Exam 1 Adolescent Psychology
super ego
"moral watchdog" that governs your behavior with morals and reality (often taught by parents, school, church)
What are defense mechanisms? What part of the personality (id, ego, superego) uses them and why?
- Unconscious methods of distorting reality - ego uses to PROTECT itself from the anxiety produced by the conflicting demands of the three personality structures
adrenarche
- hormonal changes in the adrenal glands - changes occur early, (around 6-10 years old), before beginning of puberty - adrenal glands secrete adrenal androgens such as DHEA
What does Piaget's cognitive developmental theory state?
-individuals actively construct their understanding of the world and go through 4 STAGES of cognitive development -each stage is age-related and consists of a distinctive way of thinking -cognition is qualitatively different in one stage compared with another
oral stage (when is it and where is the pleasure center?)
0-1.5 years old, pleasure center = in the mouth
sensorimotor stage (when is it and what types of cognition are used?)
0-2: use five senses to create an understanding of the world
What is the Neuroconstructivist view?
1) BIOLOGICAL processes and environmental experiences influence brain's development 2) brain has PLASTICITY and is context dependent 3) development of brain is linked closely with COGNITIVE development
What are the "Five C's" of positive youth development (PYD)
1) Competence 2) Confidence 3) Connection 4) Character 5) Caring/compassion
what are the two main characteristics of the Wechsler scale?
1) IQ with additional scores 2) shows the subjects strengths and weaknesses in different areas
what 3 things does evolutionary psychology emphasize in order to explain behavior?
1) adaptation 2) reproduction 3) "survival of the fittest"
what are the 2 most noticeable female pubertal characteristics that develop?
1) breasts 2) growth of pubic hair
what are the three aspects of the young adolescent's development that are important to identity formation?
1) confidence that they have PARENTAL SUPPORT 2) established sense of industry 3) ability to take a self-reflective stance toward the future
What 5 changes in the brain structure happen during adolescence?
1) corpus callosum thickens 2) development of the prefrontal cortex 3) limbic system matures and is fully developed by early adolescence 4) greater connectivity and integration of brain region 5) connections between prefrontal cortex and limbic system strengthen in late adolescence through emerging adulthood
Psychoanalytic theories of adolescent development suggest that:
1) development is primarily UNCONSCIOUS and heavily influenced by emotions 2) early experiences with parents heavily impact development (true understanding of development requires analyzing the symbolic meanings of behavior and the deep inner workings of the mind)
What does the Stanford-Binet 5 test you in (5 things):
1) fluid reasoning 2) knowledge 3) quantitative reasoning 4) visual-spatial reasoning 5) working memory FKQVW "Fred Kicks Quarters (around) Very Well" - (he does well at kicking quarters around, he'll do well on stanford-binet test) Fred - fluid reasoning Kids - knowledge Quarters - quantitive reasoning (around) Very - visual spatial reasoning Well - working memory
What are the four stages of identity?
1) identity diffusion 2) identity foreclosure 3) identity moratorium 4) identity achievement DFMA "Derik (rose) F*cked My Ass" D - Diffusion F - foreclosure M - moratorium A - achievement -after getting f*cked ********** you may ask : who am i? what am i doing with my life? (identity)
What are the five key factors of emerging adulthood?
1) identity exploration 2) instability 3) self-focused 4) feeling in-between 5) age of possibilities
Eriksons ideas on identity
1) in order understand adolescent development, questions such as who am ? what am i going to do with my life? how can i make it on my own? are essential 2) adolescents are at risk for IDENTITY CONFUSION if they don't successfully resolve an identity crisis 3) role experimentation, must try out different roles before reaching a sense of self (getting different jobs is key to development)
2 reasons why college produces key changes in identity?
1) increased complexity of reasoning skills 2) new experiences
How does sleep deprivation affect gene expression?
1) increased inflammation 2) expression of stress-related genes 3) impairment of protein functioning
what are the two most noticeable pubertal characteristics of males?
1) increased penis and testicle size 2) growth of facial hair
what does it mean to engage in effortful control?
1) inhibiting impulses and not engaging in destructive behavior 2) focusing and maintaining attention (despite distractions) 3) initiating and completing tasks that have long term value (even if unpleasant)
What are the three changes in the neuron that happen during adolescence?
1) myelination 2) dramatic increase in gaps between neurons (synapses) 3) levels of neurotransmitters change
What are some solutions for helping adolescents become adults quicker?
1) providing opportunities to contribute instead of consume 2) give candid quality feedback (don't over praise) 3) create positive connection 4) challenge adolescents to become more competent
AUTONOMY vs. shame and doubt (when does it occur and what is it?)
1-3 years: after gaining trust, infants begin to discover that their behavior is their own, and they start to assert their independence (autonomy --> independence --> own behavior ---> assert that independence)
Bandura's social cognitive theory
1. Behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors interact in a reciprocal manner to determine the likelihood of a behavior's occurrence <--> behavior <--> person/cognitive< --> environment <--> 2. Observable learning is key to how we learn, learning by watching others do it. we often adopt other's behavior
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Cognitive Theory
1. Cognitive skills are created by using WORDS, LANGUAGE, and forms of discourse (written/spoken communication) 2. Cognitive skills have their origins in SOCIAL relations with skilled adults and peers * culture and social interaction guide cognitive development, can't have one without the other
Eriksons' Psychosocial Theory (and how is it different from Freud's view?)
1. We develop in psychoSOCIAL stages rather than in psychosexual stages 2. The primary motivation for human behavior is social and reflects a desire to affiliate with other people, rather than sexual 3. Developmental change occurs throughout the life span, as opposed to Freud's view that basic personality is shaped in the first five years of life
20th Century: What was Margaret meads sociocultural view of adolescence?
1. basic nature of adolescence is not biological, but rather SOCIAL-CULTURAL 2. In cultures that provide a smooth gradual transition form childhood to adulthood, she found little storm and stress
What is the order of female pubertal characteristic development? What is the acronym to help you remember?
1. breast development 2. growth of pubic hair 3. growth of armpit hair 4. height gain 5. hips become wider than shoulders 6. first menstruation (menarche) 7. No voices changes Acronym: BPAHWP "Brad Pit Always Has a Wet Penis" B - Breast (development) P - Pubic (hair) A - Armpit (hair) H - Height (gain) W - Wide (hips) P - Period (first)
What is the order of the development of male puberal characteristics? What is the acronym to help you remember?
1. increased penis and testicle size 2. appearance of straight pubic hair 3. minor voice change 4. first ejaculation 5. appearance of kinky pubic hair 6. onset of maximum growth 7. growth of armpit hair 8. more detectable voice changes 9. growth of facial hair Acronym: P.S.V.E.K.M.A.V.F "(P)atric (S)wayze (V)enmo'd (E)ri(K) (M)oney (A)fter (V)oodoo (F)est" P - Penis (increase in size) S - Straight (pubic hair) V - Voice (change, minor) E - Ejaculation (first) K - Kinky (pubic hair) M - Maximum (growth) A - Armpit (hair) V - Voice (change, more) F - Facial (hair )
anal stage (when is it and where is the pleasure center?)
1.5-3 years old, pleasure = in anus
When on average, do boys get their growth spurt?
11
formal operational stage (when is it and what types of cognition are used?)
11-15: start thinking abstractly and developing hypotheses
When is the peak of pubertal change for girls?
11.5 years
When is the peak of pubertal change for boys?
13.5 years
During their growth spurt, girls gain roughly ____ pounds in one year at ___ years old while boys gain roughly ___ pounds in one year at ____ year old
18, 12, 20, 13-14
What are the years of emerging adulthood?
18-25
What period of time doe historians name the "age of adolescence"?
1890-1920
pre operational stage (when is it and what types of cognition are used?)
2-7: think more symbolically using words and images, not just senses
INITIATIVE vs. guilt
3-5 years: preschool children face new challenges that require active, purposeful, and responsible behavior (initiative). If child is irresponsible and too anxious, feelings of guilt may arise (children must learn how to take initiative in preschool)
phallic stage (when is it and where is the pleasure center?)
3-6 years old, pleasure = on genitals
During their growth spurt, how many inches do girls increase per year?
3.5 inches
adolescents have how many times the reactivity to stress when compared to adults?
3x
During their growth spurt, how many inches do boys increase per year?
4 inches
___ % of adult body weight is gained during adolescence
50
latency stage (when is it and what happens to child's sexual interest?)
6-puberty, child represses sexual interest and developed social and intellectual skills
INDUSTRY vs. inferiority
6-puberty: children direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills but can develop sense of inferiority if they are incompetent and unproductive (industry = industrial = working = learning and mastering knowledge and skills)
concrete operational stage (when is it and what types of cognitions are used?)
7-11: apply reason to concrete events
What did Daniel Offer and his colleagues find about the true nature of adolescence? (are most adolescents happy or storm and stress?)
73% had a healthy self-image, happy, valued work and school, positive feelings toward family
When on average, do girls get their growth spurt?
9
personal fable
A cognitive distortion experienced by adolescents, in which they believe they are so special and unique that other people cannot understand them and risky behaviors will not harm them ("no one gets me")
imaginary audience
A cognitive distortion experienced by adolescents, in which they see themselves as always "on stage" with an audience watching (think they are are the focus of everyone's attention and concern)
Who is the leading psychologist to advance social cognitive theory?
Albert Bandura
middle adulthood
Approximately from 35 to 45 to 55 and 65
late adulthood
Approximately from 60 to 70 until death
early adulthood
Approximately from late teens/early 20s through the 30s
infancy
Birth to 18 or 24 months of age
why does Freud focus on psychosexual development?
Development is about pleasure and impulses throughout the early years and resolution of conflict between sources of pleasure at each stage.
Eclectic Theoretical Orientation
Does not follow any one theoretical approach but rather selects from each theory whatever is considered its best features
What is a secular trend in puberty for overweight girls vs. boys in America?
Early puberty seems to be occurring only in overweight girls, but obesity delays puberty for boys
When does Erikson think most developmental changes occur? What about Frued?
Erikson - throughout life span Frued - views that basic personality is shaped in first five years of life
sustained attention
Focused and extended engagement with an object, task, event, or other aspect of the environment
FSH
Follicle Stimulating Hormone: - stimulates follicle development in females - stimulates sperm production in males
middle and late childhood
From age of about 6 to 10 or 11 years of age. Also known as the elementary school years
self esteem
GLOBAL evaluative dimension of the self (self world/ self image)
how the feedback system of sex hormones works: If testosterone levels fall, the hypothalamus must produce more ______, which signals the _____ gland to make more ____, stimulating the _____ to make more ______
GnRH, pituitary glad, LH, gonads (testes), testosterone
GnRH
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone - linked to pubertal timing
TRUST vs. Mustrust (when does it occur and what is it?)
Infancy: trust during infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to live
Is information processing theory similar to Piaget's or Vygotsky's theory of cognitive developments and why?
It's like Vygotskys because it doesn't describe development as stage like
How are Vygotsky and Piaget's cognitive developmental theories the same?
Like Piaget, Vygotsky emphasized that individuals actively construct their knowledge
LH
Luteinizing Hormone: - regulates estrogen secretion and ovum development in females - regulates testosterone production in males
humans appear to have ____ proteins that genes, so what does that tell us?
MORE proteins that genes: there cannot be a one-to-one correspondence between them
Do we know precisely what initiates puberty?
No
What do behaviorist argue the definition of development is?
OBSERVABLE behaviors learned through experience with the environment
What are some biological transitions from childhood to adolescence?
Puberty (growth spurt, hormonal changes, sexual maturation)
What are some socioemotional changes from childhood to adulthood?
Seek increased independence, conflict with parents, desire to spend more time with peers, increased interest in romantic relationships, more focus on academic achievement
divided attention
Splits perceptual resources between multiple stimuli or behaviors
What is the most important stage in Erikson's developmental stages and why?
Stage 5 (identity vs. identity confusion) because it is the stage where former conflicts can be resolved
chronosystem
TIME: sociohistorical conditions and time since life events -patterns of environmental evens and transitions over lifetime
Information Processing Theory
That individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. It focuses on how information is: -perceived -encoded -represented -stored -retrieved
what is the most widely used intelligence test?
The Binet Test
what is the second most widely used intelligence test?
The Wechsler Scale
effortful control
The ability to regulate one's emotions and actions through effort, not simply through natural inclination
early childhood
The end of infancy to about 5 or 6 years of age. Also called the pre-school years
selective attention
The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
prenatal period
The time from conception to birth. A time of tremendous growth from a single cell to a complete organism with brain and behavioral capabilities
How are Vygotsky and Piaget's theories different?
Vigotsky placed more emphasis than Piaget on the role of culture and social interaction
puberty
a brain-neuroendocrine process occurring primarily in early adolescence that provides stimulation for the rapid physical changes that take place during this period of development
What kind of system are hormones in the body regulated by?
a negative feedback system
What happens at each developmental stage according to Erikson? What leads to healthy development in terms of these stages?
a unique developmental task confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved -the more successfully they resolve these conflicts at each stage, the healthier their development is
self regulation
ability to control ones behavior without having to rely on others help (self generation and cognitive monitoring of thoughts, feelings, behaviors in order to reach goal)
identity diffusion
absence of commitment with identity and lack of serious consideration of alternatives
Are acting out and boundary testing time-honored ways in which adolescents move toward accepting or rejecting parental values?
accepting
accommodation
adjustment of a schema to new info
What is G. Stanley Hall's storm and stress view? When was it formed?
adolescence = turbulent time charged w/ conflict and mood swings and formed at beginnings of the scientific study of adolescence
who is better at deploying cognitive resources: adolescents or children?
adolescents
contradictions within self
adolescents have trouble describing themselves, don't really know who they are yet
what two phases of puberty are linked to hormonal changes in the endocrine system?
adrenarche and gonadarche
Freud's psychosexual theory
adult personality is determined by the way we resolve conflicts between sources of pleasure at each stage and the demands of reality
self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" -cognitive view of yourself (how you see yourself in terms of your emotions and identity)
Does neurogenesis happen only in childhood or also in adolescence?
also in adolescence
inhibitory control
an ability to display acceptable conduct by resisting the temptation to commit a forbidden act (natural inclination)
in boys, higher levels of _____ are associated with violence and acting out problems?
androgens (testosterone)
Boys facial structure becomes more ____ during puberty, whereas girls facial structure becomes more ____ and ____
angular, round and soft
what are some negative changes that many adolescents experience in the brain?
anxiety, depression, drug abuse
What is the positive view of adolescence? or positive youth Development (PYD)?
as apposed to the storm and stress portrayal, PYD has a positive psychology approach and emphasizes the strengths of youth and positive qualities of their adolescent development
self-awareness
awareness of psychological makeup
Why do boys become more satisfied during puberty?
because muscle mass increases
why has adolescent creativity declined in recent years?
because of increase in technology, and isn't emphasized in most schools
why would identity formation occur early for certain ethnic minorities?
because they are in poverty and must take on family responsibilities, get jobs, not go to college, become an adult sooner
When did the scientific exploration of adolescence begin?
beginning of the 20th century
Bandara's social cognitive theory
behavior, environment, and cognition are the key factors in development
controlling attention
being able to distinguish and ignore the internal or external distractions that are increasingly prominent in adolescence
cognitive flexibility
being aware of alternative options and adapting to situations
for most individuals, when does puberty take place?
between 9 and 16 years of age
what 3 processes determine human development?
biological, cognitive, and socioemotional
What types of events (internal or external) can excite or inhibit gene expression?
both internal (inside the cell) and external
what does an increase in estrogen lead to?
breast development, uterine (uterus) development, hip expansion
socioemotional processes
changes in individuals emotions, personality, relationships, and social contexts
cognitive processes
changes in individuals thinking and intelligence
What bodily changes are factors that are involved in initiating puberty? Are they a cause or or consequence of puberty?
changes in weight, body fat, endocrine system -we don't know
the fluctuating self
changing in emotions, instability
differentiation
changing your self depending on who you are around
The later-experience advocates argue that:
children and adolescents are malleable throughout development and that later sensitive caregiving is just as important as earlier sensitive caregiving
What structures does the nucleus of each human cell contain? And what are those structures defined as?
chromosomes: threadlike, contain DNA
what is information processing influenced by?
cognitive resources
DNA
complex molecule that contains genetic information
executive function
concept that involves higher-order complex cognitive processes
Skinner's operant conditioning theory
consequences of behaviors produce changes in the likelihood that that behavior will occur or not. Behavior that is rewarded will likely reoccur, and behavior that is punish is less likely to occur. Rewards and punishments shape development
self protection
coping with stress using defense mechanisms
early adolescence
corresponds roughly to middle or junior high school years and includes most pubertal change
if fundamental skills are not adequately developed in childhood, it is unlikely that individuals will develop ____ ____ skills in adolescence
critical thinking
What is the transition from adolescence to adulthood determined by? (what determines when you are an adult)
cultural standards and experiences
ego
decision making part of your personality that deals with demands of reality in order to make decision
body image
developing an individual image of your own body
heredity and environment interact to produce _____
development
epigenetic view
development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and the environment (nature AND nurture lead to development)
Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory of development
development reflects the influence of five environmental systems: 1) microsystem 2) mesosystem 3) exosystem 4) macrosystem 5) chronosystem "my MICRO and MACRO EXams are a CHRONic MESs" MICROsystyem MACROsystem EXosystem CHRONosystem MESsosytem
fraternal twins are also called
dizygotic twins
self understanding
domain specific evaluations of the self (in terms of school, athletics, family, etc.) -who you are in terms of your roles in the environments around you and your connections to those environments
When are the effects of stressors in life most exacerbated? (what stage)
during adolescent years or any time of significant brain development (adolescent brain = very sensitive to stressors)
Establishing personal and economic independence, and career development intensifying are characteristics of what period of development?
early adulthood
Becoming more self-sufficient, school ready, focus on peers and play are characteristics of what period of childhood development?
early childhood
____ maturing boys perceived themselves more positively and has more successful peer relations than did ____ maturing boys
early, late
cognitive control
effective control and flexible thinking in areas such as attention, reducing interfering thoughts and being cognitively flexible
Exploring career path, identity, lifestyle, experimentation, all describe what life transition stage?
emerging adulthood
during what stage in life do most of the key changes in identity take place?
emerging adulthood (18-25)
psychometric intelligence view
emphasis on individual intelligence, it can differ form person to person and still be adequate and stable - favors using INTELLIGENCE TESTS to determine one's abilities -see's intelligence as ability to solve problems and learn form pervious experiences
When did the CONCEPT of adolescence arise?
end of 19th century, beginning of 20th century
pituitary gland
endocrine gland that regulates other glands and secretes FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone) - (both are gonadotropins) to the sex gland -it also sends hormones to the thyroid and adrenal glands
ethnic identity
enduring aspect of self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group along with attitudes and feelings related to that membership
What is the estrogen that plays an important role in female pubertal development?
estradiol
There is some indication that increased levels of _____ are linked to depression in adolescent girls
estrogen
What is Freud's psychoanalytic theory?
experiences early in life influence developmental pathways, and that there is a tension and CONFLICT at each stage of development that requires a RESOLUTION in order to progress
What does an increase in testosterone lead to?
external genitals, growth spurts, voice changes, sexual desire and activity
what is spermarche? When does it occur? (beg/mid/end of puberty/gonadarche?)
first ejaculation for men, occurs early to mid gonadarche in boys
what is menarche and when does it occur? (at beg/mid/end of puberty/gonadarche?)
first menstrual period, occurs mid to late gonadarche
early vs. later experience
focuses on the degree to which early experiences (especially early in childhood) or later experiences are the key determinants of development
gonadarche
follows adrenarche by 2 years, is people that most people consider puberty
Why do many college students today have inflated self esteem?
grew up receiving empty praise
What were the most positive body images characterized by?
health-enhancing behaviors, especially exercise
at most ages males report ____ self esteem than females
higher
adolescent girls placed a ____ aesthetic value on body image but had a ____ aesthetic satisfaction with their bodies than did adolescent boys
higher, lower
____ width increase in girls, while _____ width increases in boys during their growth spurts
hip, shoulder
In the United States, what is the most widely recognized marker of entry into adulthood?
holding a more or less permanent full-time job
______ factors are thought to account for at least part of the increase in negative and variable emotions that characterize adolescents
hormonal
What factors influence one's happiness with their body changes/body?
hormones and social factors
information processing view
how info gets into adolescents minds, how its stored, and how they retrieve into to think about solving problems
What are genetic processes? What type of psychology do they help us study?
how we study the tenets of evolutional psychology. the traits and characteristics that are expressed have a long evolutionary history that is contained in our DNA
According to Freud, what are the three structures to personality that drive conflict?
id, ego, superego
bicultural identity
identifying in some ways with their ethnic group and in other ways with majority culture
How does exposure to stress impact the adolescent brain? What could it cause in the long run?
impacts the structure and function of the brain, could cause long-lasting diseases
myelination
in the prefrontal cortex the amount of white matter increases and the amount of grey matter decreases
assimilation
incorporation of new information into existing knowledge, schema = unchanged
What is the probably cause as to why girls get more dissatisfied with their bodies as pubertal changes proceed?
increase in body fat
What are some cognitive transitions from childhood to adolescence?
increased decision making, logical and abstract thinking, and egocentric thinking
what are two positive changes in the brain that occur during adolescence?
increased strength and cognitive ability
early maturation ____ a girls vulnerability to a number of problems
increases
as adolescents are required to engage in more complex tasks, their executive attention _____
increases (in order to complete the tasks)
What is a secular trend in puberty for African American girls?
increasing number of girls are beginning puberty at 8 and 9 years of age, AA girls develop earlier than white girls
a family atmosphere that promotes _____ and ____ is important in the adolescents identity development
individuality, connectedness
identity moratorium
individuals who are in the midst of a crisis, but their commitments are either absent or vaguely defined (can't find identity in the midst of crisis)
identity achievement
individuals who have undergone a crisis and have made a commitment to their identity after it
Language, sensorimotor, and caregive-child relationships are psychological developments during what period of childhood development?
infancy
Puberty is the most rapid increase in growth for children since what stage of their development?
infancy
What is the period of childhood development involving extreme dependency?
infancy
Id
instinctive part of your personality that demands immediate gratification and pleasure (often for sex)
What is Sternberg's Triarchic Theory on Multiple Intelligences?
intelligence appears in three forms: 1) analytical 2) creative 3) practical
IQ stands for what
intelligence quotient: mental age / actual age multiplied by 100
thyroid gland
interacts with pituitary gland to influence growth and skeletal (bone) maturation
executive attention
involves action planning, allocating attention to goals, error detection and compensation, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances
nature vs. nuture
involves the debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature (biological inheritance) or nurture (environmental experiences)
What is the endocrine system's role in puberty?
it activating the HPG axis
How is social-cognitive theory different than Skinner's behavioral theory?
it adds the person/cognitive element to Skinner's theory (not just environmental and behavioral effect development, also your cognition)
Is puberty random or genetic? (for when it will emerge)
it is genetic, programmed into the genes of every human being for when it will emerge
What is menarche's effect on body image?
it produces a different body (a more developed one) that requires considerable change in self-conception, possible resulting in an identity crisis
Time of adjustment to decreasing strength and health, retirement and reduced income. Tends also be defined by reviewing one's life and adapting to changed social roles, lessened responsibilities, and increased freedom are characteristics of what stage of development?
late adulthood
Too little attention has been given to ____ experiences in development
later
____ length increases in boys during their growth spurt. Why do boys have a greater leg length than girls?
leg, because of their later growth spurt
mental age
level of a persons mental development in comparison to others
the brain goes through profound structural and functional remodeling in the ____ and ______ regions
limbic, cortical
short term memory
limited capacity memory system which info is retained for as long as 30 seconds unless info is repeated
exosystem
links between social setting in which adolescent does not have an active role and the individual's immediate context (links between home and social setting where you are not super active) examples: family friends, neighbors, legal systems, the media
for ethnic minorities, would going to college make the process of identity formation longer or shorter?
longer, more complexity of exploring and understanding bicultural identity
What is hormonal activity influenced by?
many environmental factors: parent relationships, stress, eating patterns, sexual activity, and depression (these factors can activate or suppress various aspects of the hormone system)
In developing countries, what is often a significant marker of adulthood?
marriage
what is another word for menstruation or period?
menarche
What is a secular trend puberty in the U.S. for when menarche occurs now based on when it used to occur?
menarche now occurs at about 12.5 years of age, but used to occur at 14 years of age a century ago
schema
mental concept or FRAMEWORK that is useful in organizing and interpreting information
Time of increasing interest in transmitting values to younger generations, increased reflection about life's meaning, and enhanced concern about one's own body and health are characteristics of what period of development?
middle adulthood
Mastering fundamental sills (reading, writing, arithmetic), exposure to larger world and culture, self-control increases, achievement is central are characteristics of what period of childhood development?
middle and late childhood
identical twins are also called
monozygotic twins
Do girls have more/less negative body images than boys?
more
is formal operational thought more or less abstract than concrete operational thought?
more (think: concrete = unchanging and rigid)
ethnically diverse youth often create _____ selves that reflect their experiences navigating their multiple worlds of peers, schools, family, and community
multiple
How do those who believe in nature/nurture and continuity/discontinuity connect?
nature believes agree with discontinuity, and nurture believers agree with continuity
21st century: how do adolescents tend to be stereotyped as?
negatively, as deviant and abnormal, lazy, sexual, drugs, rebellious, etc
____ and ____ changes in the body each play a role in making adolescence the time when stress reactivity is the highest
neural and hormonal
Are hormonal factors alone responsible for adolescent behavior such as depression or risk taking?
no
is the strong association between perceived appearance and self work confined to adolescence?
no across whole life span
is self understanding completely internal?
no, also a social cognitive construction
is the drop in self esteem for adolescents as pronounced as it is in the media?
no, its actually very slight
are school performance and self esteem higher correlated?
no, moderately (with higher self esteem you have greater initiative which can positive or negative outcomes) negative being you have the confidence to not do work
primary sexual characteristics (for girls and boys)
ovaries in females, testes in males (internal)
increase in thought is due to the maturation of what in your brain?
pathways and circuitry
secular trends in puberty definition
patterns of pubertal onset over historical time, especially across generations
the link between ____ approval and self worth increases during adolescence
peer
identity crisis
period of identity development during which the adolescent is choosing among meaningful alternatives
identity commitment
personal investment in what an individual is going to do
biological processes
physical changes in an individual's body
What two things does Freud argue that development is really about in his psychosexual theory? What do we need to do about those two things in order to develop?
pleasure and impulses: must resolve conflicts between sources of pleasure at each stage in order to develop
IDENTITY vs. Identity confusion
positive identity is reached if adolescents explore roles in a healthy manner and arrive at a positive path to follow, if not identity confusion reigns (ex: adolescents who develop mistrust must learn how to trust other before they can successfully develop a healthy identity. If not, forming friendships and relationships = more challenging)
Emerging adulthood does appear to occur in those cultures in which assuming adult roles and responsibilities is
postponed
hormones
powerful chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands and carried throughout the body by the bloodstream
identity foreclosure
premature commitment to an identity without adequate consideration of other options
identity consolidation, what is it and when does it occur?
process of refining and enhancing identity choices that are made in adulthood (continues into early adulthood and possibly middle)
divergent thinking
producing many possible answers to one question, creativity
convergent thinking
producing one correct answer to a questions, basic intelligence
What is the LEAST influential factor in a white boys body perceptions?
psychological well-being
What is the MOST influential factor in a white girls body perceptions?
psychological well-being
genital stage (when is it and what is its relationship to sex? where is your source of sexual pleasure coming from?)
puberty onward, time of sexual reawakening; source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside the family
secondary sexual characteristics
pubic hair, breasts, genital development (external)
adolescent generalization gap
refers to generalizations that are based on information about a limited often highly visible group of adolescence (often through the media)
mesosystem
relations between microsystems or connections between contexts (family and school, church and neighborhood)
long-term memory
relatively permanent memory that holds a lot of information for a long period of time
adrenal gland
role in puberty is not well known but it linked to adolescent behaviors esp. in boys
late adolescence
roughly the time from 15 years to 20. Career interests, dating, and identity exploration are often more pronounced during late adolescence than early
What new 4 ideas on cognition were incorporated in piagets theory of cognitive development?
schema, assimilation, accommodation, equilibration
what are the four types of allocating attention?
selective, divided, sustained, executive
what would provide the most complete analysis of one's self esteem?
self-reporting, rating by others, observations of their behavior
microsystem
setting in which the adolescent lives (school, church, neighborhood, family)
equilibration
shift in thought from one state to another, trying to keep a stable balance between cognitive elements (going back and forth between equilibrium and disequilibrium)
genes
short segments of DNA which direct cells to reproduce themselves and to assemble proteins
A _____ ____ is rarely the source of a proteins genetic information, much less of an inherited trait
single gene
What does Erikson argue is the primary motivation for human behavior? (social or sexual)
social
Vygotskys view on cognitive development
social constructivist approach: knowledge is situated and collaborative. knowing can best be advanced through interaction with others in cooperative activities
Is the transition to puberty stormy for some or most adolescents?
some
what is a possible reason researchers have found is the cause for vulnerabilities such as anxiety, depression, and drug abuse in adolescence?
stress
decision making can be affected by ___ and ___ during adolescence
stress and pressure
Where is the hypothalamus and what does it monitor?
structure in the higher portion of the brain that monitors eating, drinking and sex hormones
gene-gene interaction
terms used to describe studies that focus on interdependence of two or more genes in influencing characteristics, behavior, diseases, and development
gonads/sex glands
testes in males and ovaries in females and are responsible for sex characteristics and production of estrogen and androgen hormones
What is the androgen that plays the main rollin male pubertal development?
testosterone
Jean-Jacques Rousseau restored what belief about adolescence?
that being a child/adolescent is NOT the same as being an adult AND that adolescence develops in distinct phases
What was Plato's discovery on adolescence in the 4th century?
that reasoning doesn't apply to childhood but first appears in adolescence
perspective taking
the ability to assume another persons's perspective and understand his or her thoughts and feelings
What did Aristotle argue were the two most important aspects of adolescence? (4th Century)
the ability to choose and self determination leads to maturity
cognitive resources determine:
the capacity and speed of processing
macrosystem
the entire culture in which adolescents live and their attitudes and ideologies about that culture
continuity vs. discontinuity
the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity)
behavior genetics
the field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits and development
fuzzy-trace theory dual-process model
the gist based intuition (rather than knowing all the facts) benefits adolescents decision making
adolescent egocentrism
the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents, which is reflected in their belief that others are as interested in them as they are themselves, and in their sense of personal uniqueness and invulnerability
What is the HPG axis?
the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis
What was Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD)
the idea that you need to instructor to teach you (its not pointless) but you also aren't in over your head and can understand the material (ideal zone)
estrogens
the main class of female sex hormones (estradiol)
androgens
the main class of male sex hormones (testosterone)
When the HPG is activated, what processes are taking place?
the pituitary gland sends a signal via gonadotropics (hormones that stimulate sex glands) to the testes or ovaries to create hormones. It interacts with the hypothalamus to determine when optimal levels of hormones are reaches and maintains that level
idealism
the practice of forming or pursuing ideals, especially unrealistically
abstraction
the quality of dealing with ideas rather than events
social cognition
the way individuals conceptualize and reason about their social world
why is it hard for ethnic groups to maintain their identities? how do many adolescents resolve this choice?
they also want to blend into the dominant culture, to resolve they develop a bicultural identity (also depends on time period and when they are growing up that country with everything else that is going on)
What happens to the size of the hippocampus and amygdala during adolescence?
they grow in early stages of puberty
when does processing speed slow down in one's life?
towards the end of early adulthood and then stays on that decline
The emphasis on the importance of early experience rests on the belief that each psychological quality can be:
traced back to its origin
when is a big time that self esteem decreases for children/adolescents?
transitioning from elementary to middle school
what does Erikson encourage adolescents to do during stage 5 (identity vs. identity confusion)?
try out many roles, relationships, jobs. If they don't experiment with different roles, they have more trouble transitioning into adulthood
What two things do behavior geneticists use to study the influence on heredity on behavior?
twin and adoption studies
Girls tend to be more _____ with their body changes while boys tend to be more _____
unhappy, happy
What are Gardner's eight frames of mind?
verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, interpersonal, naturalistic (see patterns in nature and understand them) VMSBMIIN "Valerie Must Stop Bringing Men Into Interesting Nooks (and crannies) " *way to remember, "frame of mind" -- frames have corners -- nooks and crannies = Valerie must stop brining men into interesting nooks (and crannies) V - verbal M - mathematical S - spatial B - bodily kinesthetic M - musical I - Interpersonal I - Intrapersonal N - Naturalist
How were children and adolescents viewed in the Middle Ages? Where parents hard on them?
viewed as miniature adults, harsh discipline
Early and late maturation is associated with what? What gender and (early vs. late) does this apply most to?
vulnerabilities and negative outcomes, early maturing girls
behaviorism
we can only study what we can directly OBSERVE and measure -development = continuous (no stages)
possible selves
what individual might become, would like to become, afraid of becoming
working memory
where info is manipulated and assembled for decision making, problem solving, and comprehending written and spoken language
What do adoption studies seek to discover?
whether the behavior and psychological characteristics of adopted children are more like those of their adoptive parents or not
what type of memory serves as a cognitive filter that allows people to consider the consequences of their decisions and risk taking?
working memory
the increase in processing tasks is linked to an increase in _______ memory and a higher level _____ ____ fluency?
working memory, oral reading
what type of memory increases during adolescent years?
working memory, you're learning a lot more and figuring things out about your life more
Can environmental factors influence puberty's onset and duration?
yes
Does weight gain follow roughly the same timetable as height gain during boys and girls growth spurts?
yes
Have the youth of every generation seemed "radical"?
yes
how do friendships and romantic relationships play a role in identity development?
your quality of relationships is linked to your capacity to explore your identity, friends are often a safe context for exploring identity, same with romantic relationships
