Exam 2

primary reinforces

"natural" reinforces (food, water, warmth) that don't need to be learned

what are the six universal emotions?

1. happiness 2. sadness 3. surprise 4. fear 5. disgust 6. anger

Why is punishment sometimes ineffective?

Punishment is intermittent

How does viewing emotions as discrete differ form viewing them as continuous?

Viewing emotions as discrete is having individual emotional states (sadness, fear, anger). Emotion as continuous is having two planes with arousal and pleasure levels.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

a description of the relationships among task complexity, arousal, and performance

Several months ago, Ambreena suffered moderate brain damage following the surgical removal of a brain tumor. Her husband is perplexed by the fact that she struggles to smile when they are together sharing a happy moment, but when looking at a recent family photograph, he notices a big grin on her face. This indicates that Ambreena suffered damage involving a. cortical input. b. activation of the amygdala. c. subcortical input. d. lateralization of the somatosensory cortex.

a. cortical input.

empathy

ability to recognize emotions of others

encoding

acquiring information and transferring to memory

Mrs. Collora teaches social studies to junior high school students. Two boys in her class often loudly make jokes about the material being discussed. She has tried several techniques without success: (1) ignoring them; (2) encouraging and rewarding them for contributing to the class discussion; (3) removing their opportunities to participate in field trips; and (4) requiring them each to write an essay on proper behavior. In the order presented, list the operant conditioning principles she has applied to the situation. a. Negative punishment, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, extinction b. Extinction, positive reinforcement, negative punishment, positive punishment c. Positive punishment, positive reinforcement, extinction, negative punishment d. Extinction, positive reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment

b. Extinction, positive reinforcement, negative punishment, positive punishment

Michael has a flashbulb memory of when his mother told him the terrible news that his father had died in an automobile accident. What is most likely to be true about this memory? a. This memory will not fade over time. b. This memory is comparable in accuracy to less emotional memories at the same time. c. Retrieval of this memory will be more accurate than of everyday events around the same time. d. He will likely lack confidence in the accuracy of this memory.

c. Retrieval of this memory will be more accurate than of everyday events around the same time.

emotional empathy

capacity to respond with an appropriate emotion to another's mental states

storage

retention of memory

conditioned stimulus

stimulus that is initially neutral and produces no reliable response in an organism

what are the levels of processing?

structural (looks like): shallow phonemic (sounds like): intermediate semantic (meaning): deep

spontaneous recovery

tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

observational/social learning

the ability to learn by watching others

hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

How do neurons respond to sensitization and habituation?

Neurons respond to sensitization by growing and to habituation by decaying

What are some brain and memory changes that occur in people with Alzheimer's disease?

People with Alzheimer's disease have low levels of acetylcholine, changes in tau protein, and have trouble forming new memories

What is the facial feedback hypothesis? What types of experimental evidence support this hypothesis?

The facial feedback hypothesis is the idea that facial movement affects emotional experience. The experiment with pen positions in the lips and teeth support this along with botox studies.

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Which areas of cortex activate when people are using semantic memory? How do these areas differ according to the type of task people are asked to do?

When people are using semantic memory, the occipital lobe and motor cortex are activated. The occipital lobe was used when people had to name animals while the motor cortex was used when people were naming tools

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake (internal)

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment (external)

inhibition

a feature of classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) predicts the nonoccurrence of an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

discrimination

a learned ability to distinguish between stimuli

SAME

a model of emotion in which a range of physical sensations from precise to general requires varying degrees of cognitive processing prior to subjective feelings (a type of appraisal theory)

define classical conditioning

a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

basal ganglia

a set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements

habituation

a simple form of learning in which reactions to repeated stimuli that are unchanging and harmless decrease

second-order conditioning

a stimulus that was previously neutral is paired with a conditioned stimulus to produce the same conditioned response as the conditioned stimulus

What is the Cannon-Bard theory?

a theory of emotion as a reservoir that fills up and spills over; it predicts that expressing an emotion ill reduce arousal

What is the James-Lange theory?

a theory of emotion that proposes the physical sensations lead to subjective feelings

What is the Schacter-Singer Two Factor Theory?

a theory of emotions in which general arousal leads to assessment, which in turns leads to subjective feelings

Which scenario supports the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion? a. Aaron relaxes in his hammock. Suddenly, he feels an earthquake, causing him to feel afraid; at the same time, his heart beats rapidly and his palms sweat. b. Tony approaches his friend Juanita, who is walking her dog. As the dog begins to bark, Tony's heart races; he thinks about why this is the case and realizes he has a crush on Juanita. c. Bethany feels depressed about her recent breakup with her boyfriend. She slumps down on her couch and cries for an hour straight, and then she begins to feel better. d. Micah wakes up feeling glum. He forces himself to smile from ear-to-ear and laugh out loud, and then she begins to feel happy.

a. Aaron relaxes in his hammock. Suddenly, he feels an earthquake, causing him to feel afraid; at the same time, his heart beats rapidly and his palms sweat.

What is a key distinction between classical conditioning and operant conditioning? a. Classical conditioning makes associations between two stimuli; operant conditioning associates a behavior with its consequence. b. Operant conditioning makes associations between two stimuli; classical conditioning associates a behavior with its consequence. c. In contrast to classical conditioning, operant conditioning leads to a relatively permanent behavioral change. d. In contrast to operant conditioning, classical conditioning leads to a relatively permanent behavioral change.

a. Classical conditioning makes associations between two stimuli; operant conditioning associates a behavior with its consequence.

Which of the following methods of behavior modification adheres to the Premack Principle? a. Knowing his daughter loves to ride her bike, Miguel states: "You can ride your bike as soon as you clean your room." b. Knowing his daughter loves to ride her bike, Miguel states: "You didn't clean your room today, so no bike riding for you this weekend." c. Donna comes home to find that her dog has chewed her expensive new shoes and yells: "Bad dog." d. Donna makes a loud noise each time her dog approaches her shoes; causing him to veer away.

a. Knowing his daughter loves to ride her bike, Miguel states: "You can ride your bike as soon as you clean your room."

what two structures are involved with the link between memory and emotion?

amygdala and hippocampus

aversion therapy

an application of counterconditioning in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) formerly paired with a pleasurable unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is instead paired with an unpleasant UCS

token economy

an application of operant conditioning in which tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers are used to increase the frequency of desirable behaviors

conditioned emotional response

an emotionally charged conditioned response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus

conditioned emotional response (CER) and example

an emotionally charged conditioned response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus i.e.: child gets bitten by cat -> cats now induce fear

instincts

an inborn pattern of behavior elicited by environmental stimuli; also known as a fixed action pattern

long-term potentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

sensitization

an increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus

achievement motivation

an individual's need to meet realistic goals, receive feedback, and experience a sense of accomplishment

reflexes

an inevitable, involuntary response to stimuli

free shaping

animal freely offers behavior without assistance (no luring or placing)

Ashley is studying a list of vocabulary words for her psychology exam. Which of the following would be most effective for recalling definitions during the exam? a. Cues provided by the textbook b. Cues based on her own experiences c. Cues suggested by her study partner d. Cues recommended by her professor

b. Cues based on her own experiences

Donatella participates in a study and is asked to view a series of images that are likely to provoke strong emotion: a father caressing his newborn baby; a child crying at his mother's funeral; and a shark ferociously attacking a seal. While she views these images, a PET scan monitors her brain activity. What is the PET scan likely to show? a. A specialized region of the prefrontal cortex shows robust activity for all of her emotions. b. Distinct patterns of activity will be observed for each of her emotions. c. The prototypic "emotional pattern" of activity is observed in response to all of her emotions. d. Separate cortical "emotion centers" respond to each of her emotions.

b. Distinct patterns of activity will be observed for each of her emotions.

Of the following, who displays characteristics most consistent with high levels of achievement motivation? a. Grace, who worries constantly about whether her parents are happy with her grades b. Jake, who decides to skip going to the football game on Sunday, and instead goes to the office to get ahead of the coming week's work c. Neytiri, who tackles her quantum physics problems with a high level of abstract reasoning d. Tsu'tey, who is climbing the corporate ladder and knows to keep his friends close but his enemies closer

b. Jake, who decides to skip going to the football game on Sunday, and instead goes to the office to get ahead of the coming week's work

Which of the following is an example of a variable interval schedule of partial reinforcement? a. Jaime has a paper due once a month in his sociology course. His productivity is low at the beginning of the month and high as the deadline approaches. b. Marcus takes his daughter Rebekah fishing, and explains that you never know how long you have to leave your line in the water before a fish will bite. c. In hopes of winning a big jackpot, Penny plays the slot machines at a nearby casino. d. Sam earns extra money by shoveling his neighbor's driveways and sidewalks in the winter. He charges $20 per job but only shovels for snow falls of 1 inch or more.

b. Marcus takes his daughter Rebekah fishing, and explains that you never know how long you have to leave your line in the water before a fish will bite.

According to research (Cacioppo, Berntson, Larsen, Poehlmann, & Ito, 2000), which of the following is true regarding negative and positive emotions? a. Positive emotions produce stronger somatic nervous system arousal than negative emotions. b. Negative emotions produce stronger autonomic nervous system arousal than positive emotions. c. Positive emotions produce stronger autonomic nervous system arousal than negative emotions. d. Negative emotions produce stronger somatic nervous system arousal than positive emotions.

b. Negative emotions produce stronger autonomic nervous system arousal than positive emotions.

Who is likely to discontinue his or her behavior first if reinforcement completely stops? a. Wendy, who repeatedly checks for e-mail while studying b. Sam, who receives $20 on every Thursday when he mows his neighbor's lawn c. Ralph, who is out on his boat fishing for striped bass d. Penny, who plays the slot machines

b. Sam, who receives $20 on every Thursday when he mows his neighbor's lawn

Dr. Graham exposes rats to a vanilla scent prior to receiving a food pellet in the left corner of their cage, but provides no food after exposure to a lemon scent. After several trials, upon smelling a vanilla scent, the rats wait at the far-left corner of the cage regardless of whether a food pellet is present. However, they do not wait in the far-left corner when exposed to the lemon scent. What is the unconditioned stimulus in the experiment? a. Left corner of cage b. Food pellet c. Vanilla scent d. Lemon scent

b. food pellet

Sally loves to run, and works jogging into her daily schedule because she enjoys the outdoors. Sally is motivated by a(n) _____ reward. a. bottom-up b. intrinsic c. top-down d. extrinsic

b. intrinsic

Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement is referred to as a. higher order conditioning. b. latent learning. c. self-enhancement. d. endogenous cognition.

b. latent learning

what is reconciliation?

behaviors like hugging, kissing, grooming, etc. after a conflict

recency effect

better recall for items at the end of a list

primary effect

better recall for the first items on a list

Brian cannot remember whether he told his parents that he would be bringing his fiancé over for dinner on Sunday, or if he had just reminded himself to tell them. Which of the following statements best describes processing in this type of scenario? a. False memories regarding external sources account for the discrepancy. b. False memories regarding internal sources account for the discrepancy. c. Source monitoring can serve as a checkpoint for different sources of information. d. We are largely unable to distinguish between internal and external sources of information.

c. Source monitoring can serve as a checkpoint for different sources of information.

Which scenario supports the Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion? a. Micah wakes up feeling glum. He forces himself to smile from ear-to-ear and laugh out loud, and then he begins to feel happy. b. Aaron relaxes in his hammock. Suddenly, he feels an earthquake, causing him to feel afraid; at the same time, his heart beats rapidly and his palms sweat. c. Tony approaches his friend Juanita, who is walking her dog. As the dog begins to bark, Tony's heart races; he thinks about why this is the case and realizes he has a crush on Juanita. d. Bethany feels very depressed about her recent breakup with her boyfriend. She slumps down on her couch and cries for an hour straight, and then she begins to feel better.

c. Tony approaches his friend Juanita, who is walking her dog. As the dog begins to bark, Tony's heart races; he thinks about why this is the case and realizes he has a crush on Juanita.

According to the somatovisceral afference model of emotion (SAME), which scenario is likely to elicit the slowest emotional response? a. Tiana receives a rare phone call from her husband who is away at war; she happily grins from ear-to-ear. b. While hiking, Daria sees a mountain lion off in the distance; she has never been so scared and stops dead in her tracks as her heart beats uncontrollably. c. Tyrone looks over his annual progress report from his boss; the comments are mostly positive, and he is proud of his accomplishments. d. Doug is finishing up his term paper as his roommate accidentally drops a pint of beer on his laptop; Doug starts to shake uncontrollably with anger.

c. Tyrone looks over his annual progress report from his boss; the comments are mostly positive, and he is proud of his accomplishments.

According to contemporary views of emotion, an emphasis on what factor may account for the vast range of emotional reactions that individuals have toward the same event? a. Individualism b. Physiology c. Appraisal d. Intelligence

c. appraisal

When he was 9 years old, Mike tried shrimp for the first time but fell very ill shortly thereafter. Within a few hours he was vomiting and was sick for the rest of the night. Now, years later, Mike cannot bring himself to eat shrimp. This is an example of a. observational learning. b. operant conditioning. c. classical conditioning. d. non-associative learning.

c. classical conditioning

Eli is afraid of bees and has been ever since he was nearly stung by one a few months ago. Lately, his father has been very distressed to see that Eli is now afraid of any flying insect, even tiny ones like gnats. The fact that Eli gets terribly afraid and runs to another room whenever he sees a flying "bug" demonstrates a. inhibition. b. acquisition. c. generalization. d. discrimination.

c. generalization

Jo is at the gym one afternoon, jogging on the treadmill at 3.0 miles per hour. A stranger gets on the treadmill next to her and begins running at 6.5 miles per hour. Jo notices this, and slowly increases her own running speed. This enhancement of Jo's performance on a simple task by the presence of others is called a. social augmentation. b. peripheral bolstering. c. social facilitation. d. practical inhibition.

c. social facilitation

As Harry walks out of the supermarket, he sees his parked car get hit by another car. He tries to memorize the make, model, and license plate number of the other car. According to Baddeley's model, he is using his working memory's a. phonological loop. b. episodic buffer. c. visuospatial sketch pad. d. central executive.

c. visuospatial sketch pad.

cognitive empathy

capacity to understand another's perspective or mental state

counter-conditioning

change CER from negative to neutral to positive (mail man and dog)

interference

competition between older and newer information in memory

What different types of evidence exist to support the universal nature of the 6 universal emotions?

cross-cultural studies blind people emotion the same as people with vision

What are cultural displays?

cultural displays are rules when and how strongly emotions should be expressed in a particular culture

Which of the following is the best statement of the distinction between a mood and an emotion? a. An emotion involves physical changes, while a mood does not. b. A mood is a positive state, while an emotion is a negative state. c. A mood stimulates motivation, while an emotion does not. d. A mood is a more general state than an emotion.

d. A mood is a more general state than an emotion.

Which model or theory proposes that emotions act as a reservoir that fills up and spills over, and that expressing these emotions will reduce arousal? a. Schachter-Singer two-factor theory b. Cannon-Bard theory c. James-Lange theory d. Catharsis theory

d. Catharsis theory

Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the definition of the term forgetting? a. Irina knew her Latin vocabulary well but was too stressed during the exam to complete the questions in time. b. Barry was in an automobile accident that impaired his ability to access certain memories, including the Latin vocabulary he had learned prior to the accident. c. Mary daydreams about the young man who sits in front of her in Latin class; later, she does not recognize many of the vocabulary words on the exam. d. Chris is finding it increasingly difficult to remember the Latin vocabulary he learned previously in high school.

d. Chris is finding it increasingly difficult to remember the Latin vocabulary he learned previously in high school.

Which of the following is a nondeclarative memory? a. Mike remembers learning how to ski as a teenager. b. Ryan remembers how to play chess the way that his grandfather taught him. c. In a spelling contest, Larry misremembers the spelling of the word mnemonic. d. Juan picks up a scissors and cuts a piece of thread hanging from the button he just sewed onto his shirt.

d. Juan picks up a scissors and cuts a piece of thread hanging from the button he just sewed onto his shirt.

Carol Dweck (2012) argues that achievement motivation is influenced by a. birth order. b. gender. c. parenting style. d. individuals' beliefs about their own abilities.

d. individuals' beliefs about their own abilities.

The first stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model involved the retention of large amounts of incoming data for brief amounts of time. This is called a. explicit memory. b. short-term memory. c. declarative memory. d. sensory memory.

d. sensory memory

The spreading activation model accounts for the results of the lexical decision experiments that demonstrate priming by explaining a. the organization of related words in short-term memory. b. the strong connections between unrelated words. c. our unconscious daily responses to non-real words. d. the quicker decision time with related words.

d. the quicker decision time with related words.

what are the two types of long-term memory?

declarative and non-declarative

Which brain structures are involved with declarative and non-declarative memory?

declarative: hippocampus, cerebral cortex, occipital lobe, motor cortex non-declarative: basal ganglia

autobiographical

declarative; blend of semantic and episodic

episodic

declarative; timeline of personal experiences

semantic

declarative; words meanings and facts

decay

difficulty in retrieving info that has not been used in a long time

What are some techniques that can be used to improve memory

distributed practice, expertise: increase neurogenesis, sleep: memory consolidation, verbalize material, link information to self, and quizzing self

sensory memory

duration: 1 second or less capacity: very large visual, touch (haptic), acoustic (echoic)

long-term memory

duration: probably unlimited capacity: probably unlimited

short-term memory

duration: several seconds capacity: around 7 importance of rehearsal, effects of chunking

what are the three basic memory processes?

encoding, storage, and retrieval

declarative

explicit, conscious

motivated forgetting

failure to retrieve negative memories

performance goal

focus on demonstrating competence or ability and how ability will be judged relative to others

mastery goal

focus on learning, mastering the task according to self-set standards or self-improvement

extinction

gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the UCS is no longer presented

chunking

grouping information into bits; group similar information

HSAM

highly superior autobiographical memory

What are primary brain structures involved with perception, expression, and regulation of emotion?

hypothalamus, amygdala, insula, cingulate cortex, basal ganglia, and the cerebral cortex

non-declarative

implicit, unconscious

what are the involuntary and voluntary muscles in smiling?

involuntary: eyes voluntary: mouth

secondary reinforces

learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers

non-associative learning

learning that involves changes in the magnitude of responses to stimuli

elaborative rehearsal

link new material to known material

How is emotion different from mood?

mood is general emotion is specific/continuous

retroactive interference

new learning leads to misremembering of old information

priming

non-declarative; change in response due to exposure to related stimuli

procedural

non-declarative; how to carry out skilled movement

classical conditioning

non-declarative; stimulus response connections

proactive interference

old information leads to problems with new information

emotional contagion

one individual's emotions and related behaviors directly trigger similar emotions and behaviors in others

operant

organism is active; must operate on the environment and produce a behavior

classical

organism is passive; learns a connection between a stimulus and an autonomic response

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

minimal justification effect

participants who get a smaller reward for doing something had more intrinsic task interest than those who had a large extrinsic reward

fixed ratio

paycheck after x widgets produced

fixed interval

paycheck every two weeks; clock-checking in class

variable interval

payout after random amount of time on slot machine

variable ratio

payout after random number of slot machine lever pulls

acquisition

phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the UCS are presented together

Premack Principle

preferred behaviors, or behaviors with a higher level of intrinsic reinforcement, can be used as rewards, or reinforcements, for less preferred behaviors

flooding

present person/animal with an overwhelming amount of the fear-inducing stimulus

cingulate cortex

primary cortical component of the limbic system, involved in emotional and cognitive processing

cuing

provides context (hints) for retrieval

conditioned response

reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus

reconstruction

rebuilding a memory out of stored elements

retrieval

recovery of stored information

Desensitization

reduction in emotion-related physiological reactivity in response to a stimulus

unconditioned response

reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus

insula

regions of cortex located at the junction of the frontal and temporal lobes

flashbulb memory

remember vivid details of historical/traumatic event (i.e.: 9/11)

mood congruence effect

retrieve info more easily when same content as current emotional state

continuous reinforcement

reward after every behavior

intermittent reinforcement

reward after only some behaviors

variable

reward after variable number of behaviors or variable amount of time

fixed

reward after x many behaviors or x amount of time

what are the three types of memory storage?

sensory memory, short-term memory/working memory, and long-term memory

schemas

sets of expectations about objects and situations

maintenance rehearsal

simple repetition

unconditioned stimulus

something that reliably produces a natural occurring reaction in an organism

How does the model of spreading activation explain long-term memory? The model of schemas?

spreading activation: red -> apples -> pears schemas- sets of expectations about objects and situations

emotional suppression

the attempt to hide, inhibit, or reduce ongoing emotion

emotional reappraisal

the attempt to reinterpret an emotion-eliciting situation in a way that alters its meaning and changes its emotional impact

operant conditioning

the consequences of behavior determine the probability that the behavior will occur again

appraisals

the detection and assessment of stimuli that are relevant to personal well-being

associative learning

the formation of associations, or connections, among stimuli and behaviors

latent inhibition

the slower learning that occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is already familiar compared to when the CS is unfamiliar

tip of the tongue phenomenon

the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach hints at gradual retrieval process

weapon focus effect

the tendency for the presence of a weapon to draw attention and impair a witness's ability to identify the culprit

generalization

the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to an original conditioned stimulus

amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

How does the model of working memory differ from that for short-term memory?

working memory is a more active process of storage that original short-term memory model