EXAM 2 PSYC 345 -BURTE
Negative acceleration
Rate of change gets smaller and smaller as the delay increases.( a lot of forgetting at the beginning/ small at the end)
declarative memory
Semantic (facts) Episodic (events)
Visual sensory memory Verbal sensory memory
Stage of memory that registers information about the environment and holds it for a very brief period of time
Anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories as well as learn new things
Reder(1982)
"_____________" argued that much of recall in real life involves plausible inference rather than exact recall. -As delay intervals increase from immediate to two days, participants' exact retrieval gets slower, but their plausible retrieval gets faster
In ACT, the speed and probability of accessing a memory are determined by the "_________________________________________________________________"(how often it comes to mind) and the activation it receives from associated concepts. For example, if you're a bird watcher = info about birds and related to will have a high base level of activation.
"memory's level of activation, which in turn is determined by its base-level activation"
Regions of the hippocampus corroborate the false-memory phenomenon in fMRI study.
(Cabeza and colleagues, 2001)
Laboratory-constructed false memory by ("_____________")
(Deese, 1959)
create false memories by the use of suggestive interview techniques
(Loftus and Pickerall, 1995)
to create false memories by use of doctored photos
(Wade, Garry, Read, and Lindsay, 2002)
Amnesia
(memory loss)
Articulatory loop
- "Inner voice" used during rehearsal of verbal information - The articulatory loop involves speech. - Broca's area is active when rehearsing auditory information
Tulving & Thompson (1973); Watkins & Tulving (1975)
- 42% of the words recalled had not been recognized earlier when the participants gave them as free associates - Experiments like this provided dramatic reversals of standard expectations - This is due the differences in the context of study, recognition, and recall Word -People show better word memory if the words are tested in the context of the same words with which they were studied.
Visuospatial sketchpad
- A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information - System for rehearsing/maintaining visual image- this takes into account that different sensory information gets processed in different way - Rabbit/ duck - mental rotation
A Model of Memory with an Intermediate Short-Term Memory
- A model of memory that includes an intermediate short-term memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) - Information coming in from the environment is held in a transient sensory store from which it is lost, unless attended to. - Attended information goes into an intermediate short-term memory with a limited capacity to hold information (assessed by memory span). - The information must be rehearsed before it can move into a relatively permanent long term memory.
Free-association task
- A person is presented with information (e.g., one or more words) and is asked to free-associate by responding with whatever first comes to mind. - The responses can be taken as reflecting the things that the presented information activates most strongly among all the currently active information in long-term memory.
Theories of LTM activation
- ACT (adaptive control of thought) - Anderson's theory of how declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge interact in complex cognitive processes - Information in long-term memory can vary from moment to moment in terms of how easy it is to retrieve it into working memory. - Memory traces as varying in their activation.
ACT (adaptive control of thought)
- Activation - Free-association task -Anderson's theory of how declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge interact in complex cognitive processes
Implications of false memory syndrome
- Advertisers take advantage of the tendency to embellish what is heard with plausible inferences. - FTC explicitly forbids advertisers from making false claims - But in a landmark case,the FTC now also ensures that advertisers cannot imply false claims
encoding effects
- Among the cues that can become associated with a memory are those from the context in which the memory was formed. - Context effects are often referred to as "__________________________" because the context is affecting what is encoded into the memory trace for that event.
The fan effect
- An increase in reaction time is related to an increase in the number of facts associated with a concept. - Cat + 4 facts = faster reaction time than cat + 10 facts - An increase in reaction time is related to an increase in the fan of facts emanating from the network representation of the concept (Anderson, 1974).
How Spreading Activation Works
- Anderson (1974) had participants learn 4 sentences: - "The doctor is in the bank" (1-1) → participants recalled it faster - "The fireman is in the park" (1-2) - "The lawyer is in the church" (2-1) - "The lawyer is in the park." (2-2) -A network representation of those sentences demonstrating how spreading activation works.
Elaborative processing (experiments)
- Anderson and Bower (1973) - Stein and Bransford (1979) - Self-generated elaborations and experimenter-provided elaborations can benefit memory. -Memory for material improves when it is processed with more meaningful elaborations.
Bower, Monteiro, and Gilligan (1978)
- Better memory was obtained when the emotional state at test matched the emotional state at study - Difficulty to replicate mood-dependent effects (matching mood between study and test)
Experiments of Theory of Short-Term Memory
- Broadbent (1958) anticipated the theory of short term memory - Waugh and Norman (1965) gave an influential formulation of the theory - Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) gave the theory its most systematic development - As information is rehearsed(in a rudimentary way) in a limited-capacity STM, until it is deposited in long-term memory.
Interfering Effect of Preexisting Memories
- Can the fan effect be obtained with material the participant knew before the experiment? - Participants studied from 0-4 fantasy facts about each public figure. - Recognition test: 1. "Fantasy facts" they had studied in the experiment (true) 2. True facts about the public figures (true) 3. Statements about the public figures that were false both in the experimental fantasy world and in the real world (false)
The Contrasting Effects of Relevant and Irrelevant Information
- Comparing the irrelevant condition with the single condition, we see the standard interference effect: Recall was worse when there were more facts to be learned about an item. - However, we compare the relevant condition to the single condition, recall was better when there were more facts to be learned. This effect remained after a week.
BRADSHAW AND ANDERSON (1982)
- Contrasted the effects of redundant versus irrelevant information using three conditions: - Single fact - Irrelevant Facts - Relevant Facts
Johnson and colleagues (2009)
- Demonstrated (brain-imaging study) existence of experience records in brain that are no longer remembered - Even though there is no conscious memory of seeing something, aspects of how it was experienced will be retained in our brains.
Parahippocampus
Does not respond with higher activation to true memories that have discriminating sensory information
PQ4R method (Thomas and Robinson, 1972)
- Encourage deeper and more elaborate processing of textual material - Preview - Questions - Read - Reflect - Recite - Review
20 paired associates (43-dog) → Studied and tested until 100% recall → Tested 2 weeks later : 75% correct recall / 25% incorrectly recalled → 20 paired associates - incorrectly recalled with original associate/ incorrectly recalled with New associate → 78 % corect on unchanged associates /43% correct on new associates
- Even when people appear to have forgotten memories, sensitive tests can find evidence of some of them (Nelson, 1971). - Sometimes we can recognize things that we cannot recall.
Are Memories Really Forgotten?
- Even when people appear to have forgotten memories, there is evidence that they still have some of these memories stored. - Brain-imaging evidence that forgotten memories still exist.
Dooling & Christiaansen (1977) and Spiro (1977)
- Evidence for increased inferential intrusions with increased delay of testing. - It seems that participants do make such reconstructive inferences at time of test.
Declarative memory
- Explicit memory system that includes episodic and semantic memory - Supported by the hippocampus
Interaction of Elaboration and Inferential Reconstruction
- In Particular, semantic elaborations are very beneficial. - When participants elaborate on material while studying it, they tend to recall more of what they studied and also to recall inferences that they did not study.
REDER AND ROSS (1983)
- In the exact recall condition, response times increased when they learned more facts about a subject (replication of the fan effect) - In the plausible condition, response times decreased when they learned more facts about a subject. - Plausibility judgment does not have to depend on retrieval of a particular fact.
Retrieval and Inference
- In trying to remember material, people will use what they can remember to infer what else they might have studied. - When people cannot remember a particular fact, they can retrieve related facts to infer the target fact on the basis of those related facts. - There is considerable evidence that people make such inferences at the time of recall. - They seem unaware that they are making inferences but rather think that they are recalling what they actually studied.
Shepard and Teghtsoonian (1961)
- Information cannot be kept in short-term memory indefinitely. - Their theory stated that the amount of rehearsal determines whether information is transferred to long-term memory. - However, later research found that simply repeating a word/number over and over again does not improve recall. What causes information to move from short-term to long-term memory?
Incidental versus Intentional Learning
- Intention to learn material is not as important to memory as how the reader processes it. - Type of processing, and not whether one intends to learn, determines the amount of material remembered.
The Fan Effect: Networks of Associations
- Interference effects can be understood in terms of(levels of activation) how much activation spreads to stimulate a memory structure.= this will decide how accurately and quickly you're going to recall something - When participants are presented with a stimulus such as cat, activation will spread from this source stimulus to all of its associated memory structures. - However, the total amount of activation that can spread from a source is limited.
Relatedness Protects Against Interference
- Interference occurs only when one is learning multiple pieces of information that have no intrinsic relationship to one another. - Interference does not occur when the pieces of information are meaningfully related (Bradshaw and Anderson, 1982). - Learning related material does not interfere with retrieval of a target memory and may even facilitate retrieval. - Learning redundant material does not interfere with a target memory and may even facilitate the target memory.
Procedural knowledge
- Knowledge of how to perform various tasks that is often implicit - Supported by the basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex - Most of us have learned to ride a bike but have no conscious ability to say what it is we have learned. - Memory for such procedural knowledge is spared in amnesic individuals.
How Interference Affects Memory
- Learning additional associations to a stimulus can cause old ones to be forgotten. - The more facts associated with a concept, the slower is retrieval of any one of the facts.
Key findings from inference experiments
- Learning additional associations to an item can cause old ones to be forgotten. - Learning A-D can cause A-B to be forgotten more quickly. - The more facts associated with a concept, the slower is retrieval of any one of the facts. - Retrieving A-B is slower after learning A-D. - Supporting the interference theory.
The power law of learning (Newell and Rosenbloom, 1981)
- Looked at practice of addition problems for 10,000 trials by two participants (blackburn's study) - The data are plotted in log-log terms, and there is a linear relationship. - As memory traces become stronger, they can reach higher levels of activation and be retrieved more rapidly.
Research illustrating the role of the prefrontal cortex in forming new memories
- Memory for words (Wagner et al., 1998) - Memory for pictures (Brewer et al. 1998) - Participants had to come back to the lab and report the pictures or words they learned - Looked at brain responses/activity to serif there were differences in how the brain responded while they were learning the words= predict if participants remembered the words or not
Delayed match-to-sample tasks with monkeys (Goldman-Rakic, 1992)
- Monkeys with lesions in the frontal cortex cannot perform delayed match-to-sample working memory tasks. - Human infants cannot perform similar tasks successfully until their frontal cortices have somewhat matured (around 1 year). They will forget info very quickly due to the underdeveloped frontal lobe
Memory span (capacity in STM)
- Number of elements one can immediately repeat back - Typical short-term memory span is about seven items of information (i.e., words). - "7 + or - 2" rule\ - Shepard and Teghtsoonian (1961) - Information cannot be kept in short-term memory indefinitely.
Henry Molaison
- One of the most studied amnesic patients - In 1953 when he was 27 years old, large parts of his temporal lobes (complete removal of hippocampus and surrounding structures) were surgically removed to cure epilepsy. - He had normal memories of his life up to the age of 16 but forgot most of 11 years before the surgery. - He was unable to remember new events.
Priming memories (Meyer & Schvaneveldt, 1971)
- Participants judged whether pairs of items were real words. - When the pairs had an associated relationship (bread, butter), participants were faster than when unrelated. - Associative spreading of information
Pavlik and Anderson (2005)
- Participants learned items with some intervening info in between the things studied over and over - Massing study opportunities produces better immediate recall but worse delayed recall. - In other words- cramming a lot of info for the exam will allow you to remember the information in the short term, but studying with something in between () will help you in the long term.
Recognition of Previously Seen Items in a Long List by Shepard and Teghtsoonian (1961)
- Participants presented with a sequence of 200 three digit numbers - Task: identify when a number was repeated - Number of intervening numbers between repeats is "lag" - Result: New information is always coming in and pushing out old information= one loses the ability to recall numbers that were heard before.
Owens, Bower, and Black (1979) EXPLAINED:
- Participants studied a story that followed the principal character, a college student, through a day in her life (EXAMPLE: Nancy went to see the doctor. She arrived at the office and checked in with the receptionist. She went to see the nurse, who went through the usual procedures. Then Nancy stepped on the scale and the nurse recorded her weight. The doctor entered the room and examined the results. He smiled at Nancy and said, "Well, it seems my expectations have been confirmed." When the examination was finished, Nancy left the office) - Two groups of participants studied the story. The only difference between the groups was that the theme group had read the following additional information at the beginning: (EXAMPLE: Nancy woke up feeling sick again and she wondered if she really were pregnant. How would she tell the professor she had been seeing? And the money was another problem)
Anderson and Bower (1973)
- Participants tried to remember simple sentences such as: The doctor hated the lawyer. - In one condition, participants just studied the sentence; in the other, they were asked to generate an elaboration of their choosing—such as: because of the malpractice suit. - Later, participants were presented with the subject and verb of the original sentence (e.g: The doctor hated) and were asked to recall the object (e.g., the lawyer). - Participants who just studied the original sentences were able to recall 57% of the objects, but those who generated the elaborations recalled 72%.
Hyde and Jenkins, 1973
- Participants were asked to perform what was called an orienting task while studying a list of words - For one group, the orienting task was to check whether each word had a letter e or a letter g. - For another group, the task was to rate the pleasantness of the words. - Half told the true purpose of the experiment and half not.
Flashbulb Memories
- Particularly good memory for events that are very important or traumatic (Brown and Kulik, 1977) - Flashbulb memories may not be as accurate as originally thought and may fade with time (McCloskey et al., 1988). - People report having better memories for particular important events, but these memories seem no different than other memories.
Spacing effects (Experiments)
- Pavlik and Anderson (2005) - Bahrick (1979) learning
State-Dependent Learning
- People find it easier to recall information if they can return to the same emotional and physical state they were in when they learned the information. - Includes the Effects of psychoactive drugs (including alcohol) on memory
Neural Correlates of the Power Law of Learning
- Power law is related to basic neural changes involved in learning. - Long-term potentiation (LTP)
nondeclarative memory
- Procedural skills (e.g. motor, perceptual, cognitive) - Priming (perceptual semantic) - Conditioning - Nonassociative (habituation, sensitization)
Short-term memory (STM)
- Proposed intermediate system in which information passes through in its journey from sensory memory to long-term memory - System that allows us to hold information in mind while we engage in an activity.( hold the 4 letters while we write them down)
Advanced organizers
- Questions that accompany a text that readers can use to help them learn the material - Using advanced organizers aids in later recall during a test
Godden and Baddeley (1975)
- Recall is better if the physical context during study is the same as the physical context during the test. - Divers learn a list of 40 unrelated words, either: On the shore or 20 feet under the water → Divers recalled the 40 words either:On the shore or 20 feet under water - Four conditions: Learn on shore and recall on shore, Learn on shore but recall underwater, Learn underwater and recall underwater, Learn underwater but recall on shore
Recognition versus Recall
- Recognition is usually superior to recall. Thus, we would expect that if participants could not recognize a word, they would be unable to recall it.
Major restrictions on the situations in which interference effects are seen.
- Redundancy among learning materials eliminates interference effects (Anderson, 2003). - Retrieval-induced forgetting paradigms - Most practiced item is recalled with the highest accuracy - Why is the recall for Red-Tomato and Food-Strawberry lower than Food- Cracker? - Strengthening of Red-Blood could have interfered with Red-Tomato - Only inhibition of Food-Strawberry can explain its lower recall - Evidence that individuals might have been inhibiting associations with the color red
Stein and Bransford (1979)
- Remember sentences and were asked to recall the adjective. - There were four conditions of study. - In the base condition, participants studied just the sentence (42% correct) - In the self-generated elaboration condition, participants were asked to continue the sentence with an elaboration of their own (58% correct) - In the imprecise elaboration condition, participants were given a continuation that was poorly related to the meaning of the sentence (22% correct) - In the precise elaboration condition, participants were given a continuation that gave context to the sentence (78% correct)
fMRI brain-imaging study (Sohn and colleagues, 2003)
- Response of the prefrontal cortex during verification of facts - Contrasted high-fan sentences to low-fan sentences - There is greater response in the high-fan condition because prefrontal structures work harder to retrieve memories with lower activation (i.e. The fireman is in the park). - The more facts associated with a concept, the slower the retrieval of any one of the facts = prefrontal structures have to work harder.
Korsakoff syndrome
- Result of chronic alcoholism - also have long term memory gaps -They don't seem to recognize they have amnesia
Interference Theory
- Retention is strongly influenced by interfering material
Dissocosiations
- Situations in which different tests of memory show different results - Important in arguing for different memory systems - Dissociations exist between explicit and implicit memory
Factors Influencing Memory
- Spacing Effects - Elaborative -Processing -Techniques for Studying Textual Material - Incidental versus Intentional Learning - Flashbulb Memories
Raymond and Redman (2006)
- Stimulated rats' hippocampus with 0, 1, 8 theta-burst stimulations (TBS). - The decrease in ESPC (excitatory postsynaptic current — a measure of LT P) with delay (the two lines represent the best-fitting power functions) mirrors the decline in memory with delay - The time course of neural forgetting mirrors the time course of behavioral forgetting
Long-term potentiation in rats (Barnes, 1979)
- Stimulated the hippocampus in rats - Neural activation changes with practice. - You remember something faster after you have thought about it more often.
The Power Law of Learning
- Strength - Memory performance improves as a function of practice. - Increasing practice has diminishing returns (or when practicing a new term, the gains will be bigger at the beginning, but as practice continue the gains diminish) - Increases with practice, decays with time - Same as "baseline activation" in ACT theory - Pirolli and Anderson (1985) taught participants a set of facts and had them practice the facts for 25 days; then they looked at the speed with which the participants could recognize these facts.
Phonological loop
- System for rehearsing verbal information
Irrelevant Facts
- Target: Locke was unhappy as a student at Westminster. - Unrelated: Locke felt fruits were unwholesome for children. - Unrelated: Locke had a long history of back trouble.
Relevant Facts
- Target: Mozart made a long journey from Munich to Paris. - Related: Mozart wanted to leave Munich to avoid a romantic entanglement. - Related: Mozart was intrigued by musical developments coming out of Paris
Patients can remember things for short periods but then forget them
- Ten second tom -Thus, the problem in anterograde amnesia is retaining the memories for more than 5 or 10 seconds.
Mood Congruence
- The fact that it is easier to remember happy memories when one is in a happy state and sad memories when one is in a sad state - Mood congruence is an effect of the content of the memories rather than the emotional state of the participant during study.
Decay Theory
- The idea that memories simply decay in strength with time - The strength of a memory decays as a power function of the period of time over which it is retained.
Long-term potentiation (LTP) The increase in responsiveness of a neuron as a function of past stimulation Occurs in the hippocampus and cortical areas A form of neural learning
- The increase in responsiveness of a neuron as a function of past stimulation - Occurs in the hippocampus and cortical areas - A form of neural learning
Encoding-specificity principle
- The probability of recalling an item at test depends on the similarity of its encoding at test to its original encoding at study. - Memory for a word can depend on how well the test context matched the original study context (Tulving and Thompson, 1973).
Spreading activation
- The process by which currently attended items can make associated memories more available - Proposes that activation spreads along paths of a network.
Eich, Weingartner, Stillman, & Gillin, 1975
- There is a state-dependent effect reflected by better recall when the state at test matched the state at study. - There is an overall higher level of recall when the material was studied in an intoxicated state.
Results from Wagner et al., 1998 and Brewer et al. 1998
- Two studies illustrating the role of the prefrontal cortex in forming new memories in normal participants. - In both cases, participants remembered some of the items and forgot others. - Using fMRI measures of the hemodynamic response, the researchers contrasted the brain activation at the time of study for those words and pictures that were subsequently remembered and those that were subsequently forgotten. - In both cases, remembered items received greater activation from the prefrontal regions, supporting the conclusion that prefrontal activation is indeed critical for storing a memory successfully. - These studies are a good example of the lateralization of prefrontal processing, with verbal material involving the left hemisphere to a greater extent and visual material involving the right hemisphere to a greater extent.
Owens, Bower, and Black (1979)
- We would expect participants in the theme condition to make many more theme-related elaborations of the story than participants in the neutral condition.
Can the Fan Effect Be Obtained Using Already Known Material?
- Yes, Material learned in the laboratory can interfere with material learned outside of the laboratory. - Reaction time increased with fan for all types of facts. - Faster reaction times to actual facts than to "fantasy facts" - The more "fantasy facts" participants learned the longer they took to recognize a fact that they already knew about the individual. - This experiment produced interference with pre experimental material.
Jacoby and Witherspoon (1982)
- found that exposure to a word improves normal participants' ability to perceive that word (success of implicit memory), even when they cannot recall studying that word (failure of explicit memory). -This enhancement of perceptual recognition is referred to as priming
word length effect
- occurs when memory for lists of words is better for short words than for long words - One of the most compelling pieces of evidence for the existence of the articulatory loop is the _______ ________ ________ - Baddeley et al. (1975) found that participants were able to repeat back an average of 4.5 words out of 5 such one-syllable words. - Participants were able to recall only an average of 2.6 words out of 5 such five-syllable words. - The crucial factor appears to be how long it takes to say the word.
The Retention Function
- performance systematically deteriorates with delay - Wickelgren's (1975) Experiment on Memory Retention
False-memory syndrome
- remembering a past traumatic experience that is objectively false but is nevertheless accepted by the person "remembering" the trauma as true - Individuals claim to recover memories of traumatic events that they had suppressed for years. - Many of these memories are recovered in therapy, but memory researchers have questioned the accuracy of these memories and suggest that therapists might have implanted those memories
Loftus and colleagues
- subsequent information can change a person's memory of an observed event. - ran a series of experiments on eyewitness memory - Provided early evidence of errors in memory arising from confusing the source of the information, or source monitoring errors
Depth of processing
- the idea that information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered - Rehearsal improves memory only if the material is rehearsed in a deep and meaningful way - (Craik and Lockhart, 1972)
Central executive
- the part of working memory that directs attention and processing - System for controlling slave systems like the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop ( fully in control of the central exec) - The CE decides what goes where and what gets processed at one point
Techniques for Studying Textual Material
-Advanced organizers - PQ4R method (Thomas and Robinson, 1972) - Question generation and question answering contribute to a good memory of texts. -These results from Roediger and Karpicke (2006) show that self testing improves long-term recall of idea units. - Creating questions contributes the most to textual learning. - Study techniques that involve generating and answering questions lead to better memory for text material.
Phonological store
-An "inner ear" that hears the inner voice and stores the information in phonological form -The word-length effect - Parietal-temporal area (which includes Wernicke's area) is active when processing verbal information
Auditory sensory store (Echoic memory)
-An echo is a brief persistence of a sound in the auditory system. -Auditory perceptual regions of the cortex hold a brief representation of sensory information for further processing.
neural plasticity
-Connections amongst neurons are constantly changing in response to experience -is the basis of memory. ( On a neural level, memory is = the fact that neurons have lots of connections - we can change the connections or their strength between each other.)
Bahrick (1979) learning
-Dropout learning procedure: words not recalled correctly were immediately tested again until all words correctly recalled - Spacing study sessions close together helps immediate recall but hinders longer retention.
Temporal cortex
-Includes the hippocampus (involved in spatial information, but we use it for the spatial layout of info) = helps us storage of new memories -What gets in the hippocampus, we remember long term/ it consolidates our memories
Implications - Is Forgetting Adaptive?
-It is impossible for any physical system to store everything. - Human memory tends to remember what is most useful and forget what is less useful. - Memories are best accessed in particular contexts. - The human forgetting function is shaped through evolutionary adaptations (long-term potentiation)
Visual sensory store (iconic memory)
-Memory system that can briefly hold information in the visual display -Visual sensory memory is held in or near the primary visual cortex. Thus, these basic perceptual regions of the cortex hold a brief representation of sensory information for further processing.
Results from Sperling's Experiment Demonstrating the Existence of a Brief Visual Sensory Store
-Participants were shown arrays consisting of three rows of four letters. -After the display was turned off, they were cued by a tone, either immediately or after a delay, to recall a particular one of the three rows. -The results show that the number of items reported decreased as the delay in the cuing tone increased.
Monkey's memory for objects (Goldman-Rakic, 1992)
-Prefrontal cortex correlated with memory - Different areas in prefrontal cortex responsible with remembering different types of information
Electrical stimulation of the cortex (Penfield, 1959)
-Stimulation of the temporal lobes with neurosurgical procedure -Led to reports of memories that patients were
Memory pathway
1) Memory begins with sensory memory in the corresponding sensory modalities of the brain. 2) Manipulated to working memory in hippocampus in thalamus. 3) Moved to cerebral cortex for long-term memory
Two mechanisms that can produce forgetting:
1. Decay of trace strength 2. Interference from other memories
According to spreading activation theory, recognizing a sentence would involve
1. Reading a sentence activates concepts in that sentence. Concepts are associated with 1-2 sentences. 2. Activation spreads from those core concepts to memory structures representing the associated sentences. But total activation is limited, so two pathways have the same activation as one pathway. 3. As activation spreads down the pathways it converges o the memory structure, the memory structures are activated to various levels. These activations sum to produce an overall level of activation. 4. The greater the activation level, the less time required to retrieve the memory and recognize the sentence. Sentence one has the greatest activation level and it is the fastest to recall.
recommendation to best practice in conducting a lineup
1.) Include only one actual suspect per lineup. 2.) Make sure that the suspect does not stand out in the lineup. 3.) Caution the eyewitness that the offender might not be in the lineup 4.) Use double-blind testing (i.e., neither the eyewitness nor those conducting the lineup should know who the suspect is in the lineup). 5.) If the eyewitness makes an identification at the lineup, collect a confidence statement at that time (i.e., a statement by the eyewitness of how confident he or she is in the identification)
On this hill there was a green house. And inside the green house there was a white house. And inside the white house, there was a red house. And inside the red house there were a lot of little blacks and whites sitting there. What place is this?
A Watermelon
PET scans and humans (Smith and Jonides, 1995)
A meta-analysis of 189 fMRI studies revealed that these regions (frontal/parietal) are active across many different types of tasks, including working-memory tasks.
Activation
A rapidly changing state of memory traces that determine both the probability and speed of access to the memory trace
Factors Influencing memory summary
A reasonable inference from the preceding discussion might be that the only thing determining memory performance is how much we study and practice. However, mere study of material will not lead to better recall. How we process the material while studying it is important.
Activation and Long Term Memory
Activation spreads from presented items through a network to memories related to that prime item.
Compared amnesic versus normal participants with respect to their memories for a list of words such as "banana".
After studying these words, participants were asked to recall them. They were shown the first three letters of a word they had studied and were asked to make an English word out of it. For instance, they might be asked to complete ban______. Participants in both groups were coming up with the studied word more than 50% of the time.
Priming
An enhancement of the processing of a stimulus as a function of prior exposure (Jacoby, 1983)
Phonological loop consists of
Articulatory loop; Phonological store
Power function
As a memory is practiced, it is strengthened according to a power function.
Practice and Memory Strength
As a memory is practiced, it is strengthened according to a power function.
Long-term retention of vocabulary words (up to fifty years)
Bahrick (1984) English/Spanish translation: Graphed a negative acceleration in a retention function
Temporal cortex, Prefrontal brain regions
Brain structures are involved in the creation and storage of memory
Visuospatial sketchpad, Phonological loop, Central executive
Components of working memory
Implicit memories are supported by the ___________
Cortex
Forgetting results from both "_______" in trace strength and from "___________________" from other memories.
Decay; interference
Bransford and colleagues(1972)
Demonstrates how inference can lead to incorrect recall; sentence memory study
- Shallow processing: Fragile memory - Deep processing: Durable memory
Depth of processing(in a meaningful way) more critical to memory than how long information is rehearsed
Frontal Cortex and Working Memory
Different areas of the frontal and parietal cortex appear to be responsible for maintaining different types of information in working memory.
Elaborative processing
Facilitates explicit memories but not implicit memories
Theory of Short-Term Memory
If something comes into sensory memory and our brain decides to do something with it (i.e. recalling the 4 letters→ then the info is moved to short term memory)
Sulin and Dooling (1974)
Illustrates how inference can bias participants' memory of a text
Nondeclarative memory
Implicit memory system that includes procedural skills, priming, conditioning, habituation, and sensitization
Baddeley's theory of working memory
In ____________ _______________ ___ _______ ______, a visuospatial sketchpad and a phonological loop are "slave systems" controlled by a central executive; an articulatory loop and a phonological stores are components of the phonological loop.
SULIN AND DOOLING (1974)
In trying to remember material, people will use what they can remember to infer what else they might have studied.
Explicit memory
Knowledge that we can consciously recall (EX: how to use Zoom)
Implicit memory
Knowledge that we cannot consciously recall but that nonetheless manifests itself in our improved performance on some task (Ex: not falling from a bike)
(Anderson, 2003) Study explained:
Learn category exemplar pairs that include multiple instances of the same category → Red-Blood Red-Tomato Food-Strawberry Food-Cracker → Practice on only some of the pairs, like just Red- Blood → Recall test of all the category-exemplar pairs they have learned → Red-Blood (74%) Red-Tomato (22%) Food-Strawberry (22%) Food-Cracker (36%)
What is a source of information besides the environment?
Long-term memory (LTM)
Power law of forgetting
Memory performance deteriorates as a power function of practice
Anterograde amnesia can occur along with some preservation of long-term memories.
Neural structures involved in forming new memories are distinct (hippocampal formation) from those involved in maintaining old ones (cerebral cortex)
Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm
Participants are given a list of words and remember a word that fits the category but wasn't there. (i.e. bed, rest, awake, tired, dream. Add in sleep) False memories arise from the same constructive process that produces true memories.
Berry and Broadbent (1984)
Participants can develop effective procedures for performing tasks without any ability to explain what they are doing
Lewis and Anderson (1976)
Participants learned "fantasy facts" about public figures: (Napoleon Bonaparte was from India.)
Loftus and colleagues (EXPERIMENTS SUMMARIZED)
Participants watched a video of a traffic accident → Asked to estimate the speed of the car as it passes the yield sign → After answering that question, participants falsely recalled seeing a yield sign → they confused the implication of the question (that there was a yield sign)
What is the mechanism through which interference causes forgetting?
Passive side effect of storing and strengthening new memories Active suppression (or inhibition) of competing memories
Neural correlates of the power law
Processing activity in prefrontal regions regulates input to hippocampal regions that store the memories (Paller and Wagner, 2002).
Hippocampus
Responds to false memories with high activation
Prefrontal brain regions
Responsible for encoding new memories and retrieval of old Memories
Damage to the temporal lobe
Retrograde amnesia, Anterograde amnesia, Korsakoff syndrome
Explanation of the experiment: Johnson and colleagues (2009)
Studied a list of words in fMRI - Imagine how an artist would draw the object - Imagine functional uses of the object → Trained a pattern classifier on their brain activity data - Connecting brain activity to words & tasks → Shown the list of words in fMRI and asked to recall their task (artist vs. functional) → Classifier was able to recognize from these patterns what task the word had been assigned to with better than chance accuracy → Classifier was more successful when participants accurately recalled the task, but was still successful at identify the task when the participant forgot the task
Single Fact
Target: Newton became emotionally unstable and insecure as a child.
Prefrontal Cortex, Hippocampus in the left and right hemispheres, and Temporal Cortex.
The Brain Structures Involved in the Creation, Storage, and Retrieval of Memories are
Could it be that what appears to be decay may really be interference?
The reason memories appear to decay over a retention interval is that they are interfered with by additional memories participants have learned
Plausible Retrieval
We often judge what plausibly might be true rather than try to retrieve exact facts.
Visual sensory memory was studied using two procedures (Sperling, 1960)
Whole-report - report all of the items in a display Partial-report - report only some of the times in a display
"___________________________" argue that eyewitnesses who have not had contaminating experiences are typically very confident and very accurate in their identifications. ( but it is easy to contaminate them)
Wixted, Mickes, and Fisher (2018)
Baddeley's theory
_______________ of working memory (expanded the concept of short term memory) - Memory system that provides temporary storage for information that is currently being used in some conscious capacity (Baddeley, 1986) - Working memory replaced the prior concept of short-term memory.
Memory deficits "__________" complete and there are certain kinds of memories the patient can still acquire.
are not
Kaplan (1989), in his dissertation research, reported an effect of "___________________ ____________ ___ _ ____ ___________ __________" of information processing. The "participants" in the study were members of his dissertation committee.
associative priming at a very different timescale
Speech comes in over time, which means that _____________ information must be held long enough to determine the _________ of what is being said.
auditory; meaning
Visual and auditory sensory memories are held ________ in corresponding basic perceptual regions of the cortex.
briefly
Amnesic patients can often cannot "______________" recall a particular event, butwill show implicit memory for the event.
consciously
Even when presentation time is held constant, _________ processing leads to _________ durable memory than does _________ processing.
deep; more; shallow
Different areas of the ________ and __________ _________ appear to be responsible for maintaining different types of information in working memory.
frontal; parietal cortex
Patients with damage to the _________________ formation show both retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia
hippocampal
New explicit memories are built in ______________________ regions, but old knowledge can be implicitly primed in _____________ _____________
hippocampal; Cortical structures
Activation in the _________________ is about the same for false memories and true memories, reflecting our difficulties in discriminating between what was experienced, what was inferred, and what was imagined.
hippocampus
The "_________________________" cannot tell the difference between false and true memories, but the "__________________________________" does
hippocampus; parahippocampus
Explicit memories are supported by the ___________________ and _____________ ________
hippocampus; prefrontal cortex
Procedural learning is another type of ____________ learning and is supported by the __________ _________.
implicit; basal ganglia
Eyewitnesses are often "______________" in the testimony they give
inaccurate
It has been argued that forgetting may also be produced by active "_______________" (suppression) of memories, but the evidence is "_____________ _______ ___ _______"inconclusive( effects are small).
inhibition; inconclusive( effects are small).
Retrograde amnesia
loss of memories that occurred before an injury. (from our past)
More or less randomly, different faculty members were able to solve various riddles. Given "__________" to record their process of attempting to solve these problems.
microphones
Atkinson and Shiffrin's theory of short-term memory
postulated that information rehearsed in a limited-capacity short-term memory is transferred to long-term memory, but later studies indicate that depth of processing, not rehearsal, determines what goes into long-term memory.
Experimental evidence: Selectively lesioning part of the __________ __________ (critical to memory)
prefrontal cortex
These studies are a good example of the lateralization of "____________" processing, with verbal material involving the "________________ __________" to a greater extent
prefrontal processing; left hemisphere
Human memory depends heavily on _____________ structures of the brain for the _______________________ of memories
prefrontal; creation and retrieval
Activation in "__________" regions appears to drive long-term potentiation in the "___________". This activation results in the "________ ___ _____________" of memories= having it for a long period of time.
prefrontal; hippocampus; creation and strengthening
The partial
report procedure leads to a more accurate measure of visual sensory memory because the memories fade so quickly.
prefrontal regions
responsible for the creation of memories
The hippocampus and surrounding structures in the temporal cortex
responsible for the permanent storage of these memories
Teasdale & Russell (1983)
studied the effect of the content on the memories rather the emotional state of participants
Human memory depends heavily on ______________ for the permanent storage of these Memories.
temporal structures
In both cases, remembered items received greater activation from "______ __________ __________", supporting the conclusion that prefrontal activation is indeed critical for storing a memory successfully.
the prefrontal regions
People show better memory if their external context and their internal states are "____________" at the time of study and the time of test.
the same
These studies are a good example of the lateralization of prefrontal processing, with "__________" material involving the "__________" hemisphere to a greater extent
visual; right hemisphere