Exam 2: Pavlovian Extinction

Reconditioning outside the lab

A former smoker goes through exposure therapy and one day has one cigarette. The cigarette functions as the CS and the CR is the subsequent addiction that follows the one cigarette

How can Pavlovian conditioning be used to make you rich in the world of advertising? Provide examples. Describe how higher-order conditioning is involved in the topic.

Advertising can be viewed as the business of creating conditioned emotional responses toward products. One way marketing experts do this is by pairing products they want to sell with items that already arouse positive emotions. Advertising is not so much about providing information about a product as it is about creating conditioned emotional responses to those products. In television commercials, for example, a brand of beer will be associated with attractive people having a good time. There will be no mention of alcoholism or fetal damage caused by alcohol consumption, no scenes of fatal car accidents, no photographs of battered women who, after drinking, fell victim to date rape. We see only young, healthy, attractive people holding beer bottles and having a good time. HOC happens when they pair a new product with one of their popular products which is called co branding, they are pairing two things to hopefully created the same response about the new product. Another technique is to pair competing products with items that arouse negative emotions. A competitor's trash bag, for example, may be shown falling apart, leaving garbage all over the kitchen floor, or a cat may be shown turning its back on a competitor's cat food.

spontaneous recovery outside the lab

After going through exposure therapy to stop drinking, an individual goes to a restaurant and smell smoke, the CS which elicits cravings, the CR

Describe (using the appropriate technical terms [US, UR, CS, CR]) a typical lab arrangement that can be used to study fear conditioning (we discussed a study involving human participants, snakes, shock, and GSR).

Arne Ohman and colleagues (1976) had college students look at pictures of snakes until they had habituated - that is, until the pictures had no emotional effect as measured by the galvanic skin response (GSR). Then the researchers followed the pictures with an electric shock to the hand. There was, of course, a fear response to the shock, and soon the pictures alone evoked fear. US - pictures of snakes accompanied with the shock UR - sweating CS - snakes CR - sweating

Renewal outside the lab

At Hannah Moore Park, I had a unique learning experience. There was a rickety bridge, the US, and then subsequently I fell, the UR. This resulted in the bridge becoming a CS which was then paired with being afraid of the bridge, the CR.

Reinstatement definition

Brief exposure to only the US results in the return the CR

Describe Pavlovian extinction procedurally

CS without a US

Describe, using the appropriate technical terms (US, UR, CS, CR), how conditioned taste aversion is studied (i.e., know the procedures, results, and implications of Garcia et al., 1955). Also understand the role of CTA in the different animal populations discussed by Chance (pp. 110-111).

Conditioned taste aversion - an aversion, acquired through Pavlovian conditioning, to foods with a particular flavor. Also called conditioned food avoidance. In one of his first experiments, Garcia and his colleagues (1955) gave rats a choice between ordinary tap water and saccharin-flavored water. The rats preferred the sweet-tasting water. Then Garcia exposed some of the rats to gamma radiation while they drank the sweet-tasting water, which caused nausea. These rats later avoided saccharin-flavored water. Moreover, the higher the radiation level, the stronger the aversion to sweet water. CS - sweet water US - gamma radiation Lincoln Brower (1971) studied taste aversion in the blue jay, which feeds on all sorts of insects, including butterflies. In the larval stage, the monarch butterfly sometimes feeds on a kind of milkweed that is harmless to the monarch but renders it poisonous to other animals; it retains its poison in the butterfly stage. Blue jays generally refuse to eat monarch butterflies, but this tendency is not innate; it is the result of conditioning. Sometimes jays with this conditioned taste aversion vomit at the sight of a monarch butterfly. Our understanding of how conditioning produces food aversions has led to some important practical applications. One such area is livestock management. For example, livestock that graze in meadows are subject to poisoning by eating toxic plants. About 2-3% of grazing livestock die from eating poisonous plants. If animals can be trained not to eat those plants, this will not only mean less suffering for them, but substantial savings for ranchers and for consumers. Other studies confirm the benefits of conditioned food avoidance with cattle, goats, and sheep. In even appears that mice and rats can acquire an aversion to a farmer's food grains.

Describe what is involved (using the appropriate technical terms [US, UR, CS, CR]) in exposure therapy, including in vivo exposure therapy, systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure therapy. Discuss the important role of the fear hierarchy (or graduated exposure hierarchy) and progressive relaxation (or deep muscle relaxation). Also, discuss how one can most effectively progress through the various steps in the fear hierarchy (i.e., describe some of the issues that should be considered when administering exposure therapy). Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the different types of exposure therapy. Regarding advantages and disadvantages, incorporate well into your discussion the role of generalization. Finally, describe why Pavlovian extinction underlies the efficacy of exposure therapy.

Counterconditioning - the use of Pavlovian conditioning to reverse the unwanted effects of prior conditioning. Typically takes the form of aversion therapy or exposure therapy. Exposure therapy - when you are gradually exposed to a fear-evoking stimulus while feeling relaxed. Mary Cover Jones (a student of Watson) was the first to show that Pavlovian conditioning could help people overcome fears as well as acquire them. Jone's subject was Peter, a 3-year-old with a fear of rabbits. Jones started by bringing a rabbit in view, but she kept it far enough away that it did not disturb Peter as he ate a snack of crackers and milk. In this way, Jones paired a CS for fear (the sight of the rabbit) with a positive US (crackers and milk). The next day, Jones brought the rabbit closer to Peter, but not close enough to make uneasy. On each succeeding day, the experimenter brought the rabbit closer, always pairing it with crackers and milk, until Peter showed no fear even when Jones put the rabbit into his lap. Finally, Peter would eat with one hand and play with rabbit with the other. Jone's treatment is called in vivo exposure therapy because the person is directly exposed to the frightening stimulus. Other forms of exposure therapy have been developed since Jone's work with Peter. Probably the best known of these is systematic desensitization, a form of counterconditioning in which a patient imagines progressively troubling scenes while relaxed. For example, suppose you are afraid of speaking before a group of people. You and the therapist work up a list of situations related to public speaking and arranged from those that arouse little or no discomfort to those that you find terrifying. After this the therapist asks you to imagine the first scene, perhaps describing it for you in detail, and then instructing you in ways to relax. Thus, the scene (a CS for fear) is paired with a positive US (relaxation). When the initial scene no longer causes any discomfort, the therapist will move on to the next scene. This process continues until you feel at east imagining yourself speaking to a large audience. Advantages of in vivo exposure therapy: efficacy (exposes client to actual feared stimulus, may be less costly, control over "programmed" stimuli Disadvantages of in vivo exposure therapy: sometimes not possible, client must volunteer, "chance" problems with real stimuli Advantages of SD: various types of stimuli, may increase client compliance, can combine with in vivo exposure therapy Disadvantages of SD: less control over stimuli, still in need of generalized effects A recent variation of exposure therapy involves the technology called virtual reality. Virtual reality technology uses computer software, a helmet, and goggles to create a highly realistic electronic stimulation of an environment. A person afraid of heights and wearing the helmet and goggles may, for example, see a bridge to her left, and turn toward it so that the bridge now appears to be in front of her. She may then approach the bridge, then step onto it and look over the side at the river far below. This form of treatment, called virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET), falls somewhere between Mary Cover Jone's in vivo treatment and Wolpe's imaginary treatment. With VRET the person interacts in an environment that is neither imaginary nor real. Advantages: considerable control stimuli, may enhance generalization, also can combine with in vivo Disadvantages: availability, cost is high, still in need of generalized effects Construction of fear hierarchy Step1: least frightening version of CS Final step: presentation of CS Progressive relaxation 20 minutes separately target alternately different muscle groups (10 sec. of tension then 20 sec. relaxation) Gradual exposure to aversive CS Critical points: flexibility in number and types of steps, flexibility in navigating steps, sufficient exposure to each step, additional features can be included (e.g. positive reinforcement, social support, pleasant US)

Pavlovian extinction process

Decrease in CR because the CR is no longer predictive of the US

Extinction's effect on prior learning

Does not erase

Pavlovian Conditioning as a process

Increased in Conditioned Response

spontaneous recovery example

Pavlov discontinued Classical conditioning for some time, and then presented the bell which was the CS, and this elicited abrupt salivation

Chance discusses some interesting effects of Pavlovian conditioning in the context of health care, broadly defined (pp. 120-122). Understand these effects in terms of both their practical importance and how they are understood by appealing to basic terms in classical conditioning (i.e., conditioned and unconditioned reflexes, generalization and discrimination).

Pavlovian conditioning shows promise as a means of diagnosing and studying medical problems, including deafness, autism, and dementia. It also may prove useful in the treatment of some health problems. In the past, medical treatment of serious illness tended to ignore the immune system; today, the emphasis is increasingly on facilitating the immune system. Through conditioning, we may soon be able to enhance the immune response to help people fight off diseases such as cancer. If a neutral stimulus is paired with a drug or procedure that facilitates immune functioning, that stimulus might become a CS for stronger response from that immune system.

Describe how Pavlovian conditioning is thought to be involved in the development of prejudice. Be certain you can describe the importance of higher-order conditioning in this development.

Prejudice is mostly the product of classical conditioning. It is acquired largely through the association of a particular group (or words and images representing or resembling that group) with negative words or images. Thus, prejudice can be acquired with little or no personal contact with members of a group. Research also shows that the same kids of experiences that produce prejudice can reverse it, though the more "training" in hate a person has had, the more difficult it is to change their feelings. You can reverse it with HOC by pairing the person with positive words and images then it will produce a positive outcome

Using the appropriate technical terms (US, UR, CS, CR), describe what is involved in aversion therapy in the context of treating paraphilias. In the cases of success following aversion therapy, describe the role of generalization. In the cases of relapse following aversion therapy, describe the contributions of extinction and renewal (be specific in using your technical terms).

Society approves of some activities and disapproves of others. Items on the disapproved list are widely considered perverse or unnatural and are called paraphilias. Aversion therapy - a form of counterconditioning in which a CS is paired with an aversive US, often a nausea-inducing drug. In aversion therapy a CS that elicits inappropriate sexual arousal is followed by a noxious US. When such therapy is effective, the stimuli that once elicited sexual arousal no longer do so and may even elicit feelings of anxiety and discomfort. Aversion therapy was used to treat a married man who was sexually aroused by dressing in women's clothing. His interest in cross-dressing began when he was 8 years old; in adolescence, his masturbation always accompanied cross-dressing fantasies. Even after marrying, he continued to seek sexual stimulation by dressing in women's clothing. He sought treatment at age 22 after his wife discovered his idiosyncrasy and urged him to get help. His therapists began by taking photographs of him in female dress. Next they gave him an emetic drug, and just as it began to make him nauseated, they showed him slides of himself in women's clothing. He also heard a tape of himself, recorded earlier, in which he described what the slide showed. As the training sessions proceeded, cross-dressing had less and less appeal. After six days of very intensive treatment, the young man showed no further interest in cross-dressing. Most people have total extinction and they elicit no desire but some have relapse. In fact, some paraphilias are resistant to all forms of treatment, and relapse is common. Even when treatment is helpful, "booster" sessions (periodic re-treatment) are often required to maintain the initial gains.

Describe the evidence supporting your answer, that is, describe (1) spontaneous recovery, (2) reconditioning, (3) reinstatement, and (4) renewal.

Spontaneous recovery - the sudden reappearance of a behavior following its extinction. Pavlov discovered that if, after a response seemed to have been extinguished, he discontinued training for a time and then presented the CS again, the dog was likely to salivate. This reappearance of a CR after extinction is spontaneous recovery. If Pavlov once again presented the CS alone several times, the CR would rapidly extinguish. Reconditioning - faster re-acquisition of a CR when the CS/US contingency returns Reinstatement - brief exposure to (ONLY) the US reinstates the CR (war stimulus anxiety stops car backfires elicits anxiety again) Renewal - after extinction, if the CS is tested in a new context (room/location) the CR can also return

renewal

The recovery of the conditioned response when the organism is placed in a novel context

Example of Procedural Extinction

The sound without the food or the CS without the US is an example of how the food loses it's meaning because the US is not followed by the CS anymore

First, describe how aversion therapy is used to treat alcoholism (while identifying the US, UR, CS, and CR). Include the work of Voegtlin in your presentation. In the cases of success following aversion therapy, describe the role of generalization. In the cases of relapse following aversion therapy, describe the contributions of extinction and renewal (be specific in using your technical terms). Finally, in this context, understand fully the role of preparatory response theory. That is, understand the theory's core ideas, the drug research we discussed that supports the theory, and how this work is related not only to drug tolerance but also drug relapse.

Voegtlin completed a study in which he gave medicine (emetine) to alcoholics in order to make them sick every time they had any amount of alcohol. US - medicine UR - sickness CS - alcohol CR - sickness elicited by alcohol/medicine Renewal - people who associated with "drinking friends" were more likely to relapse Extinction - sight/smell of alcohol without US (medicine/nausea) Preparatory Response Theory - theory of Pavlovian conditioning that proposes that the CR prepares the organism for the appearance of the US CR is learned because it prepares the organism for the US For example, a researcher gave three groups of rats, some of which had never received heroin before, a strong dose of the drug. Some of the heroin-experienced rats received the test dose in the same place they had received previous doses; others received the same does in a novel setting. The results were clear-cut. The dose was lethal for 96% of the inexperienced rats, but for experienced rats mortality depended on where they received the drug. Of those injected in a familiar environment, 32% died; of those injected in a new environment, 64% died. In the novel environment, the CSs that normally would evoke the conditional response (the physiological changes that suppress the body's reaction to the drug) were absent, so the drug hit with far greater force. This shows the role of conditioning in drug tolerance. PRT, Renewal, Relapse Context cues, tense and agitated (DPRs), relaxed more quickly by negative reinforcement

Reinstatement outside the lab

War stimulus --> anxiety --> stops --> car backfires --> elicits anxiety again

Summarize Watson and Rayner's work with Little Albert while including the following terms: US, UR, CS, CR, generalization, and discrimination. That is, describe the procedures, results, implications, and importance of the work.

Watson and graduate student Rosalie Rayner (1920) began their study of fear by testing a number of infants to see their reactions to fire, dogs, cats, laboratory rats, and other stimuli then thought to be innately frightening. They found no evidence of innate fear of these objects. They did find, however, that a sudden loud noise is an unconditional stimulus (US) for crying and other fearful reactions. Next, the researchers attempted to establish a fear reaction through classical conditioning. Their subject was Albert B., a healthy, 11-month-old boy who showed no signs of fearing a white rat, a pigeon, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey, cotton wool, or a burning newspaper. He appeared to be a happy, normal baby who rarely cried. The researchers established that a loud noise was a US for fear. When they struck a steel bar with a hammer, Albert would jump suddenly. Using this loud noise as an unconditional stimulus, it took little time to establish a conditional fear response (CR) to a white rat. Watson and Rayner presented Albert with the rat, and then one of the experimenters hit the steel bar with a hammer. After a few pairings of this sort, Albert began to cry and show other signs of fear as soon as he saw the rat. He had learned, through Pavlovian conditioning, to fear white rats. US - loud sound from hitting the steel bar with the hammer UR - Albert crying and pulling away CS - the white rat CR - crying elicited by the white rat

procedure

When the CR no longer occurs (or occurs no more than it did prior to conditioning), we say that is has been extinguished (PROCESS).

Aversion therapy

a form of counterconditioning in which a CS is paired with an aversive US, often a nausea-inducing drug. In aversion therapy a CS that elicits inappropriate sexual arousal is followed by a noxious US. When such therapy is effective, the stimuli that once elicited sexual arousal no longer do so and may even elicit feelings of anxiety and discomfort.

Renewal

after extinction, if the CS is tested in a new context (room/location) the CR can also return

Conditioned taste aversion

an aversion, acquired through Pavlovian conditioning, to foods with a particular flavor. Also called conditioned food avoidance.

Reinstatement

brief exposure to (ONLY) the US reinstates the CR war stimulus, anxiety stops, car backfires elicits anxiety again

Generalization

crying due to seeing a rabbit, fur, monkey, or Santa mask

Does extinction erase prior learning?

does not erase prior learning

Reconditioning

faster re-acquisition of a CR when the CS/US contingency returns

systematic desensitization,

form of counterconditioning in which a patient imagines progressively troubling scenes while relaxed.

Albert crying at the sight of anything furry is blank, but then develops a fear of rats

is a generalization

Discrimination

learning CR does not spread to stimuli different than the CS

Items on the disapproved list are widely considered perverse or unnatural

paraphilias.

in vivo exposure therapy

the person is directly exposed to the frightening stimulus.

Extinction

the procedure of repeatedly presenting the CS alone without the US. This will result in the conditional response becoming weaker and weaker

Reconditioning definition

the quick relearning of a conditioned response following extinction. In other words, there is faster re-acquisition of the CR when the CS/US contingency returns

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Spontaneous recovery

the sudden reappearance of a behavior following its extinction. Pavlov discovered that if, after a response seemed to have been extinguished, he discontinued training for a time and then presented the CS again, the dog was likely to salivate. This reappearance of a CR after extinction is spontaneous recovery. If Pavlov once again presented the CS alone several times, the CR would rapidly extinguish.

Counterconditioning

the use of Pavlovian conditioning to reverse the unwanted effects of prior conditioning. Typically takes the form of aversion therapy or exposure therapy.

Preparatory Response Theory

theory of Pavlovian conditioning that proposes that the CR prepares the organism for the appearance of the US

Exposure therapy

when you are gradually exposed to a fear-evoking stimulus while feeling relaxed.