event, are prone to distraction from the event and the various sponsorships of the event (Lardinoit and Quester 2001). However, sports events provide an atmosphere that generates emotion, so the effectiveness of advertising is enhanced through positioning of brands and anchoring advertising within the emotional experience of spectators (Christensen 2006). TV broadcasts have fewer distractions (Lardinoit and Derbaix 2001), However the success of TV broadcast marketing is dependent on the emotions generated by the event (Lardinoit and Quester 2001), and other action occurring at the place of the TV viewing within the home. Mason (2005) believes that while advertising changes a consumer's perception of a specific product, sponsorship can change the perception of a specific sponsor, which will in turn rub off on the brand (Harvey 2001). The change in perception is a durable one that lasts longer than advertising and provides goodwill, thus making sponsorship different from advertising. Sponsorship is also accepted by the public more readily than advertising (Lardinoit and Quester 2001), perhaps because people know many events would not exist without sponsorship. Sponsorship offers high visibility, extensive television and press coverage, the ability to attract a broad cross-section of the community, to serve specific niches, and importantly, the capacity to break down cultural barriers (Sleight 1989). Sponsorship seeks to achieve favourable publicity for a company and brands within a certain target audience (Bennett,1999). Sponsorship is also viewed as less commercial than conventional advertising (Bennett 1999), although message impact and recall may fall dramatically soon after a sponsored event. Sport, as a part of consumers' lifestyles and interests, may indirectly improve perceptions of a sponsor's brand (Crimmins and Horn 1996; Schrieber 1994). Sponsorship avoids media clutter by enabling sponsors to identify and target audiences in terms of demographics and lifestyles. The fit between a sport organisation and it's sponsor determines the success of messages (Crimmins and Horn 1996; Schrieber 1994; Ukman 1995).

Break Even Analysis (Price) -

determines what you need to sell to cover your costs of doing business (https://articles.bplans.com/break-even-analysis/)

Product Defined -

developing and managing a product consumers find utility in (CH1 PPT)

Price Tiers (Price) -

different segments of consumers with different price points; created to give different consumer groups options

ownership utility

giving the consumer a sense of ownership

Concurrent with the commercialisation of sport has been a

greater interest from academics in the management of sport (Slack 2010). Previously academics used terms other than 'sports marketing' to obtain publication (Shannon 1999), or academics published in non- sports marketing publication outlets. Alhough academic interest in sports marketing has grown, it still remains sparse (Cornwell, and Maignan 1998). Sports management or marketing research remains rare for amateur sports, though sports marketing is important for amateur team sports (Amis, Slack and Berret 1999). Burnett, Menon and Smart (1993) find differences between sports marketing in professional sports and amateur teams. Professional teams typically are involved with commercial consumer product marketing and amateur teams are mostly helped by community funding (Burnett, Menon and Smart 1993). Sports marketing for amateur sports may be more piecemeal than sports marketing for professional sports (Amis, Slack and Berret 1999). Sports marketing of amateur sport organisations may also have little consideration for building an image (Amis, Slack and Berret 1999). There is little research into the sports marketing of amateur and minority sports or the differences between sports marketing of amateur and professional sports. Most of the research appears to apply to professional sports and sports that are heavily commercialised and televised. Amateur sports are typically organised by not-for-profit and voluntary organisations in New Zealand, so there is much research to be done in this topic area. Stier and Schneider (1999) indicate that limited and restricted funding drives organisations to contribute to and support fund raising activities. A number of marketing approaches are available to sports organisations. The most researched marketing and funding approaches of sports organisations appear to be those approaches stimulated by commercialisation such as advertising, sponsorship, professional profit-centred organisations and fund raising. Amateur organisations are not expected to undertake many of these commercial activities. This study aims to investigate this under-researched subject area of amateur organisations. THE CURRENT PROJECT To date there appears to be very little information in the literature about the differences between professional and amateur sports marketing. The underlying aim of this study is concerned with trying to understand the pressures on the different types of team sports, with a view to developing an understanding of sports marketing that may assist not-for- profit amateur sports to overcome the marketing disadvantages they face. A differencebetween professional and amateur teams has been the source of funding, with sponsorship featuring heavily in sports marketing. Therefore, this research also seeks to find out how these professional and amateur organisations are funded, and if the media has an impact in promoting and publicising their particular sports. The researcher investigated the research question using interviews in three professional team sports organisations and two amateur sports organisations. METHOD Due to limited time, resources and the exploratory approach of the study, a small sample of high profile subjects in New Zealand were selected which were considered most appropriate for the research topic. Those personnel interviewed from professional sports organisations were: the Marketing Manager of a New Zealand Rugby Super 14 Franchise, the Marketing Manager of a New Zealand Regional Netball Franchise and the Commercial Operations Manager of a New Zealand Regional Cricket Organisation. Marketing positions may be non-existent in amateur organisations, so the personnel chosen were those who were considered the most suitable and whose role closely resembled the requirements of marketing the sport. The personnel interviewed from amateur sports organisations were the Manager of a New Zealand Regional Hockey Organisation and the General Manager of a New Zealand Regional Soccer Organisation. Interviews were recorded and differences between each of the sports were identified. The managers of these sports organisations are not to be confused with team managers. The researcher used open-ended questions with a semi-structured interview. This interview approach was used to get a rich and deep understanding of the topic, enabling the interviewee to tell their story.

player's union

group of athletes that work to make salaries, working conditions, and competition among teams more equitable

Interviewees were asked questions, beginning with what

hey did and how they described sports marketing. An interview guide was prepared that included questions on the level of competition their sport had for sponsorship, participation, and spectators; where their organisation's revenue came from; actions and challenges of attracting sponsors; advertising activities; media impact; comparison of their sport with professional and amateur sports marketing; the influence of Sport and Recreation New Zealand (SPARC); improvements that could be made and questions about their organisation's sponsors. RESULTS The three professional sports marketers and managers had similar roles, as they were responsible for marketing their brand and the commercial drivers for their organisation. All three were responsible for generating revenue through sponsorship, ticket sales, gaming and charitable trusts, and they were also responsible for media communications and management of the game. The rugby marketing manager was also the match manager, in control of pre-match, match enhancement and corporate hospitality. These organisations had professional groups of people working in specific areas of their organisation. The amateur hockey and soccer organisations did not have the same resources as the professional organisations. They found themselves doing a lot of administrative work and managing the coaches, volunteers and committees involved in the game, rather than marketing the sport. The following presents a brief overview of the interview results under the following headings: marketing of sport definition, competition, revenue, sponsors, advertising, media, sports marketing advantages, SPARC and marketing improvement. Marketing of Sport Definition According to the amateur sports organisations, sports marketing was about building the awareness and the profile of the sport. Although professional teams want to build their brand as well, there were additional marketing activities to help build the support and relationship with the sport's sponsors. Amateur sports struggled with building sponsor relationships. Competition Rugby is New Zealand's highest profile sport with a big audience that helps to attract sponsors. All sports competed with each other, but rugby was the biggest competitor in sponsorship and attracting spectators. In terms of participation, all sports competed with TV and computer games for increased participation. The rugby manager, however, believed that they were competing with mothers who think that rugby is a rough sport and that other sports such as soccer are safer for their children to play. Revenue All of the sports organisations were funded from similar income streams. In addition, the only team that did not receive trust money was the fully professional Super 14 team, which had no participation interests. The development of this team came from the regional teams within and around the area. How much money each sport received from trusts depended on the numbers and the profile of the sport within New Zealand. A notable observation was that, unlike the professional sports, the two amateur sports referred to player subscriptions and affiliation fees as major sources of revenue. It appears amateur sports are supported by bottom-up sources of revenue while professional sports appeared to be funded top-down. Sponsors Rugby is the highest profile sport in New Zealand, and generates a large audience because of the popularity and quality of the sport. Because of this, and its players, the rugby team could offer their sponsors a large amount of exposure to a large audience. This is why rugby got big contracts with large well-known international companies. Hockey and soccer were unable to offer the same kind of exposure as professional sports in New Zealand. Amateur sports teams lacked the profile and popularity. Attracting Sponsors Professional sports have an advantage over amateur sports because they are followed by a large audience and are in the news frequently, which helps with exposure and attracting sponsors. Sports like hockey and soccer struggled to gain sponsors in New Zealand because they cannot offer the same high profile product, high profile players and exposure. These organisations used the number of participants playing the game to attract sponsors. Sports organisations had difficulty attracting sponsors. What the sponsor wanted from the sponsorship deal and what they were willing to spend influenced sponsorship interest. It was up to the sports organisation to convince the potential sponsor that sponsoring a team for a season had more benefits than a TV advertising campaign or radio campaign. Professional sports had the advantage over amateur sports. They had more staff, more resources, more money and could offer their sponsors hospitality and entertainment options. Amateur sports could not, and relied more heavily on volunteer labour. Advertising All the sports had very similar advertising programmes and most of them mentioned the importance of their website. The difference, however, was that professional sports could afford large mainstream advertising like TV, radio, newsprint, public relations activities and billboard space. Amateur sports did not advertise and instead relied on traffic to their website. Professional sports employed people to design advertising campaigns for the franchise; they had the time, the people and the money where amateur sports did not. Media Media had a huge impact, both positive and negative, for professional and amateur sports, in different ways. Professional sports were lucky as they were constantly in the news and received a massive amount of free advertising. The down-side was that some of the publicity was negative.. The media response was mostly dependent on the team's performance and the reputation of team's players. Amateur teams believed that media coverage had a huge impact on their sports. Hockey tended to get pushed aside in newspaper articles and soccer clubs did not manage the media very well. The amateur sports managers felt that media was the only way to get recognition for their sport. Advantages of Sports Marketing All of the sports marketers and managers agreed that it came down to revenue and numbers. For professional sports it was audience numbers and for amateur sports it was participation numbers. Professional teams could leverage off the national brand with the TV exposure and the numbers turning up to watch games. Amateur teams may have the participation numbers, so their priority was getting teams on the field throughout the season. Sport and Recreation New Zealand (SPARC) SPARC affects amateur sports more than it affects professional sports. SPARC had no impact on the marketing ability of professional rugby and netball. For cricket, all the money coming from SPARC goes into sports development. This is seen as an investment where they can leverage off cricketers that "make the big time" through the development programme. SPARC affects hockey and soccer nationally rather than regionally. Hockey was demoted to the second tier of funding and Hockey New Zealand had to restructure their operations as there would be less money coming from SPARC. SPARC provided soccer with funding based on participation numbers and did not provide funding for the elite element of soccer. Sports Marketing and Improvement The professional sports managers believed that in order to improve they could do more research, listen to their audiences and maximize what they were in control of. The cricket organisation, for example, believed they could improve by adjusting from a marketing platform to a commercial platform. Hockey and soccer had little in the way of resources, but they both believed that the employment of a marketing person would benefit their sport greatly.

Promotion Defined -

how the consumer will receive the message about the brand (CH1 PPT)

television

in the past, the spread of television gave leagues the ability to spread images globally

Media Relations/Sports Information (Sports Information Directors)

individuals who bring notoriety, prominence, recognition, and a continual, and hopefully, positive brand name to a sport organization, an athletic department, a specific team and its coach, and most importantly to the athletes and student-athletes that are the backbone and foundation of the organization. (Media relations in sports textbook)

Incentives (Promotion) -

items of perceived value that are added to an offer in order to encourage some overt behavioral response (CH 9 pt 2 PPT)

Because professional team sports can offer a

large amount of exposure to their sponsors, they were more inclined to receive large monetary contracts with well known international companies. Amateur team sports, however, could not offer the same amount of exposure, and were generally supported by the local businesses and community around them. The number of adults participating in rugby union and soccer are similar, with 158,100 (6%) adults participating in rugby union and 143,300 (5%) participating in soccer (SPARC 2010). Given that similar numbers participate in rugby and soccer, the occurrence of professionalism of the sport appears to be determined by media exposure. The impact of media exposure is great enough to differentiate sports as either professional or amateur. Media exposure strengthens the relationship between the sports team and the fans (Whannel 1992). Media exposure, in addition with commercialisation of sport (Wolfe, Meenaghan and O'Sullivan 1997/1998), and the global market place (Euchner 1993), has developed the professionalisation of sport. The respondents of this study and the literature believed that sports marketing was an effective marketing tool used to build brand awareness for the team and the sponsor. However, respondents indicated that because there is such a wide range of sports in New Zealand, companies who were looking to sponsor a sport would consider rugby first, because rugby could offer more exposure, audience numbers and hospitality options than other sports. These results are consistent with Tafa (2008) who argued companies need to select the sport which gets the highest number of people in their selected target market from among all the different sports. Respondents agreed with Burnett, Menon and Smart (1993) who believed that professional team sports received revenue from TV rights, ticket sales and sponsors, whereas amateur sports received funding from their community. Respondents agreed with Wolfe, Meenaghan and O'Sullivan (1997/1998) who believed sport had the capacity to build a media audience, while media has the capacity to build awareness and an audience for a particular sport. The media are needed in both amateur and professional team sports. For professional sports, the media are important for the exposure they give, which the sport can then pass on to their sponsors. For amateur sports the media are important in building the awareness of the sport, and thus potentially reducing the future financial burdens. Professional team sports had a high profile brand, high profile players and a large audience which they could leverage from in order to benefit potential sponsors. Amateur sports did not have the same audience and exposure and relied instead on the number of player participants in the sport to attract potential sponsors.

According to the rugby marketing manager, sports marketing is

like any marketing but within a unique industry. Instead of marketing a product or service it markets a team or sport. Marketers of professional team sports were responsible for building brand awareness and building relationships with their sponsors and the consumers who watch their sport. Marketers of professional team sports were also responsible for generating revenue and media communications plus the management of the game. Resources and staff were highly sought after in the amateur team sports organisations. They did not have any professional marketers or marketing teams promoting their sport, as did the professional team sports. Professional sports organisations had teams of people working in their particular areas, whereas amateur sports organisations had a small number of people running the whole organisation. As the main priority for amateur organisations is getting teams on the field throughout the season, when managers had the time to undertake marketing activities, the most important priority for them was to build the awareness and profile of their sport. The difference in sports marketing between professional and amateur sports concerned revenue, exposure, numbers of people participating, numbers of people in the audience, the profile of the players and the profile of the sport within society. Professional sports were funded through sponsors, ticket sales and charitable trusts, whereas player subscriptions and affiliation fees were the major sources of funding for amateur organisations. Amateur sports organisations did receive funding from charitable trusts also, but how much money each sport received depended on the participation numbers and the profile of the sport within New Zealand. Large participation numbers as well as large audiences could be generated by professional sports in New Zealand, but amateur sports could only generate participation numbers and small audiences. Participation numbers in amateur sports were very strong but they lacked revenue and exposure in comparison to professional sports, mainly because those amateur team sports did not have a high profile team in the area from which they could leverage. Professional team sports like rugby used their high profile brand, players, popularity and large audience to attract large sponsors. The popularity and profile of rugby in New Zealand offered sponsors a great deal of exposure, some of which came from the media. Media had a huge impact on professional team sports as they received a massive amount of free broadcast coverage, which they could pass on to their sponsors. Because of thenumbers in the audience and it's popularity, professional sports would be the first to get coverage in the media, whereas amateur sports would get pushed aside or may not even be noticed at all. Amateur sports need the media to promote them and build awareness of their sport, because for some amateur sports it may be the only way they get recognition. The lack of media coverage has a large impact on amateur sports, hindering the recognition of the sport, the ability to gain sponsorships and ultimately becoming a financial constraint. While amateur sports have been marginalised (Whitson and Macintosh 1989) and suggestions made of their financial challenges being due to lack of marketing (Slack 2010), this study has identified that the marketing deficiency is a consequence of a lack of media coverage. If not-for-profit amateur sports teams are to reduce the financial challenge and gain recognition, then greater media coverage is necessary. Potentially, amateur teams may consider investing their time in the media and building relationships to utilise noteworthy contributions. Amateur team sports in New Zealand found it difficult to attract large sponsorships, simply because they cannot offer as much as a professional team sport can. Professional team sports offer potential sponsors more exposure to a greater audience through the media and their own sources, as well as hospitality options. Amateur team sports cannot offer the same exposure, simply because of the product and profile they offer in comparison withprofessional sports. Amateur team sports used the numbers playing the game to attract sponsors, whereas professional team sports used the numbers in their audiences.

Place Defined -

making the product available in the right location (CH1 PPT)

Marketing Channels (Place) -

manufacturers, wholesalers, jobbers, and retailers

CONCLUSION There is a substantial difference between marketing a professional sport and

marketing an amateur sport. Amateur sport is all about community and participation. Professional teams are funded from the top, and amateur teams are funded from the bottom. Amateur team sports are funded through trusts and grants, small sponsorship deals, affiliation fees and ground hire. Professional teams are funded through sponsorship of the team, sponsorship of the competition they were playing in, ticket sales, hospitality, signage and sales of merchandise. The popularity of sport within society makes a big difference to funding as well as the profile of the sport and the players. Professional sports have the advantage. They can leverage from the popularity and profile of the sport, the high profile players and their brand. Sports like rugby, cricket and netball competed in a high profile competition in New Zealand, which creates lots of exposure for their brand. With the exposure they could offer positions for companies to sponsor their brand or team in certain areas of the organisation, hence they receive larger monetary contract deals. Amateur sports cannot offer the same professionalism, high profile product and exposure as professional sports. They market to the numbers playing the sport because they believe they are the only ones interested in it. Because of this they cannot offer their potential sponsors as much exposure; hence they receive smaller monetary contracts and funding is primarily from participation and subscription fees. Amateur team sports and organisations would like to become more professional, but professionalism is very difficult when there is a lack of revenue and resources. For changes to be made to this situation, media coverage needs to change. Amateur team sports must develop relationships with media for the situation to change. Given amateur team sports are funded from the community and bottom-up sources, a sensible choice for the sports organisations is to also gain media coverage from the community and local media. Communities which have a number of local newspapers could be used and local television stations are much more abundant than in the past. However, marketers and managers of amateur team sports are already burdened with administrative work and maintaining participation. Thus, improving amateur not-for-profit sports exposure may need to come from the audience and market demand. Potentially, building market demand may need to begin when people are young and are exposed to a variety of sports in places like schools. Surveys conducted by SPARC (2010) indicate the highest participation rates of children are in those sports that are supported at schools and classified as professional. Further investigation is required. This study explored the comparison of professional and amateur team sports in sport marketing. The findings indicate professional team sports leverage from the popularity of the sport. Consideration needs to be given regarding the ability to generalise these results to other teams within the sports considered, and to other professional and amateur sports. The study was exploratory and chose to develop a rich understanding of the situation in New Zealand. Subjects were high profile in the selected sports. For greater applicability, further research could be conducted with a larger sample representing a wider range of professional and amateur sports organisations.

All these elements are determining the

marketing specialist to consider an extended sport product that comprises also extra services besides the respective sport activity (shows for the audience during break and timeout, food services, transport, information services on the events, etc.) e) Sport is performed and consumed in public Most of the sports are performed in public and almost all are consumed in the presence of many other persons. In certain cases, the satisfaction of the spectators depends on the social interactions with the other participants to the event. For example, in Europe, the supporters' inappropriate behavior led to a bad reputation for soccer and to the participation in the events related to this sport. No product is so closely linked to personal and emotional identification than sport. The supporters of a team regard themselves as being part of that team and their participation represents an important part of their own life philosophy. Therefore, any product or service connected to their favorite team is positively appreciated by the supporters. Startingfromthisidea,thesportsmarketing specialists developed a term called BIRG1 (Cialdini, 1976), which refers to the behavior of the fans towards their favorite team, based on their performance: if the team wins, supporters will want to associate with them and their success (often using the phrase "we won"), and if the team loses, the fans display an attitude of dissociation from the team (stating that "the team lost"). f) Sport services address both end users and organizationsSport is a product addressed to final consumers, but it is also used by large organizations to promote their own products. This is one of the reasons why organizations are purchasing tickets for the large stadiums seats in order to offer their customers the possibility to participate in a certain event, even if they may not be fans of the teams that are performing. This element is a good promotional instrument for sports teams within the organizations 1 Barking in Reflected Glory targeted as audience. To convince these organizations, marketing specialists emphasize the effect that may be brought by purchasing subscriptions to all the team's games and offering them to customers or business partners. The most often mentioned effect is an increase in the company turnover. Such and example is the NBA basketball team New Jersey Nets that offered to all its corporate customers a program to ensure effective investments in subscriptions to the team's games. The program is based on the following condition: if the ownership of the subscriptions does not lead to an increase in sales for the corporate customer, then the sports club offers to refund the cost of the tickets (8.500$) plus interest. This commitment determined a large number of corporate organizations to purchase tickets and subscriptions to the New Jersey Nets games, resulting in revenue of over 250.000$.g) Low control for content and quality Sport marketing specialists rarely have control over the content of a sport product or service and have no control over their extensions. In the case of "business to business" marketing, we can conduct a research on customer expectations, and, according to those expectations, we can develop the line of products to satisfy the consumers. These concepts cannot be easily applied in the case of sports marketing. We can take for example the world soccer championship from Germany in 2006. Nobody expected to see, in a world championship final, a scene like that between Zinedine Zidane and Marco Materazzi. This can be taken as an example to show how much the quality of the service delivered depends on the "actors" involved in providing it. h) Sport has a universal impact Sport has access to all types of society, is geographically present in the life of all ethnic groups and it represents an important element in most of the cultures. The sport is also performed and viewed by all demographic categories (young or elderly, women or men, workers or managers). We can regard sport as a connecting bridge between different cultures - two very good examples being soccer and football from South Africa. Sport is also connected to all leisure activities and it satisfies numerous individual needs.

time utility

offering a product at a specific time

Product Bundling (Price) -

offering multiple goods and selling them as one

Strategic Sports Marketing -

planning, implementing, and controlling marketing efforts to meet organizational goals and satisfy consumers' needs (Shank & Lyberger)

Dalgarn (2001) noted that campus recreation centers can

play critical roles in creating a sense of community for students. In particular, Dalgarn noted that the Student Recreation Center "aids in the development of the whole person by providing opportunities to recreate, relax, relieve stress and renew perspective" (p. 68). Campus recreation facilities offer more than just a place to exercise; they create opportunities for students to enhance their social relationships with others. Campus recreation centers are community facilities that function as a place for people to meet friends and spend time by providing a variety of activities that attract students, faculty and staff (Dalgarn, 2001). Artinger et al. (2006) examined the social benefits of intramural sports in five different areas: personal social benefits (e.g., improving self-confidence), cultural social benefits (e.g., increasing understanding and tolerance of different cultures), social group bonding (e.g., decreasing social alienation), university integration (e.g., improving students' sense of belonging at the university), and reliable alli- ance benefits (e.g., increasing trust in peers). The results of the study conducted by Artinger et al. (2006) showed that students gained the most in the areas of personal social benefits and social group bonding. However, the results of a correlation matrix of the theoretically separate five subcategories of social benefits showed all five areas as significantly related; thus, the theoretical subcomponents may not measure different areas. Other benefits of campus recreation have also been examined. Bryant et al. (1995) designed a survey to assess student involvement and satisfaction with campus recreation programs and facilities as well as their relationship to both recruitment and retention. The results showed that 95% of students engaged in some form of recreational activity several times a week. Students reported a variety of benefits from participating in campus recreation programs including feelings of physical well-being, stress reduction, respect for others, friendships, and self-confidence. Researchers have also examined the influence of campus recreation activities on student recruitment and retention. Bryant et al. (1995) reported 30% of students responded that campus recreation programs and facilities were important factors in their decision to attend and continue to attend their university. In a study conducted by Lindsey and Sessoms (2006), 31% of students reported that the availability of recreational sports was important or very important in deciding to attend the col- lege, and 37% responded that recreational sports was important or very important in deciding to continue at the college. In addition, Belch et al. (2001) designed a study to examine the persistence at the university of first-time freshman. The results showed that persistence rates for users of the Student Recreation Complex (SRC) for both one semester (92%) and one year (71%) were higher than students who did not use the SRC (86% and 64% respectively). Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine some ways in which campus recreation facilities and programs positively influences students' lives. Specifically, the study was designed to examine the influence of campus recreation on recruitment and retention as well as the social and health benefits for students of campus recreation activity participation.

Variable Pricing (Price) -

prices increase or decrease depending on factors such as quality of opponent, day of the week, month of the year, and for special events such as opening day, Memorial Day, and Independence Day

Cost-Plus Pricing (Price) -

product cost plus a desired profit equals the price (CH 12 PPT; Mullin et al 2007)

Abstract: Sports marketing has grown along with the

professionalism of sports. Now there are professional and amateur sports. The literature on amateur sports marketing is scarce and few studies in sports marketing differentiate between amateur and professional sports. This study investigates the differences in sports marketing between professional and amateur team sports in New Zealand. Interviews were held with high profile people from both professional team sports organisations and not-for- profit amateur sports organisations. Professional team sports were found to gain leverage from their high profile players, high profile brand and audience numbers in order to attract large monetary sponsors. Amateur team sports leveraged off the numbers playing the game in order to attract sponsors. Amateur organisations were more concerned with getting their teams on the field and through the season rather than attracting sponsors. Amateur sports were supported by bottom-up sources of revenue while professional sports appeared to be funded top-down. Sports marketing is a form of marketing in which mainstream or alternative sports and the high profile people associated with them are used by brands to target a group of consumers. Sports marketing can build brand awareness, support retail and sales promotions and gain an overall advantage in the market. Examples of sports marketing include athlete endorsements, testimonials, event marketing and stadium advertising (Fuse Marketing, 2006). The current economic climate is having a large effect on businesses and their ability to attract customers. Recent changes in the economy have increased pressure on organisations to attract and retain customers. Until recently, marketing using sport has been overlooked by brands as a means of gaining exposure by leveraging off customers' recreational interests. In order to understand the consumer US corporations spent $23.52 billion on sports marketing in 1990 (Burnett, Menon and Smart 1993). Sports marketing continues to grow, with organisations spending more and academics applying more attention.

For example, sport is associated with

relaxation, entertainment, exercise, alimentation habits, betting, stimulation, physical violence, social identification, the legal and economic environment, religion, business, and industry. Given all these elements related to sports (through the need of individuals to practice or participate in sport events) the marketing specialist must consider the characteristics of the "new consumer" that wants to obtain as many benefits as possible from a single product, but at the same time is not very well informed and waits for the producer to submit their best offer (Voinea and Filip, 2011). Returning to the universal impact of sport, due to the advanced technologies of data transmission, we can state that, even if the sport event takes place in a certain venue, the sport has been "delocalized", as the events can be viewed by fans everywhere, some franchises having operational headquarters in various areas of the globe, based on the existing demand on the market and on the business development perspectives of that region. 3 The characteristics of sport as a component of the tertiary sector Because the sport often involves providing a service, we can add to the above features also the four characteristics of services that leave their mark also on sports products: intangibility, inseparability, variability and perishability. a) Intangibility This is the main characteristic of services that is making their evaluation difficult and subjective. Compared to a product, a service is impalpable, intangible, cannot be seen, tried, tasted. Services can be found to have a material expression, but the intrinsic value of the material support of these services is generally much more inferior to the information conveyed: books, movies, computer programs etc. (Ioncică, 2003). The intangible nature of services makes it difficult to design and promote them, and companies are bound to concentrate their efforts on "materializing" their offer, by using elements such as personnel, equipments, information, symbols, tariffs, etc (Cetina et al., 2006).An effective marketing technique to diminish the negative effects of intangibility is the offering of free samples. The owner of a fitness gym may offer a free session to the potential customers, spectators are allowed to participate for free to the public training of the team before the big games, the organizer of an event provide free viewings of the previous editions of the event, etc. All these marketing tools contribute to shaping a clear image for the consumer, so that he is aware how his money, time and energy are spent. b) Perishability Usually not having a material form, services cannot be stored and kept for future consumption. This can lead to an imbalance in the supply-demand ratio and the effective realization of the service. So, unused serviced at the moment of the offer will not be kept for future use (for example the offer of seats from a sports arena). Also, when there is more demand than supply, this can lead to the increase of the tariffs charged for those respective services or to the dissatisfaction of several potential customers that will not have their demand met. Perishability reflects the highest degree of marketing need, as the non-synchronization of demand with the supply involves losses due to the inability to "store" the services. To avoid such imbalances, several measures can be taken such as: differential pricing, so that when demand is declining customers are attracted through a price reduction (for an amateur sports club, using different rates during the week as compared to the weekend may determine the orientation of demand towards the less attractive periods of the week); offering complementary services for peak periods of demand, when customers are forced to wait for the production of the service (for examples offering magazines and newspapers in the waiting rooms); hiring temporary extended personnel when the demand is at its highest (during the big sports competitions a large number of activities are based on volunteer work, performed by persons that wish to be associated with that particular event, even if their work is not financially rewarded); stimulating the participation of the consumer to service delivery (using self-service catering at sports arenas, for example).c) Inseparability (simultaneous production and consumption of the service)

Price Defined -

setting a price the consumer deems to be fair and acceptable (CH1 PPT)

sport is both a consumer and an industrial good

sport is produced to meet the needs and wants of a mass population (i.e. spectators) while being used by businesses to reach consumers

Professional Sports -

sporting competitions in which athletes receive compensation, commonly classified as major or minor league status (Shank & Lyberger)

Markup Pricing (Price) -

takes the total costs of the product and adds a specific percentage to determine the final price

Service (Product) -

tangible, nonphysical products (CH7 PPT)

Good (Product) -

tangible, physical products that offer benefits to consumers (CH7 PPT)

Licensing (Promotion) -

the act of granting a second party permission to use a mark, name, symbol, or likeness (Irwin, Sutton, & McCarthy)

Marketing -

the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners and society at large (CH 1 ppt; AMA 2013)

Personal Contact (Promotion) -

the art of convincing, the use of learnable techniques to close a transaction and the application of basic rules to show a prospect or customer that you have something he needs (Irwin, Sutton, & McCarthy)

In the economic sense, the term of sport product describes the sport good or service, offered to

the consumer in order to satisfy his need for sport, be it spectator, viewer, active participant or sponsor (Shank, 2005; Pitts and Stotlar, 2007). Because of the peculiarities that characterize the sport as a human activity, the sport product has gained a much wider significance than the strictly merchant one (corresponding to the objective characteristics of the respective good). Moreover, in the special literature, there are many cases in which the sport product is used when referring to a certain event offered by the sport organizations, as "producers", to the wide or specialized audience as "consumers" (Mullin et al, 2007; Leeds and von Allmen, 2005; Lewis and Appenzeller, 1985). The sport product has a series of unique features that differentiate it significantly from the products corresponding to other fields of activity. These differences require the design of marketing strategies and business plans adapted accordingly to the sports field. The critical differences consist in the unique characteristics of sport and in the unusual business environment in which the specialists of this field must operate. Equally important for the sports marketing strategies are the characteristics of sport as a component of the tertiary sector: intangibility, inseparability, variability and perishability. All these features will be presented in this article, with the main purpose of highlighting how they influence the marketing activity. 2 The unique characteristics of sport These unique features are based on both the actual features of sport activities and on the particularities of the sport consumer behavior: a) Sport organizations are competing against each other, but, at the same time, are working together to realize sport products and services No sport organization can survive isolated as sport is based on competition. When such an organization needs to compete against another, it is necessary for them to previously collaborate in order to organize the event. The best example here would be a demonstration game, when the teams are not competing for a trophy, but for the spirit of the show. This does not mean that there will be no competition between the players, as each of the teams wants to prove that they are the best.

Price Elasticity (Price) -

the extent to which consumer purchasing patterns are sensitive to fluctuations in price

collective bargaining

the negotiation process between an employer and a union comprised of workers to create an agreement that will govern the terms and conditions of the workers' employment

Every product has specific features that differentiate it from

the others, but the sport product, through its nature, has a series of characteristics that decisively influence both the marketing strategy, and the specific instruments used to attract and satisfy the demand. In order to design a sport product well adapted to the consumer's needs, the marketing specialists has to consider:- the particularities of sport as a human activity (linked with leisure and social integration) - the special features of the sports consumer behavior (both for the amateur athletes and the professional ones) - the characteristics of sport as a component of the tertiary sector.Is necessary to mention the fact that the lists of characteristics presented in this article is not a exhaustive one, every sport having additional features link its rules of play, the market segments targeted and the national identity applied to each performance. Acknowledgment This work was co-financed from the European Social Fund through Sectorial Operational Program Human Resources Development 2007- 2013 project number POSDRU 89/1.5/S/59184 „Performance and excellence in postdoctoral Author's description research in Romanian economics science domain".

form utility

the physical characteristics

Sportscape (Place) -

the physical surroundings of the stadium that impact spectators desire to stay at the stadium and ultimately return to the stadium (Shank & Lyberger)

Fan Cost Index (Price) -

the price is not always the cost the consumer pays

Community Relations (Promotion) -

the process of interaction and "connection" between the sport organization and the community or target market population within that community (Irwin, Sutton, & McCarthy)

Sports Marketing -

the specific application of marketing principles and processes to sports products and to the marketing of nonsports products association with sport (CH1 PPT/Shank & Lyberger)

Market Research -

the systematic process of collecting, analyzing and reporting information to enhance decision making throughout the strategic sports marketing process (Shank & Lyberger)

Product Mix (Product) -

the total assortment of product lines that a sports organization sells (CH 7 PPT)

Product Extension (Product) -

those things that enhance the product or experience (CH 7 PPT)

Participants -

those who take part in a sport (Shank & Lyberger)

Value Equation (Price) -

value = perceived benefits of sports product / price of sports product

utility

want-satisfying power of a good or service

Price Discrimination (Price) -

when a firm charges different customers different prices for the same good

Dynamic Pricing (Price) -

when prices change form a day-by-day, minute-by-minute, instance

place utility

where the product is consumed