Exam 2 Map

Iberian Kingdoms

For those kingdoms established in the Middle Ages in the Iberian Peninsula see Portugal, Castille and Aragon

Frankish Kingdoms

After the Franks successfull invaded the western Roman Empire, the Merovingian dynasty, especially under Clovis, founda a kingdom covering much of northern France and the Rhineland. Soon expanding in all directions, the Franks covered most of what is modern-day France, the low countries, Switzerland and Western Germany. Divided under Clovis's heirs, the Frankish Kingdoms almost quarelled their way into insignificance. But while the "Do-nothing" kings lost power, the mayors of the palace under the Carolingian dynasty managed to reunite the kingdom by the mid-eighth century

Holy Roman Empire

Although many historians look to Charlemagne's coronation as Emperor of the Romans in 800 as its foundation, the Holy Roman Empire really began its continuous history with Otto the Great's coronation in 962. From that time on German dynasties of kings controlled both Germany and northern Italy, the core of the empire. Soon kings added Burgundy (southeastern France) and Bohemia. By the eleventh century the power of the emperors was strong enough to influence the papacy, but the Investiture Struggle (1076-1122) marked the beginning of the decline of royal power in Germany. By the late middle ages the empire was in serious decline, with the emperor increasingly confined in power to just Germany and Bohemia while territorial princes ruled in places like Bavaria and Saxony. The Habsburg dynasts of Austria tried to re-catholicize and dominate the state in the 30 Years War, but they failed. The Treaty of Westphalia kept the emperor weak and the empire religiously divided. The wars of the French Revolution brought about its total collapse as an institution in 1806

AngloSaxon Kingdoms

Beginning in A.D. 450 the groups of Germans (such as the Angles, Saxons and Jutes) invaded the island of Great Britain establishing numerous kingdoms on the island. The native Britons and Romans were either subjugated, or retreated to Cornwall, Wales or across the Channel to Brittany. In the ninth century the Vikings invaded and destroyed most of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. What survived were restored and reorganized by Alfred the Great who is considered the founder of England

Carolingian Empire

Begun by King Pepin with his conquest of Lombardy, at its height under Charlemagne in included what would be modern dayFRance, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Switzerland, northern Italy, Austria and Western Germany. Charlemagne built Aachen as its capital city. It broke up under Charlemagne's grandchildren in the mid-eighth century

Charles V Empire

Charles V Habsburg ruled over an empire on which the sun never set. From his father he inherited Spain and the new world colonies in Peru and Mexico, as well as the newly discovered Philippines, named after his son. From his mother he inherited the Netherlands, Burgundy, Milan, the Austrian territories. His brother brought in Hungary and Bohemia, and he himself got elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1519. He resigned the empire in 1556, after failing to destroy the Protestants

Spain

Created at the end of the 15th century by the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille. Financing Columbus's voyage in 1492, Spain soon became, briefly, a major power, conquering much of the Americas and the Philippines. Philip II sent an Armada through the English Channel to ferry troops from the Netherlands in 1588 to invade England, but the effort failed. Spain began to decline after 1660

Aragon

Established during the Reconquesta of the Iberian Peninsula, it is located along its southeastern edge. Ferdinand of Aragon's marriage to Isabella of Castille created modern Spain.

Belgium

Created during the Revolutions of 1830 as a result of the breakup of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. It lies just south of the mouth of the Rhine River, nestled against France and the North Sea

Castile

Estabished during the Reconquesta, it dominates the center of the Iberian Peninsula. That kingdom reconquered Toledo from the muslims in 1085, making that city its capital. The manuscripts, especially from Aristotle, found in that multicultural city, led to a cultural revival in Western Christendom. The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille at the end of the 15th Century created modern Spain.

Portugal

Established during the Reconquesta of the Iberian Peninsula, Portugal runs along the western edge of the Iberian Peninsula. Cut off by Castille from further crusading against the muslims, the Portuguese began to sail down to Afirca. Thus they began the first modern European colonial empire, eventually stretching around Africa to India and the Indies. It quickly faded in importance, important parts being seized by the English, French and Dutch. Brazil rebelled from its rule and became independent in 1822. But remnants lasted into the 20th century

Germany

In Ancient times "Germania" was the broad region where Germans lived on the borders of the Roman Empire. In the Middle Ages, the "German Kingdom" was the most important part of the Holy Roman Empire, which lasted until 1806. The Second German Empire was created by Bismarck in 1871 in the heart of Europe. Bordered by the Baltic Sea to the north, the Alps and Bohemia to the south, France to the west and Poland to the East

Romania

In the Middle Ages it was a frontier area mixing Slavic and Roman heritage. It won independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878, at the same time as Serbia and Bulgaria. It is located in the Carpathian Mountains, forming an arc stretching northwards from the lower Danube River

Sardinia

Island located South of Corsica and West of the central Italian Peninsula. After 1815 it became a part of the important Kingdom of Sardinia/Savoy/Piedmont.

Netherlands

Located in the northwestern part of the lowlands, by the early modern period the Netherlands began to separate more distinctly from Flanders. While Flanders remained largely Catholic and French-speaking, the Netherlands became Calvinist and Dutch speaking. Beginning in 1581, the Dutch fought a eighty-year War of Independence to free themselves from the Spanish kings, finally successful after the 30 Years War in 1648. In the early seventeenth century until the mid-1600s, the Netherlands was the greatest economic power in Europe, based on its huge network of transport ships and the stock market in Amsterdam. It also acquired the East Indies (modern Indonesia) as a colony, as well as, briefly some in North America (what would be New York and New Jersey), South America and South Africa

Vienna

Located on the Danube River, Vienna became the capital of Austria, the most important of the Habsburg dynasty's possessions. In 1815 rulers and representatives from all over Europe attended the Congress of Vienna, which redrew the maps of Europe after the chaos of the Napoleonic Wars.

Pisa

Pisa lays near the western coast of Italy, toward the north. Today it lies a few miles inland, but in the Middle Ages it was a major port city which encouraged trade and commerce, along with Genoa and Venice in Lombardy. It is today most famous for its Leaning Tower. One of the popes of the "Great Schism" (1378-1417) resided there (as opposed to Rome or Avignon). It lost its independence to Florence in the early 1400s

Papal States

Since the Donation of Pepin in 756 the Bishop of Rome, the pope, has controlled territories in central Italy. Later popes, like Boniface VIII, and those of the Renaissance reaffirmed direct rule, acting like temporal, secular princes. These territories were lost to the pope during the Risorgimento, or reunification of Italy in 1871. The Vatican City was restored to temporal papal rule by Mussolini

Russia

Starting in the late 1400s the dukes of Muscovy (Moscow) threw off the dominion of the Mongols/Tartars. Soon uniting most of the Russians, by 1687 they were also expanding into both Asia, the Caucasus and Europe to create a vast empire. Tsar Peter the Great and Tsar Catherine II the Great are examples of two absolute monarchs who ruled over the Russian Empire

Prague

Surrounded by the Sudeten mountains Prague became the capital of Bohemia. As part of the Habsburg dominions it became an important cultural center. The 30 Years War started there with the defenestration of the Habsburg emperor's officials. Today it is the capital of the Czech Republic. It is located on the map, but you are not responsible for knowing it

Ottoman Empire

The Turkish dynasty of the Ottomans established a Muslim empire in 1291 as they invaded Asia Minor. The next century they invaded mainland Europe, and subjugated much of the Balkans, including the crushing of Serbia at the Battle of the Field of Crows on June 28, 1389. An aggressive modern power for the times, the Ottomans led thier muslim djihad to threaten Vienna with conquest in 1527 and 1680, as well as successfully conquering Palestine and North Africa. After 1700 the empire went into comparative decline, becoming the "Sick Man of Europe" by 1900. In 1829 the Greeks won their independence. In 1878 it lost Serbia, Rumania and Bulgaria.

Black Sea

The body of water to the north of Asia Minor, entered through the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus. Greek poleis settled along its southern coast in ancient times. Russia and the Ottoman Empire fought over access to it in the Crimean War

England

The country that formed in the southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain. England was first made distinct as the province of Briton in the Roman Empire, with Hadrian's Wall as the province's and the empire's northernmost border. England was created as the last remnants of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms fought off the Vikings under Alfred the Great. William of Normandy established a new dynasty there in 1066. After a civil war, in 1154 Henry II established the Plantegenet or Angevin dynasty, named after his possession of the county of Anjou in France. This dynasty lasted the rest of the Middle Ages, until 1485. The English dominated the island of Great Britain, conquering Wales by the late Middle Ages and uniting with Scotland after the death of Elizabeth I. The English also tried to defend territories on the French mainland, leading to King John's failure and the Magna Carta in 1215 (which led to Parliament by 1295). The Hundred Years War between England and France was also over English control of France

Bohemia

The small central European Province nestled between the mountains around its capital city of Prague, was established by the Czech people. The Germans for a long while mixed with the Czech population, after making the region part of the Holy Roman Empire. A conflict about power and religion in 1618 between the Bohemians and the Austrian Habsburg dynasty who ruled the province led to the 30 Years War. The province then belonged to the Austrian Empire

Geneva

This city in the french-speaking part of the Swiss Alps rose to prominence under the leadership of John Calvin. That Protestant Reformer tried to create the ideal community in Geneva, and did use it as the center of evangelism. Today Geneva is an important diplomatic center for the United Nations

Aquitaine

a large province of southeastern France, bordering against the Pyrenees Mountains, it became part of the vast possessions of Henry II Plantegent, Angevin King of England, through his marriage to the Duchess Eleanor. King John lost most of the province in a war against Philip Augustus. The issue of the King of England's continuing control of that remnant helped contribute to causing the 100 Years War, at the end of which the English lost almost all possessions in France

Atlantic

a body of water of which only a small portion of this ocean appears on the map, covering the western side and stretching around the northwest. On the globe it reaches from the Arctic Ocean in the north to Antarctica in the south. It separates the Americas from Europe and Africa. In the pay of Spain, Christopher Columbus crossed this ocean hoping to find an alternate route to the Indies than around Africa (which the Portuguese were doing). He discovered the Americas by mistake

Lake Geneva

a lake in the western Alps at the headwaters of the Rhône River. Do not confuse it with Lake Constance just to the east which flows into the Rhine River

Rhine

a major river flowing northward from the Alps to the North Sea. On either side of its mouth are the "Lowlands." Along with the Danube River, it formed an essential part of the northern border of the Roman Empire. The Germans consider it their river, the French often want to see it as their border. The city of Worms, where the Concordat of 1122 was signed and the Diet of 1519 was held, is on the upper Rhine

Pyrenees

a range of mountains separating the Iberian Peninsula from the rest of Europe. Thus it has formed the border between countries like Muslim Caliphates vs. the Carolingian Empire or Aragon and Spain vs. France. Therein lies the small country of Andorra

Trent

a small cathedral town in the Alps of northern Italy, Trent provided a compromise location for the Council of Trent which established the Catholic or Counter-Reformation. It was a German principality so the German King could accept it; yet it wasn't really German, or in Rome so the French king could accept it; and it was still in Italy so the pope could accept it

Central Europe

a vague area that generally includes Germany and the Italian Peninsula, but can also include Scandinavia and parts of Eastern Europe. Some use it to mean Germany and Eastern Europe west of Russia

Adriatic

an arm of the Mediterranean nestled between the Italian and the Balkan Peninsulas, ending where the heel of the former comes within 50 miles of the latter. Venice lies on the north coast of the sea

Urals

an easternmost range of mountains in Europe, traditionally separating the cultural area of "the West" or Europe from Asia (technically all one continent, namely Eurasia). In 1687 the Russians soon crossed the Urals to begin the domination of northern Asia, namely Siberia.

Baltic

an isolated sea squeezed between the north of Eastern Europe and Scandinavia. The passage to the North Sea lays around Denmark. Along its southern coast lay the Prussian people who when conquered by the Teutonic Knights became part of Prussia. From 1648 to 1721 the sea became virtually a "Swedish Lake" as Sweden dominated most of its coastline. Peter the Great's defeat of Sweden and his building of St. Petersburg on one of its arms brought Russian power to the sea

Venice

on the northeastern coast of Italy, at the north of the Adriatic Sea, Venice grew as an island city-state protected by the sea. In the High Middle Ages with Genoa and Pisa in paved the way for a revival of trade and commerce in the west. At its urgings the crusaders conquered Constantinple in the 4th Crusade. By the late Middle Ages Venice had built an empire, but by early modern times other states confined Venetian influence to its islands and nearby coastline

Greece

at the south of the Balkan Peninsula, Greece is the original home of the Hellenes, or Greek people. Although the Greeks spread throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea, Greeks nowadays are limited to this area, the location of the modern country of Greece. The Greeks achieved a nation-state in 1829 after revolting from the Ottoman Empire

France

bordered by the English Channel on the north, the Atlantic to the west, the Pyrenees Mountains to the southwest, the Mediterranean to the south, and the Alps to the south east. Its western border was a source of warfare between France from its beginnings with the breakup of the Carolingian Empire in 843 until the 20th Century. Its provinces of Aquitaine, Champagne, the Isle de France, Normandy, Anjou played important roles in medieval history. The Isle de France was the base of the Capetian dynasty of kings. King Philip II Augustus took over Normandy, Anjou, and most of Aquitaine to create strong French kings. King Philip IV the Fair and his Estates-General continued in this tradition.

Byzantine Empire

centered in the southern Balkans and western Asia Minor, it was actually the Roman Empire which survived the Germanic Barbarian Invasions. The eastern part of the Roman Empire is called Byzantine after the city of Byzantium which became Constantinople, its capital. Increasingly Greek in character, the Orthodox church separated from the western Christians in the 11th century. The empire survived numerous onslaughts by the muslims, only to fall briefly to the Western Crusaders in 1204 and ultimately to the Ottoman Turks in 1453

Bulgaria

created in 1878 alongside Serbia and Romania out of the Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria lies south of the mouth of the Danube River, exanding to border the Black and Aegean Seas by 1913

Switzerland

encompassing most of the northwestern Alps, especially between Lake Geneva and Lake Constance, this small country began in 1291 as the local peasants defied the rule of the Habsburgs. It won its full independence in the 30 Years War. Today its three main languages are French, Italian and German, with a small group speaking Rheto-Romansch, a dialect of ancient Latin. It is also divided between Protestantism and Roman Catholocism, showing that many different kinds of people can live in the same country. Home to the Geneva of John Calvin. Although briefly conquered by the French during their Revolution, since the Renaisance Switzerland has tried to be a neutral country in international affairs

Western Europe

especially important as a cultural region west of a line drawn from Scandanavia through the Adriatic. It especially includes the core countries of Western Civlization: England, France and Italy, as well as Germany

Genoa

on the northwestern coast of Italy, Genoa was one of the important cities (along with Venice and Pisa near Lombardy) that promoted trade and commerce in the High Middle Ages. The explorer Christobolo Colombo came from that city.

Egypt

following along the Nile River, for thousands of years a great civilization flourished here. Lower Egypt lays at the broad delta; Upper Egypt streches south into Africa until the Sudan. After 1000 B.C. Egypt came to be dominated by a succession of powers like Assyria and Persia, the Greeks then the Romans, then Arabs and Turks. The British took over Egypt at the end of the 19th century to secure the Suez Canal

Austria

founded during the time of Charlemagne as a march against the east, it lies along the Danube river and through the Alps eastward. As a key territory of the Habsburg dynasty it became the core of their vast empire. The traditional capital has been Vienna. The Habsburgs proclaimed the Austrian Empire in 1804 as the Holy Roman Empire collapsed under Napoleon's assualts. After 1868 it became known as Austria-Hungary

Balkan Peninsula

from the Peloponnesus in the south, the Balkans extend north just past the Danube River, between the Adriatic and Black Seas. Today many different peoples are quarreling about control of the area in countries largely of Slavic ethnicity. The Greeks won a nation state in 1829. In 1878 three new countries were carved out of the Ottoman empire there: Serbia, Rumania and Bulgaria

Sweden

in Scandanavia, bordered by the Baltic Sea to the south and east, Sweden briefly was a major power in early modern times. During the 30 Years War Sweden conquered large parts of Germany. Sweden's decline began as Peter the Great of Russia defeated it and took away many possessions in the early 1700s. Today it is a role model of a socialist/capitalist mixture state

Prussia

in the 13th century the Teutonic Knights, an order of monk-knights dedicated to crusading, conquered the pagan Prussians living in northeastern Europe on the south coast of the Baltic Sea. The created their own monk ruled principality there, which after the Reformation became a secular state inherited by the Margraves of Brandenburg. The Hohenzollern dynasty then became the rulers of the combined Kingdom of Prussia with Brandenburg. In the 19th century Chancellor Bismarck led Prussia to unify most of Germany by 1871.

Champagne

in this province of France just east of Paris several towns experienced a revival of economic growth and prosperity in the 12th century as they promoted fairs for commerce and exchange.

Corsica

it is one of the islands to the west of Italy, just north or its partner, Sardinia. Because it is closer to France, it has been more French in character. Napoleon Bonaparte came from the island

Sicily

it is one of the islands to the west of the Italian Peninsula, just off the tip of "toe" of the "boot." With southern Italy is is part of "Magna Graecia," whre many Greeks lived in ancient times. In the 4th century B.C. the Romans first confronted the Carthaginians here as they fought over the island, thus beginning the Punic Wars. Normans conquered the island from the Byzantine Empire in the 11th century A.D. During the Risorgimento 1848-1871, the adventurer Garibaldi invaded the island and conquered it. He then handed it, along with his other conquests on the peninsula, over to Cavour of Sardinia-Savoy-Piedmont, thus creating a largely united Kingdom of Italy by 1860

Jerusalem

lies in Palestine just west of the River Jordan and the Dead Sea. It was the capital of one of the ancient Hebrew kingdoms. The Roman Empire acquired the region in the first century B.C. There Jesus of Nazereth died by crucifixion. Muslims conquered the area in the eighth century A.D. The city was the target of the Crusades, a military effort by Western Christendom to conquer the Holy Land. They were successful in the First Crusade (1096-1099), but by 1271 were driven out of the region. Today the city is the putative capital of Israel, and is considered a holy city by Jews, Christians and Muslims

Hungary

on the plains of Hungary centered around the middle Danube river, the Magyars established their home base for raids into western Europe. By 1000 they had evolved into a Christian Kingdom. Briefly overrun by the Turks in the 16th century, Hungary was reconquered the Austrian Habsburgs who made it part of their growing empire

Isle de France

located along the upper Seine, south of Normandy, the province just around the city of Paris, it provided the foundation for the Count of Paris to replace the Carolingian Dynasty with his own, the Capetian, in 987

Normandy

lying along the southern coast of the English Channel, Normandy was created by a group of Norsemen, or Vikings, who were granted that territory in the ninth century by the French king. They soon gave up their Viking language for French, but remained an energetic and aggressive people. One group of Normans invaded southern Italy and Sicily in the mid-twelfth century, while another under Duke William conquered England in 1066. Normandy remained united with England under the Norman Kings and first Angevin kings until John lost it in war with Philip Augustus of France

Asia Minor

meaning "lesser Asia," it is the peninsula jutting westward off the rest of Asia and the Middle East, south of the Black Sea and east of the Aegean. It and the Middle East could be considered Southwest Asia. The Greeks saw it as the beginning of Asia while the Persians ruled there. The conquest of most of Asia Minor by the Seljuk Turks in the eleventh century, gravely weakened the Byzantine Empire. Their call for help to Western Christendom led to the crusades. The Ottoman empire dominated the region from the fourteenth century until its collapse in 1918. Today it is the heart of modern Turkey.

Istanbul

meaning "to the city" it became the Turkish name for what had been Byzantium, then Constantinople, the important city on the Bosphorus. Conquered by the Turks in 1453 it became the capital of the Ottoman Empire

Denmark

one of the Scandinavian kingdoms from which the Vikings set out on the missions of plunder, it spread across the peninsula jutting north of Germany and the islands just to the east. It is East of the North Sea and West of the Baltic Sea. In the late Middle Ages Denmark united with Norway, and briefly Sweden

Holland

one of the provinces of the Dutch Netherlands often used as a synonym for the whole country. See Netherlands

Iberian Peninsula

or Iberia is the proper name to the quadrilateral shaped mass of land to the west of the Pyrenees. Do not just call it "Spain" since that country did not appear until about 1500 and the peninsula today includes countries of Portugal, Gibraltar, Andorra as well as the Basque people

Strait

or Straits refer to narrow sea passages between land masses. You need to know the Strait of Gibraltar (see Gibraltar), and the Straits of the Dardanelles and Bosphorus (see either Dardanelles or Bosphorus.

Constantinople

or the city of Constantine, it was founded by that emperor in the early fourth century A.D. as a second capital in the east for the Roman Empire. It continued as a major city, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, or what is often called the Byzantine Empire, until its conquest by the Turks in A.D. 1453. They renamed it Istanbul (meaning on the way to the city). It lays right by the important sea passage of the Bosphorus

Norway

stretching northwards along the Scandnavian peninsula, whose western border is the North Sea and North Atlantic ocean, Norway was one of the major homelands of the Vikings.

Habsburg Empire

the Habsburg dynasty, beginning from a small castle in modern day Switzerland were able, especially through marriage treaties and inheritance to amass a vast empire. Their first success was Austria in 1276. The Archdukes of Austria gained control of the throne of the Holy Roman Empire in 1440, keeping it in the family almost constantly until its collapse in 1806. Also by 1517 Charles V Habsburg had managed to inherit Milan, the Netherlands, Spain, and with it the entire new world. His son Philip II kept the Netherlands (which then fought for its independence), and Spain, while the Austria Habsburgs kept control of the title of Holy Roman Emperor, Austria, Bohemia and Hungary. A dispute over the Reformation in Bohemia led to the 30 Years War, which resulted in a weakening of the Holy Roman Imperial office, but a strengthening of the Habsburg princes in the Austrian, Bohemian and Hungarian possessions. By 1806 the Habsburgs had lost the title of Holy Roman Emperor, but gained their own title of Emperor of Austria. In 1867 their territory became the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary

Flanders

the Lowlands area at the mouth of the Rhine River, Flanders became one of the most important economic regions of Europe during the High Middle Ages. The desire of the French King to bring this territory under his centralized control, and the English King to preserve Flemish independence was one of the causes of the Hundred Years War

Paris

the area known as the île de France, in northern France, but south of Normandy, was center of power for the counts of Paris. Under Philip Augustus the growing city of Paris became the capital for France. The government moved out under Louis XIV, but Paris was restored as capital during the French Revolution.

Lombardy

the area of northern Italian Peninsula, especially the fertile plains on either side of the Po River. It lays north of central Italy and Rome, and just south of the Alps. The Lombards, a German people who conquered the area in the Early Middle Ages, gave their name to the region. First in 756 the frankish King Pepin the Short, then his son Charlemagne conquered Lombardy, creating the Carolingian Empire. Lombard cities like Genoa became important as the region became one of the most advanced economic areas in Europe during the High Middle Ages

North Sea

the arm of the Atlantic Ocean bordered by Great Britain on the west, Scandinavia on the east and continental Europe (the Lowlands and Germany) on the south. Do not locate it too far north: north of Great Britain is the Atlantic again. The groups of Germans called Angles, Saxons, and Jutes crossed this see from Scandinavia to begin conquering the island of Great Britain around A.D. 450. Later, from the 9th to the 11th centuries, the Vikings crossed this sea to raid England and the Holy Roman Empire

Toledo

the city in central Iberian Peninsula which had been the capital of the Visigothic kingdom destroyed by the Muslim invaders of the 8th century. When reconquered by the Christians in 1085 the books in the Arab libraries inspired a cultural revival in the west, especially through the writings of Aristotle

Florence

the city in north-central Italy in the late Middle Ages it was an indepent city-state. The Renassance originated there in 1400. Lying to the east of Pisa, it conquered that city in the early 1400s. The city later declined in power and wealth, although it was briefly the capital of a new Italian Kingdom in the 1860s

Avignon

the city on the Rhône River, in modern southeastern France. In the Middle Ages, however, it was part of Burgundy, then an independent territory controlled by the church. From the years 1305-1377 popes, normally bishops of Rome, resided there in the so-called "Babylonian Captivity." After returning to Rome, an new papal election created the Great Schism, where a pope resided in Rome and another in Avignon, then a third in Pisa. The Schism was resolved by the Council of Constance 1415-1417. The town is also famous for its Roman bridge, commemorated in a children's song

Aachen

the city on west side the lower (northern part of the) Rhine River. It was Charlemagne's main residence, built as his capital city. It became a center for the intellectual revival called the Carolingian Renaissance.

Crusader States

the crusaders of Western Christendom established several crusader states. In the Holy Land, Outremer, or Palestine the First Crusade (1096-1099) conquered Jerusalem. That city and the surrounding principalities became the Crusader States of Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli and Jerusalem. They soon began to fall to muslim reconquest, finally wiped out by 1291. Prussia conquered by the Tuetonic Knights along the Baltic and Portugal Castille and Aragon in the Iberian Peninsula could also be considered a crusader state

Arabia

the desert region in the heart of the Arabian Peninsula, which extends from the Middle East as part of the larger Arabian Peninsula which streches into the Indian Ocean between the Persian Gulf in the northeast and the Red Sea on the west. Be sure to locate this desert region south of Mesopotamia, away from the fertile area of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and sufficiently east of the Palestinian coastline with the River. The region was of little importance until Mohammed, the Arab native who in A.D.622 founded Islam in Mecca. From there over the next century Arab armies conquered much of the Middle East, north Africa and into Europe in the Iberian Peninsula.

Nile

the important North African river, which flows northward into a wide delta emptying into the Mediterranean. Its regular flooding helped to establish civilization in Egypt

Africa

the large continent south of Europe, across the Mediterranean Sea and west of the Red Sea. Just the northernmost portion is on this map. From the global point of view it looks like a horsehead. The Portuguese in the 1400s began to invade Africa, first motivated by crusade, but then by the wealth and opportunities for colonial imperialism. The Portuguese rounded the continent on the quest to reach the Indies by sea by the end of the 15th century

Europe

the large peninsula, with many sub-peninsulas, that juts off the western landmass of Eurasia. Its traditional eastern borders are the Ural Mountains, Caspian Sea, Black Sea, and the Straits of Dardanelles and Bosphorus. The many peoples who live there formed Western Civilization and spread it around the world. See also Central Europe, Eastern Europe and Western Europe

Gibraltar

the large rock mountain at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula gives its name to the narrow sea passage of the Strait of Gibaltar, connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the Mediterranean Sea. It is named after a Muslim conqueror. By the Napoleonic Wars it became a British possession, controlling the entrance to the Mediterranean. The Prudential insurance company uses the mountain as a symbol.

Worms

this cathedral city on the west bank of the upper (southern part of the) Rhine River was the site of two major events. In 1122 the papacy and German Kings agreed to the Concordat of Worms as a compromise ending the Investiture Struggle. In 1520 Emperor Charles V held a Diet (an imperial meeting) to examine, then condemn the reform ideas of Martin Luther

Great Britain

the largest of the British Isles, in the Northeast of Europe. To its east is the North Sea (don't get confused about that), to its south is the English Channel. This island was the Roman Empire's northernmost province (although the Romans did not control the very northern part which later became Scotland). It can be used as the name for the countries united by the Stuart dynasty in 1603, namely England, Scotland and Wales, along with Ireland

Roman Empire

the last great empire of the ancient world, the Romans started from a small city state to dominate the Mediterranean region. Its northernmost province was Britain (although they were unable to conquer what would become Scotland. In the west Romans were in Spain and North Africa. In the east the Romans held Mesopotamia for awhile, but were often held off and defeated by Persia. The northern European frontier stretched down the Rhine then across to the Danube, with the province of Dacia (modern day Romania) held for a while north of the Danube. The Roman's called the Mediterranean "our lake.

Italian Peninsula

the long "leg and boot" extending from the south of Europe. The Alps form the northern border, the Adriatic lays between it and the Balkans. Also known as Italy, although that name belongs properly to the country created in the late nineteenth century. Located in the Italian Peninsula are the cities of Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and Florence, and Rome

Mediterranean Sea

the long body of water surrounded by Europe to the north and Africa to the south. Its name in Latin means "in the middle of land." It formed the core of the Roman Empire. The Romans even called it "mare nostra," or "our lake."

Danube

the longest river in Europe, it begins in the Alps, then winds its way through Germany, Austria, Hungary, and the Balkans until it empties into the Black Sea. Along with the Rhine River, it formed an essential part of the northern border of the Roman Empire. Vienna, the capital of Austria lies on the river. Johann Strauss wrote the famous waltz "An den schönen blauen Donau" about it, but it is rarely blue today

Lowlands

the low flat country around the mouth of the Rhine River, bordering the English Channel and North Sea. Always an important area, today the nations of Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg lay there. The area was known as Flanders in the Middle Ages, where it became a major economic center of the Middle Ages. Its attempt to be independent helped cause the 100 Years War. The Dutch declared independence against Philip II of Spain in 1581, splitting the region into Catholic and Protestant parts

Tigris and Euphrates

the major river system of the Middle East, flowing into the Persian Gulf. It is part of the larger "Fertile Crescent" which stretches into southwest into Palestine. The rivers give their name to Mesopotamia, the "Cradle of Civlization."

Red Sea

the narrow arm of the Indian Ocean separating Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. Some associate it with the "Sea of Reeds" crossed by the Hebrews during the Exodus. Since the 19th Century, the Suez Canal connects it with the Mediterranean.

English Channel

the narrow sea passage between Great Britain and Europe connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the North Sea. Do not focus only on the Strait of Dover, the narrowest point in the east. Crossed by William the Conqueror to invade England in 1066; passed through by the Spanish Armada in its failed attempt to conquer England in 1588

Saxony

the province of northern Germany, around the Elbe River, which Charlemagne spent thirty years conquering. It later expanded to the east. The Duke of Saxony in the 1500s supported the reforms of Martin Luther

Mesopotamia

the region between and around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In the heart of the Middle East its name is from the Greek for "between the two rivers." It forms the core of the "Fertile Crescent" which also includes Palestine/Judaea/Cannan/the Levant. Mesopotamia was briefly part of the Roman Empire, but a source of contention with the Persians. By the eighth century A.D. it was the center of Islamic power. Today it lies in much of modern Iraq

Ireland

the second largest of the British Isles, just to the west of Great Britain. Technically the island is called Hibernia. Unconquered by the Romans, since the Middle Ages it was invaded by Vikings then the English, who increasingly dominated the island. By the 17th century they controlled the island and encouraged the settlement of Protestants from Wales and Scotland in the northern region called Ulster. Today two countries, the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland share the island

Bavaria

the significant province in southern Germany, south of the Danube River and north of the Alps.

Rome

the small city-state in the center of the Italian Peninsula near its western coast, a few miles inland on the Tiber River. In legend founded by Romulus, in history Rome was the starting point of the large Roman Empire, especially in winning the Punic Wars against Carthage. As the capital city of the Roman Empire for most of its ancient history, the Republican consuls, dictators, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, Julius Caesar, Augustus Caesar, Diocletian and Constantine ruled there. After the fall of the western part of the Roman Empire, the bishop of Rome, or the pope, soon became the most important leader of the city. As capital of the Papal States, Rome was part of European politics through the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and into modern times. The pope's temporaral rule only ended when Italy became a national Kingdom in A.D. 1871, making the city its new capital

Palestine

the small strip of fertile land along the southern half of the easternmost Mediterranean Coast, especially west of the River Jordan and the Dead Sea. It is part of the Fertile Crescent linked to Mesopotamia. In ancient times, it became off and on the home of the Hebrew people, until the Diaspora from Hellenistic times until the first century A.D. By then the Romans drove most of the Jews from the region. The muslims conquered the region from the Byzantine Empire in the 8th century. From 1099 to 1291 Christian Crusaders from western Europe established states there, subjugating the local population. The muslims reconquered the region by 1291, soon after becoming part of the Ottoman Empire. With the movement of Zionism in the late 19th Century, many Jews called for Palestine to become a new state of Jewish nationality

Alps

the tallest mountains in Europe, they stretch from the Mediterranean in a northeastern arc, separating the Italian Peninsula from the rest of Europe. The French, Swiss, Germans, Austrians, Italians and Slovenes (Yugoslavs) all claim parts of them. The Alps are the main route to invade Italy from northern Europe. In 1077 King Henry IV of Germany crossed the Alps in order to beg Pope Gregory VII's forgiveness at Canossa. French armies invaded Italy in 1494

Scandinavia

the territories and peninsulas framed by the Atlantic on the northwest and north, the North Sea on the west, and the Baltic on the south and east. It also includes the Danish islands and Jutland, the peninsula pointing into the split of Norway and Sweden, separating the North Sea from the Baltic. From their homeland here, the Vikings from the eighth to the eleventh centuries A.D. plagued the rest of Europe

Italy

through the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times Italy was a geographical location not a country. It is the same as the long Italian Peninsula stretching south from the Alps. During the Middle Ages the Franks dominated Lombardy in the north, later becoming part of the Holy Roman Empire. The Papal States were established in the center. During the Renaissance the most important city-states, who created the cultural revival of the Reniassance, were Florence, Venice, Milan, the Papal States and Naples. The Kingdom of Sardinia-Savoy-Piedmont united the whole peninula into a kingdom in 1871

Persia

today known as Iran, a great civilization established itself in this broad country to the east of Mesopotamia (and therefore mostly off the map). The Persians, who call themselves Iranians, conquered Mesopotamia and Egypt under Cyrus the Great in 550 B.C

Lorraine

usually combined with Alsace, Lorraine lies along the west bank of the upper Rhine river. Of a mixed French and German population, France and Germany have fought over it since its creation during the wars over the collapsing Carolingian Empire. It is named after Lothar, the one-time king of the territories stretching from the Lowlands through the Rhineland and the Alps into norhern Italy.

Eastern Europe

usually considered that part of Europe East of Germany, the Italian Peninsula and Scandinavia. Some would limit it to areas where the Russian ethnicity or power dominates

Serbia

was a powerful medieval kingdomof Slavs before being conquered by the Turks in the 14th century. It won independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878 along with Rumania and Bulgaria, it was the center of Yugoslavism. It lay nestled in the crook of the Danube River in the Balkan Peninsula

London

was the most important city in England, becoming its capital by the late Middle Ages. By the 18th century, as capital of the British Empire, London became the most important city in the world, especially for finances, until the twentieth century

Dardanelles

with the Bosphorus by Constantinople/Istanbul it forms very narrow sea passages between the Black Sea and the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas. Jointly they are a traditional boundary between "Europe" and "Asia." The Persian army crossed a bridge there to invade Greece in 480 B.C.

Bosphorus

with the Dardanelles just to the southwest, they form the very narrow sea passages between the Black Sea and the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas. Jointly they are a traditional boundary between "Europe" and "Asia." The Greek city of Byzantium lay there on the European side. Constantine rebuilt the city as his capital for the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople. In 1453 the city, capital of the "Byzantine" Empire, fell to the Ottoman Turks. They made the city the capital of their new empire, renaming it Istanbu