Exam 1 Review
Wind Chill
Correlates cold and wind speed Stronger wind, lower wind chill index, and vice versa
Why is 3pm the hottest time of the day?
It takes awhile for the land and air to heat up. By 3pm, the direct insolation from the sun has reached Earth's surface, allowing blacktop, buildings, and greenhouse gases to reflect and reemit heat energy.
Heterosphere
80km - 480 km (Ionosphere > Thermosphere) Distinct layers of gases due to gravity -Hydrogen and helium at the top (light gases) -Oxygen and nitrogen in the lower heterosphere.
Net Radiation (Net R)
The sum of all radiation gains and losses, and varies with daylength through the seasons, the amount of cloud cover and latitude.
Blackbody Radiation
The sun is a blackbody radiator: it absorbs and emits all the radiant energy that it receives at 100% efficiency.
Dew-point Temperature
The temperature at which air becomes saturated and condensation begins to form water droplets. -A high dew point indicates air with higher water vapor content, while a low dew point indicated drier air.
Threshold
The tipping point in a feedback loop.
Transmission
The uninterrupted passage of shortwave and longwave energy through the atmosphere or water. -Direct radiation arrives at Earth's surface by tranmission
How do variable gases affect Earth's radiation budget?
Variable gases affect Earth's radiation budget because they absorb and/ or emit radiant energy coming from the sun. There's also an uneven distribution of these gases across Earth's surface. Certain variable gases are known as "greenhouse gases" because they absorb and emit radiant energy from the Sun and trap heat in the lower atmosphere
Without the Coriolis effect, the Westerlies would flow...
from the Equator to the Poles -no deflection from the Coriolis effect
Trade Winds
most consistent winds on Earth
Winds
one of the Earth's principal surface winds
1963 Clean Air Act
one of the first major environmental laws in the US and was expanded in 1970, 1977, and 1990; remarkable reductions, shows the successful link between science and public policy.
The largest average annual temperature ranges occur at _____ locations within the continental interiors of North America and Asia.
subpolar
1990 Clean Air Act
targeted industrial emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. -Addressing acid deposition requires international cooperation because wind and weather patterns carry pollution across borders.
During _____ in the Northern Hemisphere, isotherms shift toward the poles over land as higher temperatures dominate continental areas.
July -Thermal equator moves northward -more pronounced over large continents.
What are the primary means of heat redistribution near the equator?
Ocean currents
Driving forces in the atmosphere relation to isobars
Pressure Gradient force : high to low PGF + Coriolis = geostrophic winds: parallel Frictional force = angle; counters Coriolis force
Major Pollutants over Urban Areas
1) Carbon monoxide > vehicle emissions > toxic, causes headaches and vision loss. 2) Nitrogen oxides > Agriculture, fertilizers, vehicle emissions > inflames the respiratory system, destroys lung tissue; leads to acid deposition. 3) Volatile organic compounds > combustion of fossil fuels; cleaning and paint solvents > causes ground-level ozone formation. 4) Ground-level ozone > photochemical reactions related to vehicle emissions > highly reactive, unstable gas; irritates eyes and respiratory system; damages plants. 5) Peroxyacetyl nitrates > photochemical; reactions related to vehicle emissions > irritates eyes and respiratory system; major damage to plants, forests and crops. 6) Sulfur oxides > combustion of sulfur-containing fuels > irritating smell, causes asthma, bronchitis, emphysema; leads to acid deposition. 7) Particulate Matter/ Aerosols > vehicle and power-plant emissions; agriculture > mixture of dust, soot, salt, metals and organics; causes bronchitis and lung problems. 8) Carbon dioxide > combustion of fossil fuels > principle greenhouse gas
5 Causes of Seasonality
1) Earth's revolution around the sun: orbit around the sun, about 365.24 days to complete. 2) Earth's daily rotation on its axis:Earth is turning on its axis; takes about 24 hours to complete. 3) Earth's tilt on its axis (23.5 degrees) 4) The unchanging orientation of Earth's axis: Unchanging (fixed) axial alignment throughout the year. 5) Earth's sphericity: oblate spheroidal shape lit by Sun's parallel rays. These characteristics and cycles all work together to drive seasonality at different timescales (these factors are complicated, and there is a human factor as well).
Four Hemispheric Pressure Areas
1) Equatorial Low: cause- thermal; warm/wet 2) Subtropical high: cause- dynamic; hot/dry -Shift between seasons and are more dominant in the summer -Not very dynamic 3) Subpolar low: cause- dynamic; cool/wet -Dominant in the winter and weaken or disappear in the summer. 4) Polar high: cause-thermal; very cold/ very dry
Four Driving Forces within the Atmosphere
1) Gravitational force (counteracts outward centrifugal force) 2) Pressure Gradient Force 3) Coriolis Force 4) Friction Force
Overall Summary of Earth's Energy Balance
1) Insolation: Incoming solar radiation is the energy input for the climate system. Insolation varies with latitude, as well as on a daily and seasonal basis with changing day length and Sun angle. 2) Earth's Energy Balance: The imbalance created by energy surpluses at the equator and energy deficits at the poles causes the global circulation pattern of winds and ocean currents that drive weather systems. 3) Temperature: Primary temperature controls are latitude, elevation, cloud cover, and land-water heating differences. The pattern of world temperatures is affected by global winds, ocean currents and air masses. 4) Air Pressure: Winds flow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. The equatorial low creates a belt of wet climates. Subtropical highs create areas of dry climates. Pressure patterns influence atmospheric circulation and movement of air masses. Oceanic circulation and multilayer oscillations in pressure and temperature patterns over the oceans also affect weather and climate. 5) Air Masses: Vast bodies of homogeneous air form over oceanic and continental source regions, taking on the characteristics of their source region. As these air masses migrate, they carry their temperature and moisture conditions to new regions. 6) Atmospheric Moisture: The movement of water through the hydrologic cycle- including the processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation, and precipitation- affects weather and ultimately determines Earth's climates.
Local and Regional Winds
1) Land and Sea Breezes 2) Mountain and valley breezes 3) Santa Ana winds 4) Katabatic Winds
Other Principal Temperature Controls
1) Latitude 2) Altitude and Elevation 3) Cloud cover 4) Land-water heating differences
Five themes of geographic science
1) Place 2) Location 3) Movement 4) Human-Earth Relationships 5) Region
Average air pressure at sea level
760 mm hg 29.92 inches Hg 1013.2 mb (1 atm) 101.3 kPa 980-1050mb is the normal range of sea-level pressure
Average time is takes solar radiation to reach Earth
8 min 20 sec
The top of the atmosphere is about ____mi above the surface.
300 mi or 480 km
Six Basic Climate Categories
5 based mainly on temperature 1) Tropical (tropical latitudes) 2) Mesothermal (midlatitudes, mild winder) 3) Microthermal (mid and high latitudes, cold winders) 4) Polar (high latitudes and polar regions) 5) Highland (high elevations at all latitudes, highlands have lower temperatures) One based on moisture and temperature 6) Dry (permanent moisture deficits)
The Latent Heat of Evaporation
A cooling process because energy is removed from the environment during the phase change; the latent heat of evaporation is the dominant cooling process in Earth's energy budget.
Low pressure
A mass of rising (ascending) warm air that usually bring wet, stormy weather. Lifting parcel of air; convergence > instability. -COUNTER CLOCKWISE -Cyclone -Winds blow counterclockwise; -rising air (converging); -humid; -cloudy; precipitation; stormy; warmer air temps
High Pressure
A mass of sinking (descending) cool air that usually bring fair weather. Clear skies. - CLOCKWISE -Anticyclone -Winds blow clockwise; -sinking/ diverging air; -cold and dry air
Polar jet stream
At tropopause along the polar front; it meanders between 30 and 70 N
Earth's Four Spheres
Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere, Biosphere.
Air Quality Index
Based on 5 criteria pollutants: carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide , ground-level ozone and particulate matter. Runs from 1-500; higher values indicate greater air pollution and related health concerns. Any value over 300 is considered hazardous to human hea;th and will affect the entire population.
Wien's Displacement Law
Blackbody radiation curve for different temperatures will peak at different wavelengths that are inversely proportional to the temperature. Cooler temperature = less energy; moving slower. Hotter temperature = more energy; moving faster.
Stratospheric Ozone
Blocks harmful UVB radiation; uniquely positioned in the atmosphere to collect this radiation; UV energy converted to heat energy; can be broken down by CFCs.
Anthropogenic Pollution: transportation
Carbon monoxide Photochemical smog
Human and Physical Geography Intersections
Cartography, Spatial Analysis, Remote Sensing. GID, Natural Hazards, Climate Change.
Refraction
Changes the light's direction and speed as a result of a change of medium. -Apparent sunrise and sunset. -Refraction produces the distortion of the setting Sun: when the Sun in low in the sky, light must penetrate more air than when the Sun is high, thus light is refracted through air layers of different densities.
Troposphere
Closest to Earth's surface; structure based on temperature (decreases in temperature with height) -Holds 90% of atmospheric mass. -Tropopause varies depending on latitude, season, and day/night. -Near the equator, the tropopause is about 20 km (12 miles) above sea level. -In winder near the poles, the tropopause is about 7km (4 miles) high.
Solar Wind
Clouds of electrically charged particles that surge outward in all directions from the Sun's surface.
Cause of Wind
Differences in air pressure caused by differential heating of Earth's surface. High and low pressure areas are due to uneven heating of Earth's surface, higher pressure at the poles and less-dense, lower-pressure air at the equator.
Scattering
Direction of light's movement is changed without altering its wavelengths -It reaches the surface as diffuse radiation (some sort of interference). -Gas molecules scatter shorter wavelengths of light (blues and violets) so that the human eye sees a blue sky.
Katabatic winds
Drainage winds that are of larger regional scale and usually stronger than local winds -Usually happens in colder areas; cooling combined with a slope brings the winds down slope; wind getting heavier as it cools -Antarctica
Atmospheric Circulation
Driven by the imbalances between energy surpluses at the equator and energy deficits at the poles, Earth's atmospheric circulation transfers both energy and mass on a global scale, determining Earth's weather patterns and the flow of ocean currents. -Produced by differences in air pressure between locations > caused by differential heating of Earth's surface. -Spreads air pollutants
Perihelion
Earth is closest to the sun (Jan 3- Northern Hemisphere's winter) - 3 million mile difference; not an immediate reason for seasonal change.
Aphelion
Earth is farthest from the sun (July 4- Northern Hemisphere's summer)
Magnetosphere
Earth's magnetic field that surrounds Earth and extends beyond Earth's atmosphere, generated by dynamo-like motions within our planet. It reflects the solar wind toward both of Earth's poles so that only a portion of it enters the upper atmosphere; Protects Earth from incoming solar radiation.
Coriolis Force
Earth's rotation adds the Coriolis force, giving a "twist" to air movements so that high-pressure and low-pressure areas develop a rotary motion. Upper-level winds flowing between highs and lows flow parallel to isobars. -Makes wind traveling in a straight path appear to be deflected in relation to Earth's rotating surface (Coriolis effect because it's not a physical force) -Objects appear to curve to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and in the left in the Southern Hemisphere -Bc earth's speed of rotation varies with latitude (fastest at the equator), deflection is weakest at the equator and strongest at the poles. -No deflection at the equator.
Energy from the Sun travels through space in _______ waves.
Electromagentic
Latent Heat
Energy absorbed or released as water changes states (becomes really important in the ocean). "hidden heat" -the energy gained or lost when a substance changes from one state to another
Negative Feedback
Feedback information discourages change in the system; stabilizes.
Positive Feedbck
Feedback information encourages change in the system; destabilizes. Ex- Arctic Sea ice positive feedback loop
Water Phase Changes
Freezing and melting- phase change between solid and liquid. Condensation- water vapor in the air becomes liquid water (formation of clouds) Evaporation- liquid becomes water vapor; vaporization- when water is at boiling temperature. Deposition- when water vapor changes directly to a solid, as when it attaches to an ice crystal in the formation of frost. Sublimation- the process by which ice changes directly to water vapor; ex- the production of water-vapor clouds through the vaporization of dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide) when it is exposed to the air.
Radiant Energy
From the Sun
Greenhouse gases
Gases that absorb and emit radiation are known as greenhouse gases because they trap heat in the atmosphere. (Water vapor, CO2, methane, nitros oxide, CFCs) -In the lower atmosphere, gases that are mostly transparent to the passage of shortwave solar radiation but are effective at absorbing longwave infrared radiation emitted by Earth and the atmosphere are known as greenhouse gases
Air pressure decreases with height due to _______.
Gravity
How did the Solar System form?
Gravity, the mutual attraction force of mass, caused a cloud of gas and dust to collapse into our solar system.
Methane
Greenhouse gas Comes from bacterial activity and agriculture.
Industrial Smog
High concentrations of carbon dioxide, particulates and sulfur oxides. Coal-burning electric utilities and steel manufacturing are the main sources of sulfur dioxide.
Human Geography
History, Economics, Anthropology, Sociology, Political science
Advection
Horizontally dominant movement (weather/ wind).
Solar Constant
Insolation at the top of the atmosphere is expressed as the Solar Constant [1372 watts/m^2)
Where might insolation be the highest and why?
Insolation in the desert is higher because there is less water and therefore less evaporation and clouds that would diffuse direct solar radiation.
2 Specific Zones of the Atmosphere
Ionosphere and Ozonosphere -Together, they remove most of the harmful wavelengths of incoming solar radiation and charged particles.
The Latent Heat of Evaporation
Is the energy absorbed by water as it changes from liquid to gas, forming water vapor in the atmosphere. -On land, the highest annual values of LE occur in the tropics and decreases toward the poles. -Over the oceans, the highest LE values are over subtropical latitudes.
Typhoon Tip
Largest known tropical cyclone (1380 miles); lowest atmospheric pressure recorded on Earth.
Latent Heat and Phase Changes
Latent heat energy must be absorbed, or added, for phase changes from solid to liquid, and again for phase changes from liquid to gas. Energy is released, or removed, for phase changes in the opposite direction, gas to liquid to solid.
Stratosphere
Layer right above the troposphere -18-50km above Earth's surface Stratopause is at about 50km (0 C) -The Ozone Layer is in this layer. It absorbs harmful UVB radiation. -Temperature increases with altitude in the stratosphere because of the absorption of UV radiation by ozone molecules.
Humid air is _______ dense and exerts ______ pressure than dry air
Less Less
Earth is an ______ system in terms of energy but a _____ system in terms of physical matter and resources
Open Closed
System Feedback Loop
Outputs of a system influence the system's operation.
Arctic Sea Ice Melting
Plays a key role in Earth's climate system by helping keep the planet cool (albedo effect) Since 1979, half of the total volume of Arctic sea ice has disappeared. Arctic Ocean has opened to commercial ship traffic
Ridges and Troughs
Ridge over high pressure and trough over low pressure. The pattern of ridges and troughs in the upper-air wind flow is important in sustaining surface cyclonic (low pressure) and anticyclonic (high pressure) circulation. -Winds are slow and converge along a ridge. -They accelerate and diverge along through.
Closed System
Shut off from the surrounding environment; self-contained; rare in nature. Examples: coffee pot; Earth.
Importance of Seasonality
Solar declination affects daylength, which is always 12 hours at the equator can can vary from 0-24 hours at the poles. -Day length and insolation impact many of Earth's systems (biosphere) -Major implications for life on Earth
Particulates
Solids and liquid droplets that enter the air from natural and human resources [water, salt, pollen]. They are important for cloud formation and affect human health.
Two principal components of climate
Temperature and precipitation.
Does the Coriolis force have a greater effect on the westerlies or the trade winds?
The Coriolis force has a greater effect on the direction of westerlies than trade winds. This is because the speed of Earth's rotation varies with latitude, therefore affecting the strength of the deflection of the Coriolis force. The Coriolis force, as a result, it weakest at the equator, where the trade winds occur, and strengthens in the direction of the poles; the westerlies occur at a higher latitude so they are therefore more affected by the Coriolis force.
Thermal Equator
The line around Earth connecting all points of highest mean temperature (80 F or 27 C)
isotherms
The lines on temperature maps that connect points of equal temperature to portray the temperature pattern; useful in the spatial analysis of temperatures. -Isotherms generally trend east to west and are parallel to the equator, except where large landmasses cause the isotherms to bend. -This bending results from the differential heating of land and water.
Subsolar Point
The location where insolation is perpendicular to the surface; never falls outside of the Tropics.
Frequency
The number of waves passing a fixed point per unit time.
Solar Cycle
The periodic variation in the Sun's activity and appearance over time.
The ______ receive 2.5 times more energy than the _____ because they receive more concentrated insolation due to Earth's curvature.
Tropics Poles
Lapse Rate
The rate of temperature decrease with increasing altitude.
Albedo
The ratio of reflected solar radiation to incoming solar radiation (percentage or 0-1). Plays a big role in Earth's energy balance. Implication > Urban heat island: concrete/ asphalt reflects only about 5-10% of radiation. Snow and ice covered surfaces reflect about 60%-95% of the solar radiation received.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
The spectrum of all possible wavelengths. -Only a small portion of the spectrum is visible to us. -Most of the energy emitted from the Sun is in the visible and shortwave infrared wavelengths. -Earth emits thermal infrared radiation; longer wavelengths.
Differential heating across Earth's surface causes ____.
Wind
Zonal Flow
Winds moving generally east to west along parallels of latitude due to the rotation of Earth.
The Montreal Protocol 1987
an international agreement that halted further sales growth of products with CFCs. "Perhaps the most successful international agreement to date" 1) Unprecedented level of cooperation and commitment of the international community 2) Wrote the protocol in a way to be flexible so that it could be amended as the science become more understood 3) The agreement not only blinds countries, but it contains financial provisions to assist in phase-outs and the possibility of trade sanctions. 4) It also provided a stable framework that allowed industry to plan long-term research an innovation > it was convenient for companies.
What is Geography?
"Geography is the science that studies the relationships among natural systems, geographic areas, human culture and the interdependence of all of these, over space." "The unifying method of geography is spatial analysis, the view of phenomena as occurring across space."
Global Level Atmospheric Circulation
"The warmer, less-dense air along the equator rises, creating low pressure at the surface and the colder, more dense air at the poles sinks, creating high pressure at the surface. If Earth did not rotate, the result would be a simple wind flow from the poles to the equator."
Theory
"general principle supported by data or analytics." Different from values in that we should, eventually, be able to support or disprove it.
Nitros oxide
"laughing gas" Comes from soil bacteria and human activity.
Physical Geography
"studies environments across and within landscapes, including processes in the atmosphere, at Earth's surface and within living ecosystems." Ex: Biology, Astronomy, Geology, Pedology, Meteorology
Global Net Radiation
(Incoming shortwave radiation - outgoing longwave radiation)
Average distance from the Earth to the Sun
About 150 million km Earth's distance from the Sun is not constant; Earth's orbit around the sun is elliptical (plane of the ecliptic).
The Human Denominator
-"The human influence on Earth is now pervasive" -Earth systems and the human population impact each other. -Earth's population: 7 billion in 2011, may reach 8 billion by 2024 and 9 billion by the 2040s. --"Virtually all new population growth is in the less-developed countries, which now possesses 80% of the total population." -Populations in more-developed countries are no longer significantly increasing, but people in these countries have greater impact on the planet per person.
Ozone hole over Antarctica
-Although many CFCs are produced in the Northern Hemisphere, the ozone hole forms over the South Pole because chlorine freed in the Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes concentrates over Antarctica through the work of stratospheric winds. -Persistent cold temperatures during the winter create a region of air- the south polar vortex- contained by these winds that remains in place for several months. -Chemicals and water in the stratosphere freeze out to form thin, icy clouds; ice particle surfaces allow the chemicals to react, releasing chlorine. -The UV light arriving in September sets off the reaction with that depletes ozone and forms the hole.
Mountain and valley breezes
-As valley slopes heat up, rising air creates low pressure so that a breeze blows upslope. -Reverses at night; valley slopes cool and denser air sinks.
Ocean Currents and Sea Surface Temperatures
-Can bring warm or cold water to a region -Currents on the Eastern side of a land mass - warmer water; currents on the Western side of a land mass generally bring cooler water. -Moderation of summer air temperatures on land when cool ocean currents arrive from higher latitudes to lower latitudes. -Ex- Humboldt current in Chile from Antarctica -Travel of warm water can be a major implication for the formation of hurricanes (water must be 80 F) -Moderation of winter air temperatures when warm currents arrive from lower latitudes to higher latitudes. Ex- the Gulf Stream which brings warm water up from the equator
Implications and Impacts of the Coriolis Force
-Deflection occurs regardless of the direction in which the object is moving and does not change the speed of the moving object -Deflection increases as the speed of the moving object increases (greater wind speed = greater apparent deflection) -In the upper troposphere, the Coriolis force just balances the Pressure Gradient force, so winds flow parallel to isobars.
Friction Force
-Drags on wind as it moves across Earth's surface. -Decreases with height above the surface -At the surface, it is dependent on surface texture, wind speed, time of day and year, and atmospheric conditions. -Counters the Coriolis force so that surface winds cross isobars at an angle --Surface friction reduces the Coriolis force because it decreases wind speed. --Reduces the Coriolis force because it reduces wind speed. -Does not affect upper-level winds (only up to about 500m) -Surface winds cross isobars at an angle.
Santa Ana Winds
-Driven by atmospheric pressure gradient --In winter, high pressure over cold Great Basin desert --Low pressure over southern CA coastal areas -These winds mostly happen from September - March -September marks the end of smog season in LA Basin because the Santa Ana winds pick up. -If there are fires in the region, these winds can intensify them.
Atmospheric Pollutants and Arctic Ice
-Increased losses of ice > more commercial ship traffic -Ship stack emissions and other particles from Northern Hemisphere emissions ultimately fall on Arctic ice, darken the color, decrease albedo and accelerate melting. -If winter ice declines and summer ice disappears, some species will be unable to adapt.
Subtropical jet stream
-Meanders between 20 and 50 latitude -Can occur over North America simultaneously with polar jet stream.
Rossby Waves
-Occur along the polar front -Bring cold air southward and warmer tropical air northward -Produce upper-air ridges and troughs of light and low air pressure. -Develops along the flow axis of the jet stream. -Implications: "Polar Vortex"
Altitude and Elevation
-Troposphere: temperatures decrease with increasing altitude above Earth's surface at a rate of about 6.4C / 1000 m -Density of atmosphere decreases with altitude -Results in less sensible heat at higher elevations. -Altitude: the height above the Earth's surface. -Elevation: height of a point on the surface above a plane or reference (usually sea level). If two cities are at similar latitude and have very different temperatures, it could be because of differences in elevation Ex- La Paz (high elevation) and Concepcion (low elevation) in Bolivia
Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols
-Two of the biggest sources of uncertainty in terms of predicting future climate. -The presence or absence of clouds can make up to 75% difference in the amount of energy that reaches earth's surface -Low, thick clouds block light, cooling the surface. -High-altitude, ice crystal clouds allow light to penetrate to the surface and then trap the heat and warm the surface. -Aerosols in the atmosphere block light and have a slight cooling effect.
Land and sea breezes
-Water has a greater specific heat than land, which drives these breezes. -Lower temp and higher pressure over water -Higher temperature and lower pressure over land -Air moves from high to low (pressure gradient force) Reverses at night
Wind Measurements
-Wind refers to the horizontal motion of air. -The two main properties of wind are speed and direction. -Winds are named for the direction they come from.
ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone)
-warm and rainy (all these winds come together); near the equator -Does shift over time
Homosphere
0 - 80 km Uniformly mixed gases, except for ozone (Troposphere > Mesopause)
Natural Factors Affecting Pollution
1) Winds: wind makes the atmosphere's condition an international issue 2) Local and regional landscapes: mountains and hills can form barriers to air movement or can direct the movement of pollutants from one area to another. 3) Volcanic activity: places with volcanoes (Hawaii and Iceland) have their own natural pollutants; acid deposition and smog as a result of sulfur dioxide and particulate matter in the atmosphere. 4) Temperature inversions: Vertical differences in temp and atmospheric density in the troposphere can worsen pollution; occurs when the normal temperature decreases with altitude- lapse rate- reverses trend and begins to increase. -When an inversion occurs, a warmer air layer lies above the colder (more dense) air below, halting the vertical mixing of pollutants with other atmospheric gases. Traps pollutants under the inversion layer.
Mesosphere
50-80km Mesopause: 80km (-90 C) Temperature decreases with altitude
Thermosphere
80-85km to ~640 km Temperature increases with altitude because of direct contact with high energy solar radiation. -High temperature, but not "hot" because the density of molecules is so low that little heat is produced.
Density of a Parcel
A measure of the spacing between molecules (wider spacing means lower density and more buoyancy, tight spacing means higher density and less buoyancy.) The density depends on its temperature- warm air has lower density than cold air and thus more buoyancy. -A parcel that is cooler than the surrounding atmosphere will sink with gravity. -The density of an air parcel depends on its moisture content: moist air has air lower density than dry air.
Parcel
A pocket of air that has specific temperature and humidity characteristics; it retains its general shape and character as it rises or falls in the atmosphere.
Polar Vortex
A semipermanent air of low pressure in the upper atmosphere at Earth's two poles. The polar vortex has a cyclonic flow aloft, and anticyclonic flow at the surface, usually strongest in the winter.
The Latent Heat of Condensation
A warming process because energy is added to the environment; in the tropics, where water vapor is abundant, the warming of condensation can result in towering storm clouds.
Saturation vapor pressure
Air that is saturated (carrying the maximum possible amount of water vapor for the current temperature). As temperature increases, saturation vapor pressure increases. -Applying this relationship to Earth systems, we see that in the warm, humid equatorial regions, warm air has a high capacity for water vapor.
Cloud-Albedo Forcing
An increase in albedo (the reflectivity of a surface) caused by clouds due to their reflection of incoming insolation.
Isobars
An isoline [a line that connects points of constant value] plotted on a weather map to connect points of equal pressure. The spacing of isobars indicates the pressure gradient. A gradual pressure gradient causes light wind, whole a steep pressure gradient causes strong winds. Wider spacing = lower wind speed Tightly spaced = faster wind speed
Greenhouse Gas-Forcing
Clouds trapping counter radiation beneath them causing warming.
Movement
Communication, migration, and diffusion across Earth's surface represent movement in our interdependent world. ex: I moved from Cincinnati Ohio 7 years ago.
Relative Humidity
Compares the actual water vapor content to the maximum possible amount of water vapor content in a body of air. -Relative humidity increases with a decrease in temperature (inverse relationship) -Relative humidity is highest at dawn, when air temperature is lowest and lowest in the late afternoon when the temperatures are higher. -The actual water vapor present may stay the same throughout the day, but the relative humidity changes because the temperature varies from morning to afternoon.
Do constant gases affect Earth's radiation budget?
Constant gases such as nitrogen, oxygen and argon, which have remained relatively the same throughout recent history, do not trap heat (and therefore re-emit) in the atmosphere and therefore do not affect Earth's radiation balance.
If two places are at very similar latitudes but have very different temperature averages and ranges, what could explain this?
Continentality Differences in elevation
Continentality
Continentality is the regulating effect that oceans have on land temperatures, which varies with proximity to the ocean. Northern Hemisphere temperatures are more strongly dominated by continentality than are Southern Hemisphere temperatures because the Northern Hemisphere has a greater and larger land area overall, which registers a slightly higher average surface temperature. "A measure of how the climate of a place is affected by its remoteness from the oceans and oceanic air. The difference between the average temperatures prevailing in January and July is most often quoted as an indicator of this." Ex- San Francisco and Wichita, Kansas Very similar latitudes, but very different ranges in seasonality/ temperature ranges. (Exam Question)
Heat Index
Correlates heat and humidity
Planetesimal Hypothesis
Dust-cloud thesis; explains how suns condense from nebular clouds: the force of gravity pulls together small grains of cosmic dust and other solids to form planetesimals that may grow to become protoplanets and eventually planets, all orbiting the developing solar system's central mass.
Convection
Energy transferred by vertical movement (ovens or microwaves)
Radiation
Energy traveling through air or space. Examples: The sun: UV Rays, Visible light, etc.; heating from fire; body heat
Evaporation, Transparency, Specific Heat, and Movement
Evaporation: higher over the surface of water; dissipates a significant amount of energy arriving at the ocean's surface -Absorbs heat energy in the process and cools immediate environment. Transparency: affects the transmission of solar radiation -Absorption by land versus penetration of water -Results in distribution of available heat energy over a much greater depth and volume. Forms a larger reservoir of energy storage than what happens on land. Specific Heat -Water has a higher specific heat than soil or rock; water heats or cools more slowly. -Energy needed to increase water temperature is greater than that for land temperature (specific heat is 4X that of soil) Movement -Movement of water currents results in mixing cooler and warmer waters, which spreads energy over a greater volume.
Layers of the Atmosphere (top to bottom)
Exosphere Thermosphere (Ionosphere) Mesosphere Stratosphere Troposphere
The _______ extends from about 480km to 32,000km (20,000mi).
Exosphere.
Water Vapor
Greenhouse gas Comes from evaporation, photosynthesis, volcanic eruptions.
Carbon Dioxide
Greenhouse gas Comes from fossil fuel combustion, volcanic eruptions, plant respiration. -Concentration of CO2 changes seasonally as plants grow and die as a result of plant respiration; the vast majority of landmass is in the Northern Hemisphere, causing yearly peaks and troughs in CO2 concentration globally (Keelings Curve).
Ozone
Greenhouse gas when in the troposphere. Comes from UV radiation and fossil fuel combustion.
Temporal Scale
Habitat lifespan relative to the generation time of the organism.
3 factors that affect our sense of comfort
Humidity (the amount of water vapor in the air), wind speed, and air temperature
Fusion
Hydrogen nuclei form helium, the second-lightest element in nature, and enormous quantities of energy are liberated: The Sun's abundant hydrogen atoms are forced together and pairs of hydrogen nuclei are formed in the process of Fusion. -Disappearing solar mass becomes energy.
Location
Identifies a specific address or absolute or relative position on Earth. Ex: Lochmere Drive in Cary NC; close to stores, schools, health care facilities, etc.
Ice-Albedo Feedback
If Earth's climate cools, more ice forms, causing more reflected sunlight, causing cooler temperatures, allowing more ice to form, and so on. If Earth's climate warms, ice-covered areas decrease, reflection decreases, darker water receives direct sunlight and absorbs more heat, temperatures warm, more ice melts and so on.
Anthropogenic Pollution: industrial
Industrial smog Sulfur oxides Particulates
Open System
Inputs of energy or matter and outputs of energy or matter are occurring. Example: forests
_______ is the single most important influence on temperature variations.
Insolation The uneven distribution of insolation across Earth's surface.
In ______ in the Northern Hemisphere, isotherms shift toward the equator as cold air chills the continental interiors.
January -Thermal equator movement southward; more pronounced over large continents.
Warm air is ______ dense and exerts ______ pressure than cooler air.
Less Less
Continental
Less evaporation, surface is opaque, land has a lower specific heat, land has no mixing between layers.
Moist air is _______ because the molecular weight of water is less than that of the molecules making up dry air (Nitrogen, Oxygen, CO2)
Lighter
Latitude
Low Latitude -High average temperatures and generally a low temperature range. Mid-to-high Latitude -Low average temperatures and higher temperature range Seasonality. -The seasonal effect of latitude on temperature is driven by variations in sun angle an daylength.
Ionosphere
Lower part of the thermosphere 50km upward Absorbs cosmic rays, gamma rays, x-rays and some UV rays. Very important in making Earth habitable.
Pressure Gradient Force
Main cause of wind on Earth!! -Drives air from areas of higher pressure (denser) to lower pressure (less-dense), causing wind. PGF is perpendicular to the isobar (without the Coriolis Force)
Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)
Massive outbursts of charged materials. -CMEs aimed toward Earth cause auroras through the interaction of solar wind with upper layers of Earth's atmosphere. -Aurora australis (southern auroras) -Takes CMEs 4 days to reach Earth since it is mass instead of light.
Conduction
Molecule-to-molecule transfer (matter). Examples: rain on a hot sidewalk being evaporated; chicken sitting on an egg; snake laying on hot rock; hot spring/ geysers; animals cuddling when it's cold outside.
Water
More evaporation, surface is transparent, water has a higher specific heat, water has mobility and mixes in vast ocean currents -The transparency of water results in the distribution of available heat energy over a much greater depth and volume, forming a larger reservoir of energy storage than that which occurs on land.
Kinetic Energy
Motion
Constant Gases
Nitrogen (78%) Oxygen (21%) Argon Neon Helium Krypton Xenon
Unique Properties of Water
Pure water is colorless, odorless and tasteless Pure water rarely occurs in nature because it is a universal solvent Liquid water density is 1g/cm^3 Only substance that occurs as a solid, liquid and gas on Earth Makes up about 60% of the human body Strong covalent bond leads to stability Exhibits cohesion and adhesion High specific heat- a lot of energy required for phase changes Less dense in solid form; expands as it freezes Capillary Action (he upward movement of water against gravity, occurs because water molecules stick together (forming drops or beads) and stick to the molecules of other substances)
Where is the linear velocity of rotation the greatest?
Quito, Ecuador > it is almost exactly on the equator. -Speed of rotation is highest at the equator and decreases as you reach the poles; the equator has the most circumference/ distance to cover within one day.
Types of Heat Transfer
Radiation, Conduction, Convection, Advection, Latent Heat
Land-water Heating Differences
Refers to the difference in the ways land and water surfaces respond to insolation (they absorb and store energy differently) because of their different specific heats. -Water has a higher specific heat than soil or rock (4X that of soil); water heats or cools more slowly. -Relates to evaporation, transparency, specific heat, and movement- ocean currents and SSTs are mentioned because of their effects on temperature in coastal locations
Atmospheric stability
Refers to the tendency of the atmosphere to either encourage or discourage vertical air motion. --Stable air tends to resist movement; unstable air tends to rise.
Cloud Cover
Reflect and absorb radiation Effects very with cloud type, height, and density. -At night, clouds act as an insulating layer that reradiates long wave energy back to Earth and prevents rapid energy loss to space -During the day, they reflect insolation and lower daily maximum temperatures (shading and higher albedo). -These moderating effects mean that cloud cover also acts to reduce seasonal temperature differences. -At any given moment, approximately 50% of Earth is covered by clouds (estimates up to 67%)
Insolation
Solar radiation that reaches Earth. -Highest Peak of Insolation: The South Pole in December. -Because the Earth is closer to the Sun (perihelion) and the South Pole is receiving ~24 hours of daylight. -generally decreases toward the poles - greater insolation at the surface occurs in low-latitude deserts worldwide because of frequently cloudless skies.
Solstices
Specific points in time at which the Sun's declination is at its position farthest north (Tropic of Cancer) or south (Tropic of Capricorn).
Potential Energy
Stored
Chemical Energy
Stored in molecular bonds and converted during chemical reactions
Sunspots
Surface disturbances caused by magnetic storms; not directly responsible for climate change. Causes Solar Variability; The Sun also has a cycle that can create temporary changes in Earth's climate.
Cyclones
Surface winds that spiral into a low-pressure area in a counterclockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and are associated with storms and unstable weather conditions.
Anticyclones
Surface winds that spiral out from a high-pressure area in a clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and are associated with calm, fine weather.
Facts about our Universe
The Universe consists of at least 125 billion galaxies. The Milky Way is just one. The Milky Way contains over 300 billion stars. The Milky Way Galaxy is about 100,000 light years from one side to the other.
Earth Systems Science
The area of study that seeks to understand Earth as an interacting set of physical, chemical and biological systems.
Absorption
The assimilation of radiation by molecules of matter and its conversion from one form of energy to another. -CO2 and Water Vapor absorb solar radiation and longwave radiation.
Wavelength
The distance between corresponding points on two successive waves.
Spatial Scale
The distance between habitat patches relative to the dispersal distance of the organism.
Earth's Energy Balance
The equilibrium between shortwave solar radiation to Earth and shortwave and longwave radiation to space. -energy budget is not the same on every location on Earth because solar energy is not evenly distributed -For Earth, energy income is insolation and energy expenditure is radiation to space, with an overall balance maintained between the two.
Atmospheric Pressure
The force per unit area exerted against a surface by the weight of air above that surface. -Air pressure decreases with increasing altitude (decreasing density)
Relationship between temperature and wavelength
The hotter the object, the shorter the wavelengths emitted.
Place
The human and physical characteristics of a location. Ex: Cary NC- suburban, nature.
Why is the temperature range over Siberia so extreme?
The intense cold results from winder conditions of consistently clear, dry, calm air; small isolation input; and an island location far from moderating maritime effects from the Pacific Ocean to the east. The temperature of the water close to the Arctic might also have an effect on this.
Geoid
The irregular shape of Earth's surface; oblate ellipsoid with the oblateness occurring around the poles.
Reflection
The portion of radiation that bounces directly back into space without being absorbed or performing any work. -clouds reflect about 20% of insolation over the course of a year; far more than is reflected by Earth's surface.
Exosphere
The uppermost region of Earth's atmosphere as it gradually fades into the vacuum of space. It is extremely thin
UHI Driving Factors
Thermal properties of urban surfaces: metal, glass, asphalt, concrete, brick (causes higher net radiation) Reflective properties of urban surfaces (causes lower albedo; urban surfaces absorb and retain heat) Urban canyon effect (lower wind speeds) Anthropogenic heating Urban dust dome (More pollutants; more cloudiness, including fog; more precipitation; more thunderstorms; less snowfall) Urban dessert effect: less plant cover and more sealed surfaces.
Energy from the Sun first interacts with the ________.
Thermopause (top layer of the atmosphere)
Region
Uniform physical or human characteristics that define a space; more broad than a 'place'. Ex: Piedmont Area- 2 hours from the beach and the mountains. Very seasonal weather. Southeastern U.S.
Upper Atmosphere Circulation
Upper-atmosphere pressure maps are plotted using fixed pressure values- most commonly 500mb -More dense air < 500 mb. -Plot the elevation of this surface above sea level -How high above sea level do you have to go to reach a pressure of 500 mb? -Called a constant isobaric surface. -Ridge over high pressure and trough over low pressure. -Cold locations = higher pressure, more dense. -Hot locations = lower pressure, less dense.
Human-Earth Relationships
Use of resources, agriculture, human-animal interaction (research, recreation, etc.) Ex: I spend a lot of time in nature at home.
Seasonality
Variations in the Sun's position above the horizon and changing day length during the year. -Related to annual migration of latitude of the subsolar point (called solar declination) across the tropics. -Can also be thought of as "the presence of variations that occur at specific regular intervals less than a year, such as weekly, monthly or quarterly".
Sources of Natural Pollutants
Volcanoes > sulfur oxides; particulates Forest fires > carbon monoxide and dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulates Plants > hydrocarbons, pollens Decaying plants > methane, hydrogen sulfides Soil > dust and viruses Ocean > Salt spray and particulates
Variable Gases
Water vapor (most abundant) Carbon Dioxide Methane Nitros Oxide Ozone
Heat
a form of energy that transfers between molecules and thus between bodies or substances. It is the flow of kinetic energy between molecules or from one body of substance to another resulting from a temperature difference between them; measured in joules (J) or calories.
Jet Stream
a high-speed high-altitude airstream blowing from west to east near the top of the troposphere. Most prominent movement in upper-level (higher altitude) westerly (west to east) geostrophic wind (parallel to isobars; Pressure gradient + Coriolis) flows. Core speeds can exceed 190 mph. Tends to weaken during the summer and strengthen during the winter. Patterns of ridges and troughs causes variation in speed
Temperature
a measure of the average kinetic energy of individual molecules in matter; the average speed of molecular movement.
Acid rain
a mixture of wet and dry deposition from the atmosphere containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acid; anything below a 7 pH is acidic Its effects: Surface waters and aquatic animals Forests Automotive coatings Building materials Soil composition Visibility Human Health
Ground-Level Ozone
a reactive gas that damages biological tissues and has a variety of detrimental human health effects, including lung irritation, asthma and susceptibility to respiratory illness; acts as a green-house gas and warms up the atmosphere; it is a pollutant. NOx + VOC + Sunlight and Heat = Ozone.
Sensible heat
can be "sensed" by humans as temperature because it comes from the kinetic energy of molecular motion. -transferred back and forth between air and surface through convection and conduction within materials. Highest in the subtropics.
UVB Radiation
can cause sunburn, skin cancer, eye damage and weakening of the immune system; intensity varies with latitude, season, time of day and the condition of the ozone layer.
Ozonosphere
contains high concentrations of ozone relative to other layers. As ozone absorbs the shorter wavelengths of UV radiation, UV energy is converted to heat energy. An ozone hole is appearing. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are molecules containing chlorine, fluorine and carbon that breakdown the ozone molecules. CFCs have a long resistance time.
Streamlines
continuous, arrows indicate wind direction
As elevation/altitude increases, air density and air pressure _________.
decrease (Air pressure at the summit of Mt Everest is about 30% of what it is at sea level)
Wind vectors
disconnected arrows that show the direction and speed of the wind (based on the length)
As air temperature increases, the capacity for water vapor ______, with the rate of increase more pronounced at higher temperatures.
increases
UVA Radiation
less intense than UVB, but it penetrates human skin more deeply, causing significant damage in the outer layer of skin, where most skin cancers occur; levels are fairly constant throughout the year during the daylight hours.
Photochemical Smog
major component of anthropogenic air pollution; it is a mixture of pollutants that results from the interaction of sunlight and the combustion products in automobile exhaust, primarily nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as hydrocarbons that evaporate from gasoline.
Wind Vane and Anemometer
measure the direction and speed of wind.
Barometer
measures air pressure
Geostrophic winds flow _____ in relation to isobars
parallel
Ways to mitigate UHIs:
planting vegetation in parks and open surfaces (urban forests); "green" roofs ("living roofs"); "cool" roofs (high-albedo roofs); "cool" pavements (lighter-colored materials such as concrete or lighter surface coatings for asphalt)
Solar Energy
radiant light and heat energy from the Sun; generated by the process of fusion. [The Sun accounts for 99.9% of the mass in our solar system]
Why are wind vans and weather data collection stations frequency installed at airports?
reduce the effects of local topography on the measurements and to standardize the measurement of wind direction weather conditions are important to pilots to be aware of
Earth's Inputs
shortwave radiation (UV light, visible light and near-infrared wavelengths)
Earth's outputs
shortwave radiation (the light reflected before reaching Earth's surface) and longwave radiation (thermal infrared wavelengths)
A parcel is ______ if it resists displacement upward or when disturbed, tends to return to its starting place.
stable
What is the dominant medium for redistributing heat from about 35 N and S latitude of the poles?
the atmosphere
Light Year
the distance that light travels in one year; The speed of light is 300,000 km/s. -Distance of a light year in km is about: 9.46 trillion km.
Specific Humidity
the mass of water vapor (in grams) per mass of air (kilograms) Bc specific humidity is measured in mass, it changes only if the amount of water vapor changes, not with changes in temperature or as air expands and contracts with changes in pressure.
Ionosphere
the outer functional layer extends throughout the thermosphere and into the mesosphere. It absorbs cosmic rays, gamma rays, X-rays and shorter wavelengths of ultraviolet radiation, changing atoms to positively charged ions and giving the ionosphere its name. Gases bend and weaken radio waves in this zone.
Vapor Pressure
the share of air pressure that is made up of water-vapor molecules at a given temperature (millibars, mb). -It increases with the concentration of water-vapor molecules present (the greater mass of molecules exerts more pressure) and the temperature of the air (the higher temperature means that molecules move more rapidly and exert more pressure)
Spatial Analysis
the study of phenomena across space, areas and locations; the unifying method of geography.
Greenhouse Analogy
the trapping of the sun's warmth in a planet's lower atmosphere, due to the greater transparency of the atmosphere to visible radiation from the sun than to infrared radiation emitted from the planet's surface. - certain variable gases in the homosphere cause counter radiation that warms up the lower atmosphere. Simple terms: 1) Atmosphere absorbs heat energy 2) A real greenhouse traps heat inside 3) The atmosphere delays the transfer of heat from Earth into space. 4) Greenhouse gas molecules absorb outgoing heat, delaying its eventual loss to space and radiate this heat toward Earth, warming the surface and lower atmosphere.
An air parcel is ________ if it continues to rise until it reaches an altitude where the surrounding air has a density and temperature similar to its own.
unstable
Urban Heat Island
urban microclimates can be up to 6 C (10 F) hotter than surrounding suburban and rural areas; black asphalt and concrete absorb a lot of UV radiation and reemit it as heat; contributing factors- asphalt, glass, building geometry, pollution and human activities such as industry and transportation. -UHI effects tend to be highest in cities with dense populations and slightly lower in cities with more urban sprawl.
CFCs
used as propellants in aerosol sprays, foam for insulation fire suppression, solvents in the electronics industry, and refrigerants. -They slowly migrate to the stratosphere where intense UV radiation splits them, freeing chlorine atoms. -This process produces a set of reactions that breaks up ozone molecules and leaves oxygen gas molecules in their place. -Because chlorine atoms have a residence time of 40-100 years in the ozone layer. A single chlorine atom can decompose more than 100,000 ozone molecules. This long residence time also means that the chlorine already in place is likely to have long-term consequences.
Wind barbs
used on weather maps to indicate the wind speed and wind direction at a specific location. The configuration of barb or flag shows wind speed. 1 knot - 1.15 mph
Meridional Flow
winds are moving north or south along meridians of longitude
