Exam 2 Human Physiology
refractive defects
- myopia (nearsightedness) - before the retina - our lenses is convex, elongated eyeball = - we want to use diverging lenses - concave lenses - hyperopia (farsightedness) - image from behind the retina, can see far way well = converging lenses - convex - astigmatism - football shape when one of the angle are off, curved visual axis= you use cylindrical lenses ti make it correct
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
- subconscious information - has two sub division as sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system (ex. heart cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, stomach, glands, sweat gland, endocrine gland, adipose - Enteric nervous system (little brain in the guts), located small wall in your stomach, small intest, large intest
refractive index
- the refractive index of the cornea is greater than that of air - light rays in refractive index of air: 1 - refractive index of cornea : 1.38 - unite of converging is called diopter - refractive index water:1.33, you cannot see anything underwater and it's called hypermetropic eye
Hypermetropic (farsighted)
-eyeball is too short -glasses convex (coke-bottle)
Cataracts
- clouding of the lens - light is scattered or blocked by cloudy lens causing foggy images
image formation
- light rays are focused on the retinal surface of the eye - the image formed is inverted, backwards, and a fraction of the object size - if light ray reflect top will hit the bottom, down will hit the top
the near reflex triad
- light rays ≥ 20 feet from the eye run parallel, lans get flat, it's get bigger - light rays < 20 feet from the eye are diverging, lans back to normal, suspensory ligaments loosen
Vision: Sense of Sight
>visual accessory structures >primary visual structures are the eye and visual pathway - eye ball has three layer as sclera(outermost layer, connective tissue, choroid (loose connective tissue, very vascular blood supply) , retina (inner most layer, has photoreceptor cell response to photon)
Question 18 18a: How many cells are involved in the peripheral processing of gustatory information?
Answer: 2 cells are involved in the peripheral processing of gustatory information. These are the taste receptor cell and the bipolar sensory neuron.
37b: What does 20/20 vision literally mean?
Answer: 20/20 vision is considered "normal" vision. From 20 feet away, the smallest you can read are the letters on the 20/20 line of the Snellen chart. Most humans should theoretically be able to read that line from 20feet away.
Question 37 37a: What is a Snellen chart?
Answer: A Snellen chart is an eye chart that can be used to measure visual acuity.
36b: What is a cataract?
Answer: A cataract occurs when the lens of the eye accumulates pigments and becomes progressively opaque.
24f: A diopter is a unit of converging or diverging power?
Answer: A diopter is a unit of converging power.
5e: What is a dorsal ramus?
Answer: A dorsal ramus is the posterior division of a spinal nerve.
What is a dorsal root ganglion composed of?
Answer: A dorsal root ganglion contains the cell bodies of unipolar neurons.
. 5b: What is a dorsal root composed of?
Answer: A dorsal root is composed of sensory neurons.
23b: What is a refractive index?
Answer: A refractive index is the number that reflects the degree to which a particular medium bends light rays. Larger numbers bend light more than smaller numbers.
. 5d: What is a ventral ramus?
Answer: A ventral ramus is the anterior division of a spinal nerve.
5a: What is a ventral root composed of?
Answer: A ventral root is composed of motor neurons
29b: Which neurotransmitter binds to the M3 receptor?
Answer: Acetylcholine.
18b: In what cell are action potentials generated?
Answer: Action potentials are generated in the bipolar sensory neuron.
27d: What is the state of the ciliary body, suspensory ligaments, and lens when an object is less than 20 feet away?
Answer: Ciliary muscles are contracted, suspensory ligaments are loose ,and the lens is bulged (or very convex)
27c: What is the state of the ciliary body, suspensory ligaments, and lens whenan object is more than 20 feet away?
Answer: Ciliary muscles are relaxed, suspensory ligaments are taut, and the lens is flattened out.
33c: Which type of lenses are used to correct for this refractive defect?
Answer: Concave, or diverging lenses, are used to correct for myopia.
42a: Would you expect cones to be more sensitive in the light or dark?
Answer: Cones are more sensitive and function best in relatively bright light.
34c: Which type of lenses are used to correct for this refractive defect?
Answer: Convex, or converging lenses, are used to correct for hyperopia
Question 13 13a: The phenomenon of referred pain is thought to exist as the result of "cross-talk" between neurons. Where is it believed that this cross-talk occurs?
Answer: Cross-talk occurs in the spinal cord gray matter or dorsal root ganglia.
55e: How does all of this relate to the process of hearing?
Answer: Endolymph is potassium-rich. Potassium will enter the hair cell and cause a depolarization. As a result, neurotransmitters are released, which activates neurons of the cochlear nerve to send the signal to the brain to be processed.
Question 17 17a: What are the five different tastes we can perceive and what is/are the tastant (s) for each of these different tastes?
Answer: For bitter, the tastants are coffee, beer, unsweetened cocoa, earwax, etc.; for sweet, the tastants are monosaccharides; for umami, the tastant is glutamate; for sour, the tastant is proton; for salty, the tastant is sodium
40a: In phototransduction, electromagnetic radiation gets transduced intoelectrical impulses. Which retinal cells are responsible for firing action potentials?
Answer: Ganglion cells are responsible for firing action potentials.
40b: Which cells have axons that comprise the optic nerve?
Answer: Ganglion cells have axons that comprise the optic nerve.
21d: What is glaucoma?
Answer: Glaucoma is the term applied to a group of eye diseases that gradually result in loss of vision by permanently damaging the optic nerve. This disease can occur due to high pressure in the eye due to an overaccumulation of fluid (aqueous humor)
12b: What do opiates mimic?
Answer: Heroin and prescription opioids chemically resemble the brain's natural opioids (i.e., endorphins).
33a: If an individual has an eyeball that is longer than normal, which refractive defect would they likely have?
Answer: If an individual has an eyeball that is longer than normal, they would have myopia.
34a: If an individual has an eyeball that is shorter than normal, which refractive defect would they likely have?
Answer: If an individual has an eyeball that is shorter than normal, they would have hyperopia.
22a: If you were to stand straight and look straight ahead, where would most light entering your pupil light fall on your retina?
Answer: If you were to stand straight and look straight ahead, where would most light entering your pupil light fall on the fovea centralis.
37c: What does it mean to have 20/40 vision?
Answer: If your visual acuity is 20/40, you are myopic. From 20 feet away, the smallest you can read are the letters on the 20/40 line of the Snellen chart. However, someone with 20/20 vision can read that same line from40 feet away.
Can you explain the process of dark adaption?
Answer: In dark adaption, blackness is seen because our cones cease functioning in low intensity light. Also, all the rod pigments have been bleached out due to the bright light. Because of this, rods are initially nonfunctional. Once in the dark, rhodopsin regenerates and the sensitivity of the retina increases over time. During the adaptation process, reflexive changes occur in the pupil size. The entire process occurs over a period of up to 30 minutes.
43a: Can you explain the processes that take place in the membrane discs of your rods in the light? How much neurotransmitter is being released?
Answer: In darkness, there are high levels of cGMP, increasing cellular activity. This allows the opening of Na+ channels, as these are internally gated by cGMP. Action potentials are generated and neurotransmitters are released.
45a: Can you explain the process of light adaptation, that is, what happens in your eyes as you walk out of a movie theater into the bright light on a sunny afternoon?
Answer: In light adaptation, the bright light momentarily dazzles us and all we see is white light because the sensitivity of the receptors is set to dim light. Rods and cones are both stimulated and large amounts of the photopigments are broken down instantaneously. This adaptation occurs in two ways: the sensitivity of the retina decreases dramatically, and retinal neurons undergo rapid adaptation inhibiting rod function and favoring the cone system. The entire process occurs in a matter of a few minutes.
If you touched a hot stove with your hand, you would reflexively remove yourhand from the stove. Does the brain regulate this muscle activity required toremove your hand? Do you sense the pain before or after your hand iswithdrawn?
Answer: No, the brain does not regulate this muscle activity required to remove your hand. The pain is perceived in the brain after the hand is withdrawn.
36c: What is LASIK?
Answer: LASIK is laser eye surgery or laser vision correction. Essentially, it is a procedure where the cornea is reshaped with a laser to change the way
27b: What is lens accommodation?
Answer: Lens accommodation is the process by which the eye increase sits converging power by making the lens more convex.
31b: What receptors and neurotransmitters are responsible for miosis?
Answer: M3 receptors are responsible for miosis and acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter.
What are mechanoreceptors and what are some general examples?
Answer: Mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical stimuli. Some examples of mechanoreceptors include tactile receptors, baroreceptors and proprioceptors.
Question 30 30a: What is miosis?
Answer: Miosis is pupillary constriction.
32b: Which part of the ANS is elicited?
Answer: Mydriasis is elicited by the sympathetic system of the ANS.
30b: What is mydriasis?
Answer: Mydriasis is pupillary dilation.
Question 32 32a: If you were being chased by a bear in the woods, would your eyes under go miosis or mydriasis?
Answer: Mydriasis.
38c: Is this person myopic or hyperopic?
Answer: Myopic.
38b: Can diopters be converted into Snellen chart numbers?
Answer: No, diopters cannot be converted into Snellen chart numbers.
37d: If the Snellen chart reveals that your visual acuity is 20/20, does this mean you have perfect vision?
Answer: No, it just means you perfect visual acuity.
52d: What are stereocilia supported by?
Answer: Stereocilia are supported by microfilaments.
31c: Can you list a few drugs that would cause mydriasis?
Answer: Stimulant drugs like cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamines, and ecstasy will cause mydriasis, along with cannabis and hallucinogenic drugs like LSD and ketamine.
25b: How do swimming goggles help improve your underwater vision?
Answer: Swimming goggles help to improve your vision under water because they restore the air-corneal interface.
5f: What are the sympathetic chain ganglia?
Answer: Sympathetic chain ganglia are paired bundles of nerve fibers ,and aggregations of nerve cell bodies, that run from the base of the skull to the coccyx. They are part of the autonomic nervous system.
10b: When you put on your shirt/top/blouse in the morning, you can feel it onyour skin; however, several hours later the feeling is "gone." Based on this fact,are tactile receptors tonic or phasic?
Answer: Tactile receptors are phasic (quickly adapting).
Question 14 14a: What are the five different types of special senses?
Answer: Taste (gustation), smell (olfaction), sight (vision), hearing(audition), and balance/equilibrium (equilibrioception).
17c: Many individuals who have experienced COVID-19 symptoms have beensaid to have "lost their sense of taste". Is this a true statement?
Answer: Technically, no. Many patients notice a loss of their sense of smell. However, because smell is necessary to taste flavor, these individuals are no longer able to discern flavors.
56c: How does the function of the crista ampularis relate to that of the organ of Corti?
Answer: The cupula of the crista ampularis functions similarly to the tectorial membrane in the organ of Corti.
Question 1 What are the divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
Answer: The divisions of the autonomic nervous system are the sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system, and the enteric nervous system
24d: What is the focal length?
Answer: The focal length is the distance between the center of the lens and the focal point.
34b: Where does the focal point form in this condition?
Answer: The focal point in this condition forms behind the retina.
33b: Where does the focal point form in this condition?
Answer: The focal point in this condition forms in front of the retina.
24e: What is the focal point?
Answer: The focal point is where the light rays converge after passing through the lens.
39c: What is the fovea centralis?
Answer: The fovea centralis is a region of the retina in the center of the macula that has the highest concentration of cone photoreceptor cells. T he visual axis normally falls on this location.
50d: What is the general function of the cochlea?
Answer: The general function of the cochlea is to produce nerve impulses in response to sound vibrations
Question 24 24a: The human lens is concave or convex?
Answer: The human lens is convex.
52a: What is the function of the inner hair cells of the organ of Corti?
Answer: The inner hair cells fire nerve impulses to the brain in response to distortion of the basilar membrane.
47b: What are the components of the middle ear?
Answer: The inner layer of the eardrum, the Eustachian tube (i.e., the internal auditory meatus), and the auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes).
39a: What are the three layers of cells of the retina?
Answer: The innermost layer that is closest to the vitreous body is the ganglion cell layer. The middle layer is the bipolar cell layer. The rear most layer is the photoreceptor layer, where the rod and cone cells are located.
47e: What anatomical structure connects the middle ear to the pharynx?
Answer: The internal auditory meatus connects the middle ear to the pharynx.
55a: What is a kinocilium?
Answer: The kinocilium is the tallest of the stereocilia of a hair cell.
there is three sensory information
Exteroceptors (somatic senses, Special senses) Proprioceptors (positional senses) Interoceptors (visceral senses) -inner all sensory comes as afferent division
Sensory information enters the afferent division of the PNS. What are exteroceptors?
Exteroceptors are sensory receptors that receive external stimuli for both special and somatic senses, and send the sensory information to the CNS
16. Thinking anatomically, can you explain why smell is the only special sense that does not enter the brain by relaying through the thalamus?
Answer: The primary neurons enter the brain through tiny holes in the floor of the cranium and synapse with the secondary neurons in the olfactory bulbs at the base of the brain.
25a: The refractive index of the cornea is 1.38 while that of water is 1.33. If the two indices are so similar, why don't humans have clear vision underwater?
Answer: The problem is that the reflective indices are too similar, so light rays don't converge much. This causes the focal point to form behind there tin a, similar to hyperopia.
44c: After light exposure, how is retinal converted back to its original conformation?
Answer: The process is mediated by the pigmented epithelial cells at the back of the retina.
41c: What are the two structural components of rhodopsin?
Answer: The proteins opsin and retinal.
Question 11a: The receptor portion of tactile receptors (e.g., Meissner's and Pacinian corpuscles) is literally a modification of what portion of the neuron?
Answer: The receptor portion of one of these sensory neurons is a modification of a dendrite.
.Question 19 What are the three layers of the eyeball, and what composes each layer?
Answer: The sclera is composed of thick connective tissue and forms the "white" of the eye, as well as the cornea of the eye. The choroid is composed of vascular tissue and forms the ciliary body and iris. The retina is composed of photoreceptors, also known as rods and cones, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells.
56a: What are the two sensory organs of equilibrioception?
Answer: The sensory organs involved in equilibrioception are the crista ampularis and the macula.
Question 13 Which adrenergic receptor decreases digestion? In other words, what adrenergic receptor decreases peristalsis of the GI tract, as well as insulin secretion from pancreas?
Answer: The α2 adrenergic receptor
Question 28 28a: If the ciliary muscles of the eye are relaxed, which receptor must be activated?
Answer: The β2 receptors must be activated if the ciliary muscles of the eye are relaxed.
46b: What are their photoreceptor pigments collectively referred to as?
Answer: Their photoreceptor pigments are collectively referred to as photopsins, also known as iodopsins
How many pairs of cranial nerves are there and are these nerves mixed? In otherwords, do all cranial nerves contain both sensory and motor nerve fibers?
Answer: There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves. Some, but not all, are mixed.
Question 15 15a: How many cells are involved in the peripheral processing of olfactory information?
Answer: There are 2 cells involved in the peripheral processing of olfactory information.
How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?
Answer: There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
46a: What are the three different types of cone cells?
Answer: There are blue, green and red cone cells.
9a: Which receptors would inform you of an ice cube that was just placed on your arm?
Answer: Thermoreceptors
14b: Based on your list, would you expect these senses to enter the nervous system at the level of the spinal cord or brain?
Answer: These senses enter the nervous system at the level of the brain.
23d: If light passes from a medium with a refractive index of 2.0 into a medium with a refractive index of 1.0, what will happen to the light rays?
Answer: They will diverge. If light comes from a medium with a lower refractive index and enters a medium with a higher refractive index, then the light rays will converge.
47f: Why does this connection exist?
Answer: This exists to balance the pressures on either side of the tympanic membrane
24c: What does converging and diverging mean in reference to the visual axis?
Answer: To converge means to bend light towards the visual axis and to diverge means to bend light away from the visual axis.
Question 12 12a: If you had a lesion on your arm, what medications could you take to reduce the activity of prostaglandins, histamine, and substance P?
Answer: To reduce the activity of prostaglandins, you would take an NSAID (e.g., ibuprofen, aspirin); to reduce the activity of histamine, you would take an antihistamine (e.g., Benadryl); to reduce the activity of substance P, you would take capsaicin.
. 5g: What two components of the PNS combine to form a spinal nerve?
Answer: Ventral and dorsal roots combine to form a spinal nerve
13b: Can you use this information to explain how an individual can experience pain in the arm when they are having chest pain due to a heart attack?
Answer: When a person is having a heart attack, the pain fibers in the heart and hand go to the spinal cord and they converge (cross-talk). The pain fibers from the heart can induce action potentials in the pain fiber coming from the arm.
color vision
Integration of information from red, green, and blue cones
What generates the popping sounds you hear in your ears when ascending in an airplane: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a air bubbles exiting the ear canal and into the atmosphere b the tympanic membranes bulging outwards c air bubbles exiting the Eustachian tubes and into the throat d the tympanic membranes bulging inwards
c air bubbles exiting the Eustachian tubes and into the throat
Which of the following are examples of epidermal tactile receptors: a Pacinian corpuscles b Meissner's corpuscles c Merkel cells d a and b e a, b, and c
c Merkel cells
Darius is having chest pain and a sense of pain in his left hand that has long since been amputated. He goes to the hospital and is diagnosed with having a heart attack. The pain Darius was experiencing was: a referred b phantom c a and b
c a and b
presbyopia
farsightedness caused by loss of elasticity of the lens of the eye, occurring typically in middle and old age. - 50 year - laic is not involve ur lenses, its involve in your cornea - bifocals - eyeglasses with lenses that have two different sections- for seeing close up (convex) and far away - Trifocals- int. near - Progressive - distance + int. near
cells that make connective tissue is
fibroblasts
olfactory cilia
hairlike structures located in upper portion of nasal passages, receptors for smell - dendrite- loaded with odorant receptor - also have Sustentecular cells
Dilators contract
decreased light intensity increased sympathetic stimulation - a1 - receptor - agonist - norepinephrine stimulates the contraction of pupillary dilator muscle - Isoprenaline
mydriasis
dilation of the pupil
What is the functional organization of the PNS? In other words, can you schematically explain the organization of the efferent division and the afferent division of the PNS?
There are two divisions of the PNS. The afferent division consists of sensory innervation which include somatosensory, special sensory, and visceral innervation. The efferent division consists of somatic and autonomic innervation. Autonomic innervation includes cardiac, smooth muscle, glandular, and adipose innervation. The autonomic system also breaks down into the sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric nervous systems
macula lutea
a yellowish central area of the retina that is rich in cones and that mediates clear detailed vision
How much the the cochlear amplifier amplify sound: a 10x b 100x c 1,000x d 10,000x
b 100x
Which of the following is a muscarinic bronchodilator: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a Minipress b Atrovent c Lopressor d Ventolin
b Atrovent
Which of the following is incorrect regarding the ENS: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a its activity is reduced by sympathetic nerve activity b Auerbach's plexus is primarily responsible for secretory functions of the GI tract c is it sometimes referred to as the "little brain in the gut" d the myenteric plexus controls motility functions of the GI tract
b Auerbach's plexus is primarily responsible for secretory functions of the GI tract
Where are the cell bodies of autonomic (visceral) sensory neurons located: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a posterior horn b dorsal root ganglion c posterolateral horn d anterior root
b dorsal root ganglion
Where are the cell bodies of somatic sensory neurons located: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a posterior horn b dorsal root ganglion c posterolateral horn d anterior root
b dorsal root ganglion
With the stretch reflex, the muscle that senses the stretch is the same muscle inhibited by the reflex: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a true b false
b false
The anatomical region of the eye that contains the highest concentration of cones is the: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a iris b fovea centralis c lens d cornea
b fovea centralis
Can you taste while breathing in (orthonasally): a yep b hmmm...nope
b hmmm...nope
Which of the following associations is incorrect: a nearsightedness : elongated eyeball b hyperopia : concave lenses c farsighted : can see far away well d astigmatism : curved visual axis
b hyperopia : concave lenses
Which of the following is not located in a motor end-plate: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a Cl- channels b voltage-gated Na+ channels c K+ leak channels d Na+/K+ pumps e nACh receptors
b voltage-gated Na+ channels
Olfaction (smell)
sense of smell - stratify epithelium - the bone is ethmoid - bipolar neuron doesn't relate thalamus of your brain - they goes to the bone and snipes with olfactory bulb - primary neuron goes to the bulb and snips with secondary neuron, send this info to cerebrum cortex to give you sensation of smell
somatic senses
sense of touch, vibration, pressure, stretch, temperature, pain - free nerve ending (pain, temp.) - Merkel's disc (touch) - meissner's corpuscle (touch) - Hair follicle receptor (touch) - pacinian (or lamellated) corpuscle (vibration and pressure) - ruffini corpuscle (stretch)
Interoceptors (visceral senses) -inner
sensing internal environment of the body as varrial recpter which can sense blood presser, heart pain, stomach pain
Contralateral
sensory process is going to brain (pain, temp)
intervertebral discs
separate and cushion the vertebrae (made of fibroses cartilage) hyaline cartilage elastic cartilage - fibroblasts makes gages, proteoglycans (sugar proteins, - charge, osmotic protenstiol low)
Tonic receptors
slowly adapting receptors that respond for the duration of a stimulus - along is stimulus is there, there are is response - ex. pain, temp,
Exteroceptors has two type
somatic senses, general as in your skin as temp, touch, pain, vibration, streach Special senses - information coming from external environment as eyes, ears, nose, mouth, inner ears with equallibrem
Lidocaine and articaine
stop action potential to go in the brain - complex with epinephrine
analgesia
inability to feel pain or medicate pain
Glaucoma
increased intraocular pressure results in damage to the retina and optic nerve with loss of vision
Constrictors contract
increased light intensity increased parasympathetic stimulation -M3 receptor - antagonist - Tropic-amid
Spinal holle or a foramen between two spinal vertebrae called
intervertebral foramen
Proprioceptors (positional senses)
located inner joint in our muscle, sending information to central nervous system (CNS) to limb space - provide information about join tangle, muscle length, and muscle tension, which is integrated to give information about the position of the limb in space
49b: What are some ways that these symptoms can be alleviated?
o Answer: By yawning, chewing gum, or performing the Valsalva maneuver. Essentially, you would want to open the internal auditory meatus in order to allow the middle ear to get more air, equalizing the air pressure
49a: How does being in an airplane affect the ear?
o Answer: The air pressure changes rapidly during ascent, and the internal auditory meatus can't react fast enough to accommodate this pressure change.
Chemoreceptors:
olfactory receptors (smell) , gustatory receptors (taste) , and nociceptors (pain)
Ipsilateral
on the same side of the body (touch and proprioception)
Osmoreceptors
osmoreceptors (osmolarity of ISF
phantom pain
pain felt in a body part that is no longer there
herniated disc
protrusion of a fragmented intervertebral disc in the intervertebral foramen with potential compression of a nerve - more cartilage is leaking
phasic receptors
rapidly adapt to a constant stimulus and turn off ex. taste, temp, touch, smell, touch
sensory information coming in through dorsal ramus, stop at dorsal root where cell body is continue and goes in to spinal cord and Synapse up with interneuron
release the information to motor neuron and send the information out though ventral ramus or root
lens accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina - increases the curvature, and converging power, of the lens (i.e., more convex) - epinephrin / nor epinephrin bind with bate2 (B2), they are metabotropic - M3 bind to acetylcholine , makes the lens more convex
dorsal root + ventral root
= spinal nerve -dosal ramus + ventral ramus
vitreous body
the cavity between the retina and the back of the lens
Fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster - cones rods - when visual axis fall into fovea, where you can get most acute vision - Optic disc is blind spot because there are no photoreceptor cells on the optic disk
aqueous humor
the clear fluid filling the space in the front of the eyeball between the lens and the cornea.
the anatomical components of the peripheral nervous system(PNS) is
the cranial and spinal nerves
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
Phototransduction
the eye transduces electromagnetic radiation into electrical impulses - cone - red, green, blue cell - photoreceptor cell has pigment and light goes there - bipolar cells - ganglion cells - sending action potential , form optic nerve - rod - has retinal (vitamin A)+ opsin (protein) = rhodopsin, transducin(G protein), GC >GTP > cGMP, PDE - enzyme - in dearjness, rhodopsin inactive, cGMP is high, and ligand-gated sodium ion channels are open, it's depolarized - in light bleaches rhodopsin, opsin decreases cGMP, closes Na+ channels and hyperpolarizes the cell
tate vs. flavor
- Orthonasal - when your breath with ur nose - Retronasal - breath out from your mouth - you can breath though ur nose, you cannot taste the flavor but sense the taste
Refraction
- bending of light rays as they pass through different refractive media - our lens is convex (converging) and focuses light at a focal point - light comes and converge to visual access - the focal length is the distance between the lens center and the retina - focal length + focal point = meter, and you will get diopter (d)
visual acuity and eyeglass prescriptions
- eyeglass prescriptions are given in units of diopters - a measure of converging power- if your visual acuity is 20/40, this is not your prescription! - if your visual acuity is 20/40, you need more diverging power (i.e., negative diopters) - Diverging lens- concave lenses - focal point forms before the lenses, you have (- diopters) - myopia - converging lens- focal point forms in front (+ diopters) - hyperopia
degenerated disc
- when you age fibroblasts start declining in vertebral disc - can become thinning disc - can be desiccated, lose water, disc started thinning - when it started to thin, you get spinal stenosis - get pinch nerve
How is sound transduced through the ear? Sequentially discuss all structures of the external, middle and inner ear in your description?
. Answer: First, sound waves strike the tympanic membrane, becoming vibrations. The vibrations then strike the malleus, incus, and stapes, vibrating them as well. The stapes, which is attached to the oval window, causes a vibration to be transduced through the oval window. Vibrations within the fluid will travel throughout each duct, and in the cochlear duct, hair cells will bend and release neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters will send the signal to the brain. Eventually, the vibrations will reach the round window. Here, the vibrations will begin to dissipate
visual acuity and Snellen chart
1. Snellen eye chart: 20/20 means that "the patient can see at 20 feet what the normal person can see at 20 feet" (the larger the denominator, the poorer the patient's vision) -20/40 = a person can see at 20 feet what the normal person (without impairment) can see at 40 ft, nearsighted -If 20/30 = Referral stage - testing of myopia
Neurophysiology - PNS Efferent PEQ
1. The ANS receives afferent information from: b. interoceptors 2. Which of the following is not a control center of the autonomic nervous system: b. cerebellum 3. A preganglionic parasympathetic neuron releases ________ onto ________ receptors of postganglionic parasympathetic neuron cell bodies: b. ACh : ionotropic 4. Which of the following is incorrect: c. preganglionic sympathetic neurons release catecholamines 5. The autonomic nervous system controls the activity of cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glands, and adipose :a. true 6. The smooth muscle of all blood vessels are solely innervated by sterm-1ympathetic nerve fibers: b. false 7. PNMT converts ________ into _________: b. norepinephrine : epinephrine 8. Chromaffin cells are modified preganglionic sympathetic neurons in the adrenal medulla: b. false 9. The fight-or-flight response is mediated by the thoracolumbar division of the autonomic nervous system: a. true 10. Which of the following associations is incorrect: d. albuterol : β2 antagonist 11. Which of the following does not cause bronchodilation: b. atropine 12. Which of the following receptors is not found on cardio myocytes: c.α1 13. Which of the following associations is incorrect: b. α2-adrenergic receptor : increased digestive activity 14. If light does not induce miosis, a subject may be on a(n): b. M3 receptor antagonist 15. Atropine is a cholinergic M2 antagonist, and therefore atropine increases heart rate: a. true 16. An increase in stretch in carotid baroreceptors leads to an increase vagus nerve stimulation to the heart: a. true 17. An increase in CO2 sensed in the carotid bodies leads to a decrease in sympathetic activity blood vessels: b. false 18. Catecholamines bind to ________ receptors which are a type of ________: b. adrenergic : G protein-coupled receptor 19. It is a nice, sunny day, and you are taking a walk in the woods. Suddenly, an angry bear appears in your path. Which of the following is not occurring in your body at that moment: a. increase in vagal nerve activity on the pacemaker cells of the heart 20. Which of the following is incorrect regarding the α1-adrenergic receptor: a. α1 agonists increase chronotropy 21. Which of the following is incorrect regardin
Neurophysiology - PNS Afferent PEQ
1. Which of the following are responsible for sensing visceral stimuli: b. interoceptors 2. Pain sensed in your arm is sent to the spinal cord through the: b. dorsal root ganglion 3. Which of the following senses is not phasic: b. nociceptors 4. In a simple reflex arc, terminal knobs of afferent neurons synapse with the cell body and dendrites of an interneuron in the posterior horn of the spinal cord: a. true 5. Which of the following associations is incorrect regarding analgesia: c. NSAIDs : histamine 6. An increase of fluid pressure in the ________ of the eye can lead to glaucoma: b. anterior chamber 7. Which of the following has the greatest dioptric value: c. cornea 8. The activation of pupillary α1 receptors: b. increases retinal illumination 9. Which of the following is incorrect: b. convex glasses cause light rays to diverge before they hit the cornea 10. Activation of ciliary muscle ________ receptors cause the lens to become more convex and increases its converging power: b. M3 11. Lens accommodation is employed to converge divergent light rays from objects further than20 feet from the eye:b. false 12. Which of the following does not occur during the near reflex triad: c. increase in tension of suspensory ligaments 13. Which of the following is incorrect regarding rod cells in the dark: c. retinal in rhodopsin is in the trans conformation 14. Which of the following is incorrect regarding the inner ear: d. perilymph is a K+-rich fluid 15. Presbyopia results from a decrease in converging power of the lens with age: a. true 16. Which of the following associations is incorrect: c. utricle : statoconia 17. Which of the following is incorrect regarding ganglia: d. the dorsal root ganglia contain cell bodies of bipolar sensory neurons 18. Which of the following is incorrect regarding hyperopia: a. negative diopters are needed to correct this condition 19. Which of the following statements is incorrect: b. cGMP levels are low in darkness 20. Myopia is corrected with: a. negative diopters
30d: The pupil is not an anatomical structure. How can it be likened to a blackhole of the universe?
Answer: All light enters the pupil, but none exits it. That is why it appears black.
15b: In what cell are action potentials generated?
Answer: An action potential is generated in the primary bipolar sensory neuron and the secondary sensory neuron.
11b: What happens to the membrane of the receptor as a result of receiving a stimulus?
Answer: As a result of receiving a stimulus, ion channels open, allowing sodium to enter, leading to the generation of the first action potential at the initial segment of the neuron.
Question 36 36a: What is astigmatism? light rays bend.
Answer: Astigmatism is a defect in the eye or in a lens caused by a deviation from the spherical curvature.
43c: Which retinal cells have receptors for the released neurotransmitters?
Answer: Bipolar cells have receptors for the released neurotransmitters
9b: Which receptors would inform you of the taste of a cup of coffee?
Answer: Chemoreceptors
. Question 29 29a: If the suspensory ligaments are loose, which receptor must be activated in the ciliary muscle?
Answer: Ciliary muscle contraction causes loosened suspensory ligaments. The M3 receptors must be activated in the ciliary muscles of the eye if contracted.
43b: Can you explain the processes that take place in the membrane discs of your rods in the light? How much neurotransmitter is being released?
Answer: In light, photons activate rhodopsin, causing retinal to change conformation to trans-retinal and dissociate from opsin (i.e., bleached). Transducin (a G-protein) is activated, activating cGMP phosphodiesterase(PDE), which degrades cGMP. Because of this, Na+ channels stay closed. K+ will leave the cell through leak channels, causing a hyperpolarization and inactivating the cell. Less neurotransmitters are released in comparison to darkness.
. 2c: What are interoceptors and what type of information do they send to the CNS?
Answer: Interoceptors are receptors that receive stimuli of internal organs(i.e., visceral senses)
What are the different types of intervertebral disc abnormalities that canoccur and how can these issues relate to spinal stenosis?
Answer: Intervertebral disc deterioration and herniation are intervertebral disc abnormalities that can occur. These can lead to spinal stenosis, causing a narrowing of the open spaces within your spine. This can put pressure on your spinal cord and spinal nerves
Question 26 What are the ways in which the image formed on your retina is different from the object itself?
Answer: Inverted, backwards, and a fraction of the actual size of the object.
41b: What pigment is found in the membrane discs of cones?
Answer: Iodopsins, also known as photopsins, are found in the membrane discs of cones.
54a: Elephants can hear sound frequencies of 15 Hz. Can humans hear these frequencies?
Answer: No. Humans can hear down to about 20 Hz.
52c: These hair cells contain stereocilia. Are these motile structures?
Answer: No. Stereocilia are basically long microvilli.
12c: Does nociceptive information travel to the brain contralaterally or ipsilaterally?
Answer: Nociceptive information travels to the brain contralaterally.
. 9c: Which receptors would inform you of the pain of stepping on a nail?
Answer: Nociceptors and mechanoreceptors.
Question 10 10a: Are nociceptors tonic or phasic receptors?
Answer: Nociceptors are tonic (slowly adapting).
28b: What neurotransmitter binds to the β2 receptor?
Answer: Norepinephrine
10c: Are odorant receptors phasic or tonic?
Answer: Odorant receptors are phasic.
31a: Can you list a few drugs that would cause miosis?
Answer: Opiates, such as heroin or morphine, and other central nervous system depressants, such as benzodiazepines and barbiturates, will cause miosis while under the influence of the drug.
. 17b: Is "spicy" one of the basic tastes? Why or why not?
Answer: Our bodies detect spice using a completely different system than the one for taste. The nerve that sends touch, pain, and temperature feelings from your face to your brain, interprets it.
8b: What are the three examples of tactile receptors in the skin and what do theydetect?
Answer: Pacinian corpuscles sense deep touch, while Meissner's corpuscles and Merkel cells sense light touch.
What is the most likely reason why pirates wore a patch over one eye?
Answer: Pirates likely wore an eyepatch in order to keep one eye always dark-adapted. Without a dark-adapted eye (the eye under the patch),going below the deck would be a challenge due to the darkness. Sliding the patch to the other eye reveals a dark-adapted eye, which allows the pirate to navigate quickly under the deck of the ship
Question 35 What is presbyopia and how does the amplitude of accommodation of the lens change over time?
Answer: Presbyopia is a disease caused by loss of elasticity of the lens. The amplitude of accommodation decreases with age due to this, and as a result, the lens cannot bulge as much during lens accommodation. Thus, an individual with presbyopia is essentially farsighted. .
What are proprioceptors and what type of information do they send to theCNS?
Answer: Proprioceptors are sensors that provide information about joint angle, muscle length, and muscle tension, which is integrated to give information about the position of the limb in space.
30c: What are the muscles of the iris that control the diameter of the pupil?
Answer: Pupillary constrictor (sphincter) muscles and pupillary dilator(radial) muscles control the diameter of the pupil.
Question 23 23a: What is refraction?
Answer: Refraction is the bending of light rays as they pass through different refractive media.
23c: What is the refractive index of air, water, the cornea, and the lens?
Answer: Refractive index of air is 1.00, water is 1.33, cornea is 1.38, and lens is 1.41.
41d: Based on what you know about proteins and membranes, what structural type of protein would rhodopsin be classified as?
Answer: Rhodopsin is classified as an integral membrane protein
41a: What pigment is found in membrane discs of rods?
Answer: Rhodopsin is the pigment found in membrane discs of rods.
42b: Would you expect rods to be more sensitive in the light or dark?
Answer: Rods are responsible for dark and white vision so they are more sensitive in dim lighting.
. 8c: What do ipsilateral and contralateral mean?
Answer: Senses that are processed ipsilaterally converge at the level of the brain stem. Senses that are processed contralaterally converge at the level of the spinal cord.
54b: Where would sounds with a frequency of 19,000 Hz deform the basilar membrane? Where would a frequency of 20 Hz deform the membrane?
Answer: Sounds with a frequency of 19,000 Hz would deform the basilar membrane at the base, while sounds with a frequency of 20 Hz would deform the basilar membrane at the apex
55d: How do they interact with stereocilia via the tip-link mechanism?
Answer: Stereocilia and the kinocilium are connected by small connective tissue fibers. When the stereocilia are pushed towards the kinocilium, the fibers pull open mechanically-gated potassium channels in the shorter stereocilia.
.Question 21 21a: Where is aqueous humor located?
Answer: The aqueous humor is located in the anterior chamber of the eye.
21c: What are the functions of the aqueous and vitreous humors?
Answer: The aqueous humor plays an essential role in nourishing thecornea and the lens by supplying nutrition such as amino acids andglucose. It also maintains intraocular pressure. The vitreous humor (or body) allows the light to pass through the lens to the retina and helps to keep the eye in its round shape.
55c: What are kinocilia supported by?
Answer: The are supported by microtubules.
47a: What are the components of the external ear?
Answer: The auricle (i.e., the pinna), the auditory canal, and the outer layer of the eardrum (i.e., the tympanic membrane).
Question 53 What is the conformation of the basilar membrane at the base and at the apex ofthe cochlea?
Answer: The base is narrow, but thick, while the apex is broad, but thin.
51b: What are all of the cells and membranes that make up the organ of Corti?
Answer: The cells and membranes that make up the organ of Corti are the tectorial membrane, outer hair cells, the basilar membrane, inner hai cells, and support cells.
47c: What are the components of the inner ear?
Answer: The cochlea, the vestibule, and the semicircular canals.
24g: Which structure of the eye plays the most important role in focusing light on the retina?
Answer: The cornea plays the most important role in focusing light on there tin a because it has the highest converging power.
56b: Where are each located and what are their general functions?
Answer: The crista ampularis is located at the base of each semicircular canal in the ampulla region and it is responsible for detecting the movement of the head, including turning right and left, tilting right and left and nodding. The macula is located in the utricle and saccule of the vestibule. They detect linear and horizontal acceleration and deceleration and tilting forwards and backwards.
24b: Does the human lens converge or diverge light rays?
Answer: The lens converges light rays.
Question 20 What is the relationship between the lens, the ciliary body, and suspensory ligaments?
Answer: The lens is attached to the ciliary body via the suspensory ligaments
39b: What is the macula of the retina?
Answer: The macula of the retina is an indentation in the retina off-center from the optic disc.
27a: When is the near reflex triad employed?
Answer: The near reflex triad is employed in response to focusing on an ear object, meaning that the object is closer than 20 ft from the eye.
22c: What is the optic disc, why is it also known as the blind spot?
Answer: The optic disc optic is the point of exit for ganglion cell axons leaving the eye. There are no photoreceptors in this area. Therefore, it is known as the blind spot
51c: Where is the organ of Corti specifically located?
Answer: The organ of Corti is located within the cochlea.
51a: What is the sensory organ of audition?
Answer: The organ of Corti.
56e: How does the function of the macula relate to that of the organ of Corti?
Answer: The otolith membrane of the macula functions like the tectorial membrane in the organ of Corti
52b: What is the function of the outer hair cells of the organ of Corti?
Answer: The outer hair cells push the tectorial membrane and they selectively amplify the vibration of the basilar membrane.
50a: The inner ear has a bony labyrinth and a membranous labyrinth. What are the three fluid-filled chambers of the cochlea?
Answer: The three fluid-filled chambers include the scala vestibuli (the vestibular duct), the scala media (the cochlear duct) and the scala tympani(the tympanic duct).
50c: What are the three membranes associated with these chambers?
Answer: The three membranes include the vestibular membrane, the tectorial membrane and the basilar membrane.
What are the three neurons involved and how do they communicate with oneanother?
Answer: The three neurons involved include: afferent neurons, interneurons and motor neurons. These neurons communicate through the neurotransmitters that are released in the synaptic clefts between them.
47d: What anatomical structure separates the external ear from the middle ear?
Answer: The tympanic membrane.
Question 38 38a: A person's eyeglass prescription is -2.5. What are the units of this prescription?
Answer: The units are in diopters.
56d: How are the utricle and saccule involved in the detection of head movements?
Answer: The utricle and saccule are at a 90º angle to one another. The utricle is in the horizontal plane, so it detects horizontal acceleration and deceleration (i.e., driving a racecar), and additionally, head tilt. The saccule is in the vertical plane, so it detects vertical acceleration and deceleration (i.e., riding in an elevator).
50b: What are the fluids that each chamber contains?
Answer: The vestibuli and tympani contain the fluid perilymph, while the media contains the fluid endolymph.
22b: What is the visual axis (i.e., principal optical axis)?
Answer: The visual axis is an imaginary straight line that passes through the center of the pupil and lands on the center of the fovea centralis.
21b: Where is the vitreous humor located?
Answer: The vitreous humor is located in the posterior chamber of the eye.
44b: What does it mean when your retina is "bleached"?
Answer: When exposed to light, there is a conformational change that causes opsin to dissociate from retinal, resulting in bleaching.
44a: When light hits rhodopsin, what conformation is retinal converted into?
Answer: When light hits rhodopsin, retinal is converted into the trans conformation.
Question 10 What is the difference between an agonist and an antagonist?
Answer: When something (a drug, for example) binds to a receptor and increases its function, that would be considered an agonist. If the drubbings to the receptor and inhibits its function, that would be considered an antagonist
55b: Are they motile structures?
Answer: Yes, they are motile structures.
31d: What receptors and neurotransmitters are responsible for mydriasis?
Answer: α1 receptors are responsible for mydriasis and norepinephrine is the neurotransmitter.
Antihistamine drugs
Medication administered to block and control allergic reactions, ex. benadryl, zyrtec - they inhibit histamine, which can stimulate no receptors, also vasodilator blood vessel
retinoid cycle
Process in which retinal is restored to a form capable of signaling photon capture - photon hits > 11-trans retinal> gets kicked out or bleached > opsin > enzyme called retinal isomerase where it converge 11-trans-retinal, ATP to 11-cis-retinal, ADP > it regeneration where 11-cis-retinal and opsin are reassembled to form rhodopsin
optic disc
Region at the back of the eye where the optic nerve meets the retina. It is the blind spot of the eye because it contains only nerve fibers, no rods or cones, and is thus insensitive to light. - where all the neuron or axon exit the eyeball,
Gustation (taste)
Responds to chemicals in the mouth - papillae- dot in your tongue - taste buds are in down of ur tongue, open up to taste pore which open to taste buds - taste has taste receptor cell, they synapse with bipolar sensory neuron - 5 different test - sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami or savory (glutamate) - spicy are not sense of taste, which is tharmoreceptors (heartburning)
What are the anatomical components of the peripheral nervous system(PNS)?
The components of the PNS are the cranial and spinal nerves
How many "I" bands are present in one sarcomere: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a 0 b 1 c 2 d 4
a 0
Erectile dysfunction medications, such as Viagra and Cialis: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a are cGMP phosphodiesterase inhibitors b are NOS inhibitors c are M3 agonists d are guanylyl cyclase stimulators
a are cGMP phosphodiesterase inhibitors
Which of the following is located in the posterior horn of the spinal cord: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a cell bodies of somatic sensory interneurons b cell bodies of somatic motor neurons c cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons d cell bodies of autonomic (visceral) sensory neurons
a cell bodies of somatic sensory interneurons
Which of the following is the proper sequence of cells that light comes into contact with as it passes though the retina: a ganglion cells : bipolar cells : photoreceptor cells b photoreceptor cells : ganglion cells : bipolar cells c bipolar cells : ganglion cells : photoreceptor cells d photoreceptor cells : bipolar cell : ganglion cells
a ganglion cells : bipolar cells : photoreceptor cells
Where are myofibrils located: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a in the sarcolemma b in the sarcoplasm c in the sarcoplasmic reticulum d in the endomysium e in the perimysium
a in the sarcolemma
Which of the following is most responsible for feeling horizontal acceleration as you begin to drive a car: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a macula of the utricle b crista ampularis c macula of saccule d organ of corti
a macula of the utricle
If you need (-) diopters for an eyeglass prescription, you are: a myopic b hyperopic
a myopic
Based on the anatomy you've just learned about the eye, what is the "white" of the eye: a sclera b retina c cornea d choroid
a sclera
Which of the following is incorrect regarding spinal reflexes: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a sensory information enters through the ventral ramus b the hand is removed from the tack before the brain perceives pain c efferent information is sent via a multipolar neuron d a unipolar, sensory neuron synapses with an interneuron in the spinal cord
a sensory information enters through the ventral ramus
Which of the following does not occur when a sarcomere contracts: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a the H zone gets wider b the length of the A band remains unchanged c the distance between the Z lines decreases d the zone of overlap increases
a the H zone gets wider
Which of the following is incorrect regarding the receptors of the iris: a the α1 receptor is ionotropic b M3 receptors are located on pupillary constrictor muscle c CNS depressants, like fentanyl, cause miosis d norepinephrine (NE) stimulates the contraction of pupillary dilator muscle
a the α1 receptor is ionotropic
Do myofibers contain myofibrils or do myofibrils contain myofibers: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a umm...the former b umm...the latter
a umm...the former
So, basically, a person with myopia can see better under water than a person with hyperopia: a well, yeah, in theory b no, it's the other way around
a well, yeah, in theory
laser vision correction
a laser removes cells from part of the cornea to change its shape to better focus the light where needed - PRK 1st gen - procedure for the treatment of astigmatism, hyperopia, and myopia in which an excimer laser is used to reshape (flatten) the corneal surface by removing a portion of the cornea, reshaped it, band light ray the we want to from image (surface ablation) - LASIK - laser procedure that reshapes the corneal tissue (flap surgery) - SMILE - minimally invasive, flapless surgery - we are reshaping cornea because most converging happens in cornea
nucleus
aggregation of nerve cell bodies in the central nerve system
ganglion
aggregation of nerve cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system
Which of the following would never be found in the H-zone of a relaxed or compressed sarcomere: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a myomesin b actin c myosin d titin e b and d
b actin
Why is it odd that endolymph has a high concentration of K+: a because there should be a high concentration of cytosolic proteins outside the cell b because ISF normally has a low concentration of K+ c because K+ is normally found in high concentration outside the cell d because the Na+/K+ pump normally pumps potassium into the interstitial fluid
b because ISF normally has a low concentration of K+
Why is the pseudoephedrine-containing compound Sudafed tightly regulated by the FDA: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a because it causes hypotension (low blood pressure) b because it is easily converted to methamphetamine c because it causes pupilary constriction d because it causes anxiety and seizures
b because it is easily converted to methamphetamine
You are microscopic and walking along a sarcolemma. You clumsily fall inside a T-tubule. Where are you now: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a in the lumen of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) b on the outside the cell c swimming in the sarcoplasm of the cell d inside a junctional fold e no clue...
b on the outside the cell
Everyone's house has it's own aroma, or smell. You go over to a new friend's dorm to "study physiology" and as soon as you enter their dorm room you're like (to yourself), "Whoa...barf!" However, after a few minutes, the smell seems to vanish. Our sense of olfaction (or smell) is clearly: a tonic b phasic
b phasic
You have a shirt/top/sweater on right now. However, you likely forgot that (i.e., lost sense of it) until I just reminded you of it right now (you're welcome ;-)). Therefore, tactile receptors in the skin are clearly an example of: a tonic receptors b phasic receptors
b phasic receptors
What is the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase (SERCA): Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a pump calcium out of the SR b pump calcium back into the SR c pump calcium into a T-tubule d pump calcium out of a T-tubule
b pump calcium back into the SR
Perilymph is a ________-rich fluid, whereas endolymph is a ________-rich fluid: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a potassium : calcium b sodium : potassium c calcium : chloride d chloride : sodium
b sodium : potassium
The two subdivision of the efferent autonomic nervous system are: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a somatic : peripheral b sympathetic : parasympathetic c somatic : autonomic d central : peripheral
b sympathetic : parasympathetic
What happens when baroreceptors in your carotid arteries detect elevated blood pressure: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a sympathetic activity to the heart increases b sympathetic activity to the blood vessels decreases c parasympathetic activity to the heart decreases d parasympathetic activity to the blood vessels increases
b sympathetic activity to the blood vessels decreases
Nociceptors are an example of: a phasic receptors b tonic receptors
b tonic receptors
The sense of heat, or a burning sensation, when eating spicy food is mediated by: a bipolar neurons b unipolar neurons c multipolar neurons d northpolar neurons
b unipolar neurons
Disc degeneration with osteophyte formation
bone spicules form and obliterate the space
bulging disc
bulging in the space of the hole
Which of the the following is incorrect regarding anaphylaxis and the EpiPen: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a with anaphylaxis, histamine causes vasodilation and bronchoconstriction b an EpiPen causes bronchodilation because there are more β2 receptors on lung bronchioles than α1 c an EpiPen causes vasoconstriction because there are more β1 receptors on blood vessels than α1 d while an EpiPen is first-line treatment for anaphylaxis, anti-histamines are second-line
c an EpiPen causes vasoconstriction because there are more β1 receptors on blood vessels than α1
Which of the following types of lenses makes up the "near" region of bifocals: a diverging b cylindrical c convex d lenses that correct for myopia
c convex
Which of the following is incorrect of a rod cell in darkness: . a ligand-gated sodium channels are open b rhodopsin is inactive c guanylyl cyclase activity is low d it is depolarized e a, b, and c
c guanylyl cyclase activity is low
When the stereocilia of hair cells bend toward the kinocilium, which of the following will occur first: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a voltage-gated K+ channels open b voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open c mechanically-gated K+ channels open d mechanically-gated Na+ channels open
c mechanically-gated K+ channels open
Which of the following is incorrect regarding ANS neuronal pathways: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a postganglionic parasympathetic neurons have shorter axons than preganglionic parasympathetic neurons b preganglionic parasympathetic neurons secrete acetylcholine c postganglionic parasympathetic neurons secrete norepinephrine d cell bodies of chromaffin cells have ACh nicotinic receptors
c postganglionic parasympathetic neurons secrete norepinephrine
What glial cells are found in this ganglion: a Schwann cells b oligodendrocytes c satellite cells d astrocytes
c satellite cells
What happens when peripheral chemoreceptors sense elevated levels of CO2: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a sympathetic activity to the blood vessels decreases b parasympathetic activity to the heart increases c sympathetic activity to the heart increases d parasympathetic activity to the blood vessels increases
c sympathetic activity to the heart increases
Which of the following statements is correct: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a when the ciliary body contracts, the lens becomes less convex b a diopter is a measure of diverging power c the near reflex triad is a parasympathetic response mediated by muscarinic receptors d someone that is myopic has a focal point that forms far behind their retina
c the near reflex triad is a parasympathetic response mediated by muscarinic receptors
What is sympathetic tone: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a tonic sympathetic neuron action potential durations b tonic sympathetic neuron action potential velocities c tonic sympathetic neuron action potential frequencies d tonic sympathetic neuron action potential amplitudes
c tonic sympathetic neuron action potential frequencies
When retinal is in the ________ conformation, rhodopsin is considered "bleached." As a result, the cell undergoes a ________: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a cis : hyperpolarization b cis : depolarization c trans : hyperpolarization d trans : depolarization
c trans : hyperpolarization
thinning disc
can get degenerated disc
Chili peppers: Capsaicin
can inhibit substance P
vertebral foramen
canal through which spinal cord passes
Somatic nervous system (SNS)
conscious information, only thing we can control is skeletal muscles
Miosis
constriction of the pupil -
convergence of visual axes
contract muscles they pull the eyeballs inward: convergence, binocular vision
Adrenergic receptors: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a are G protein-coupled receptors b are ionotropic c bind catecholamines d a and c e a, b , and c
d a and c
Which of the following is not a component of a thin filament: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a nebulin b G actin c troponin d actinin e tropomyosin
d actinin
If you have taken an antihistamine, like Benadryl, before, you likely took it for: a the common cold b the flu c a cut on your hand d an allergic reaction
d an allergic reaction
Which association regarding analgesia is incorrect: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a capsaicin : substance P b NSAIDs : prostaglandins c lidocaine : voltage-gated Na+ channels d aspirin : histamine
d aspirin : histamine
Which of the following associations is incorrect: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a nearsightedness : elongated eyeball b hyperopia : converging lenses c concave lenses : divergence of light rays d astigmatism : convex lenses
d astigmatism : convex lenses
Why are middle ear infections a relatively common thing: a because the middle ear is directly connected to the nasal cavity by the internal auditory meatus b because the middle ear is directly connected to the trachea (windpipe) by the internal auditory meatus c because the middle ear is directly connected to the esophagus by the internal auditory meatus d because the middle ear is directly connected to the pharynx (throat) by the internal auditory meatus
d because the middle ear is directly connected to the pharynx (throat) by the internal auditory meatus
The hairs of these hair cells are called stereocilia. What are stereocilia: a dendrites of a bipolar sensory neuron b apical surface motile structures c cytoplasmic structures supported by microtubules d long microvilli
d long microvilli
Which of the following is correct regarding the order of sound transduction through the auditory ossicles: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a incus : stapes : malleus b stapes : malleus : incus c incus : malleus : stapes d malleus : incus : stapes
d malleus : incus : stapes
Which of the following is incorrect regarding the receptors of the ciliary body: . a the β2 receptor is metabotropic b M3 receptor activation makes the lens more convex c ACh causes lens accommodation d norepinephrine (NE) causes a decrease in suspensory ligament tension
d norepinephrine (NE) causes a decrease in suspensory ligament tension
Dark vs. light adaptation
dark adaptation - the process in which the eyes become more sensitive to light in low illumination - maximum rod sensitivity (20-30min0 - cones are sensitivity light adaptation - the process in which eyes become less sensitive to light in high illumination - rod cells get bleached, cones reduce sensitivity
The PNS is composed of: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a cranial nerves b spinal nerves c sensory organs d a and b e a, b, and c
e a, b, and c
What effect can Viagra have on the eye: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a enhances vision b impairs vision c prevents rods/cones from becoming hyperpolarized d a and c e b and c
e b and c
Which of the following contains the cell bodies of postganglionic autonomic neurons: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a dorsal root ganglia b collateral (prevertebral) ganglia c ventral root ganglia d sympathetic chain ganglia e b and d
e b and d
Which of the following is not located in a T-tubule: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a voltage-gated Na+ channels b K+ leak channels c voltage-gated K+ channels d Na+/K+ pumps e ligand-gated Na+ channels
e ligand-gated Na+ channels
Neurophysiology - PNS afferent Tophat The PNS is composed of: a. cranial nerves b. spinal nerves c. sensory organs d. a and b e. a, b, and c
e. a, b, and c
The dorsal root ganglion is an aggregation of nerve cell bodies in the PNS. What type of neurons are these: a bipolar b unipolar c multipolar d sensory e motor f interneuron g b and d h a and f
g. b and d
choroid
middle, vascular layer of the eye, between the retina and the sclera - form smooth (ring) muscle call ciliary body , also makes iris (has pigments, white of the eye which is sclera) - ciliary body attached lens and suspensory ligament attached to the lens and ciliary body - ANS regulates it
NSAIDs
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs EX. Aspirin, ibuprofen - they inhibit Cox enzyme, which inhibit prostaglandin, which stimulate the nerve cause sensation of pain
Nociception
perception of pain
Photoreceptors
photoreceptors (vision)
Mechanoreceptors
tactile receptors (touch) , nociceptors (pain), baroreceptors(pressure), proprioceptors (position), auditory receptors (hearing) ,and equilibrioceptors (equilibrium and balance)
spinal nerves
there are 31 pair, only 30 vertebrae,
Thermoreceptors
thermal receptors (cold and hot) and nociceptors (pain)
Opiates : endorphins and morphine
they inhibit center nerve system - reduce our sensation of pain
referrred pain
when you have heart attach, feeling pain in Left arm as well - the reason is when nociceptor from your heart and from ur hand coming into spinal cord, you see these neuron are close to each other - In the gray matter, when ur having heart attach, the sense is get through red neuron, which also has connection with blue neuron which getting sensory information to you arm, that activate blue neuron by a nociceptor from the heart, where both neuron goes to brain
Sclera
white of the eye - become cornea of the eye - connective to epithelia tissue - it transparent