Exam 2 Review

Effect to Cause

Effect D→stems from Cause A Cause B Cause C Begins with specific effect and then traces it to its most likely causes. Tracing effects to a cause can be HUGE in terms of what it can spark - policy change, behavior change, social movements...

Backing

Evidence you offer to support the warrant. This helps the reader understand the warrant. You must provide evidence for every questionable claim you make. May want to put ethos, pathos and logos to good use here!

Arguments of Evaluation

Examines QUALITY. An argument where the claim specifies that something does or does not meet established criteria. You make a judgement about something, and then you apply criteria in order to make a decision. Requires you to state your criteria.

Implicit vs. Explicit Bias

Explicit: A conscious attitude or belief we have about a person or group. Implicit: Unconscious attitude or belief we have about a person or a group.

Form vs. Content

Form is how you say something. Content is what you say. EXAMPLE If you are trying to convince someone you live with that they need to do the dishes, you might do so in numerous ways, some of which might be more effective than others: posting a notice that the dishes must be done by them, placing all of the dirty dishes in their bed as a "helpful" reminder, politely requesting that they hold up their end of the agreed-to-household duties, gently asking them why they are having trouble attending to the task they agreed to do and letting them know how it impacts you. Each of these approaches addresses the issue of doing the dishes (content), but each one does so in a different way that will elicit different responses (form).

Warrant

Glue that holds an argument together. Links evidence/reasons to claim. Explanation of why or how the evidence supports the claim, the underlying assumption that connects your data to your claim. It says something like "This evidence supports the claim because..." It reveals the assumptions that are being made. Warrants determine whether the stated reasons support a given claim. A warrant can be explicit or implicit.

Fallacy

1. It must be an error in reasoning, not a factual error. 2. It must be commonly applied to an argument either in the form of the argument or the interpretation of the argument. 3. It must be deceptive in that it often fools the average adult. Fallacies might be emotional, ethical, or logical.

Rhetorical Strategies

If rhetoric is the art of persuasion, then rhetorical strategies are the specific means of persuasion used to influence the audience. Possible strategies include: medium itself, power and truth, framing Aristotle's triangle, enthymeme, tone and voice, devices

Texas Sharpshooter Fallacy

Ignoring the difference while focusing on the similarities, thus coming to an inaccurate conclusion. You cherry-pick a data cluster to suit your argument, or find a pattern to fit an assumption. EXAMPLE: The makers of Sugarette Candy Drinks point to research showing that of the five countries where Sugarette drinks sell the most units, three of them are in the top ten healthiest countries on Earth, therefore Sugarette drinks are healthy. SuperCyberDate.con determined that Sally and Billy are a great match because they both like pizza, movies, junk food, Janet Jackson, and vote republican. (Too bad Billy is gay!)

Inference

A conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning.

Feasibility

A feasible proposal is one where the action that is proposed can actually be carried out. Present EVIDENCE from similar cases, past experiences, observational data, interviews, survey data, Internet Research. Proposal must be able to be done with the resources you have available.

Claim/Thesis

An assertion or statement you hope to prove. Answers the questions: "So What?" or "What's your point?"

Echo Chamber

An environment where we only engage with people who think, act, and believe as we do. This reinforces our views because we never encounter difference. Our echo chambers, which have become more entrenched due to social media, lead us to believe that an issue is settled and that every "reasonable" person agrees on the issue. When this occurs, people are committing the "settled-question fallacy."

Proposals about Policy

Broad Focus (e.g. we should create a policy that outlines how grades are given across campus).

Causal Chain

Cause A→leads to Cause B→leads to Cause C→leads to Effect D... Arguments that move through a series of links. This is a good approach to take with your writing as you guide your reader through your argument.

Cause to Effect

Cause A→leads to Effect B Effect C Effect D Considers consequences of actions. Predictive, which is risky because life is complicated and surprising.

Metacommunication

Communication about communication. We convey more than one message when we say something. Rather, some of our messages reference the process of communication. EXAMPLES If I tell you that you are an "excellent student," I am also telling you that you are desirable to have in a class. If I say that you need to "pay attention" I am also saying that I don't think you are paying attention and need to be reprimanded. Alternatively, I could also be telling you that what I am saying is important and I want to be heard by you. If you are waiting in line at the grocery store and see a cover that discusses the latest dramas in the British royal family, the additional message is that we should care about the royal family and that we should know about their personal affairs.

Summary

Condensing down the main points of a piece of writing. Tip: Keep track of your page numbers associated with the text! Use an online citation tool like Zotero to assist with this.

Artistic Proofs (Constructed)

Created by an individual and appeals to reason, but does not necessarily contain statistics or facts. Ethos, pathos, and logos are artistic proofs.

Definitions by Example

Definition that works by identifying individual examples of what's being defined. X is defined by examples A, B, C that we all accept as being part of that category. So is D also in that category?

Logical Structures (degree, analogy, precedent)

Degree: Asserts that more of a good thing is good. Less of a bad thing is good. Example: Better air quality is good for our community. Having fewer "red-air quality" days is better for individuals with asthma. Analogy: Argues that one item is similar to another. Example: The legalization of marijuana is similar to the legalization of drugs like alcohol. Precedent: Draws a comparison between current situation by showing that something has already occurred in the past. Example: The US can expect Omicron cases to drop based on what has happened in other countries that were hit before the US.

Proposals about Practices

Narrow Focus (e.g. we should change how students are assessed).

Causal Arguments

One factor has influence over another. An argument that seeks to explain the effects of a cause, the causes of an effect, or a causal chain. Causal inferences both identify and explain relationships. Doing something will lead to something else. Relies on the warrant that one phenomenon has influence on another. Influence cannot be observed but is inferred.

Steel-man Technique

One should always try to engage with the strongest form of a position one disagrees with (that is, 'steel-man' opponents rather than 'straw-manning' them). One should be able to describe their interlocutor's position in a manner they would, themselves, agree with ... Look for reasons why the beliefs others hold may be compelling, under the assumption that others are roughly as reasonable, informed, and intelligent as oneself" (Heterodox Way).

Criteria of Evaluation

Particular standards we establish for judging something.

Patchwriting (don't do it)

Patching together different quotes or information in a manner that is VERY close to the original source/sources. This is sloppy and dishonest. NEVER do this in your writing. Patchwriting happens because writers don't take time to understand, process and synthesize their information. They only understand it superficially and seem to be incapable of articulating an original thought in their own words.

Paraphrase

Restating the author's ideas - major and minor points - into your own words. Tip: CITE!!! You need to list both the author and the page number!!!

Types of Causes

Sufficient Cause: Enough for something to occur on its own o Lack of oxygen is sufficient to cause death. o Cheating on an exam is sufficient to fail a course. Necessary Cause: Required for something to occur (but in combination with other factors) o Fuel is necessary for fire. o Capital is necessary for economic growth. Precipitating Cause: Brings on a change o Protest march ignites a riot. o Thunderstorms destabilize flights. Proximate Cause: Immediately present or viable cause of action o Consumer protests cause a company to declare bankruptcy. o Powerful wind shear causes planes to crash. Remote Cause: Indirect or underlying explanation for action o Company was also losing money on outside lawsuits of sexual impropriety by CEO's. o Wind shear warning failed to sound in cockpit of plane. • Reciprocal Causes: One factor leads to a second, which reinforces the first, creating a cycle. o Lack of good schools leads to poverty, which weakens education, which leads to even fewer opportunities.

Syllogism & Enthymeme

Syllogism: Logical Argument that uses deductive reasoning to reach a conclusion. EXAMPLE: People who do equal work deserve equal pay (major premise). Jane and Judith perform the same work (minor premise). Therefore, Jane and Judith should be paid the same (conclusion). Enthymeme: Syllogism with the first major premise implied or suppressed - it's the part that is left out. If you have a failed enthymeme - the major premise is not agreed upon - then you have problems: wars, arguments about taxes, government, how to raise children, sexual freedom, abortion, the role of education...

Plagiarism

The act of using the words, phrases, expressions and significant ideas of others without proper citation or acknowledgement.

Begging the Question/Circular Reasoning/Chicken & Egg

The claim is made on grounds that can't be accepted as true because those grounds themselves are in question. EXAMPLES: I can't be guilty of accepting such bribes; I'm an honest person. You can't give me a C in this course; I'm an A student.

Narcissus as Narcosis

The technologically generated reflection of the self serves as an enchanting but deadening narcotic. We mistake the pool we are looking into as an "other" when really it is simply a reflection of ourselves. We become so enchanted by this reflection that it serves as a narcotic that deadens all other senses. Your "self" is reflected back to you in more ways than an image of your face. Thus, when you think you are engaging with an argument that is not you, it is possible that it really is a reflection of what you think and believe.

Appeal to Fear/Scare Tactics

Use fear, not facts, to motivate the acceptance of an argument. Present an issue in terms of exaggerated threats or dangers. Logical Form: If you don't accept X as true something terrible will happen to you. Therefore, X must be true EXAMPLES: If we don't bail out Wall Street, the US economy will collapse. Therefore, we need to bail out Wall Street. Casey: Dad, what if I don't believe in Santa Claus? Dad: Then you won't get anything for Christmas. Why do you ask? Casey: No reason.

Cult Indoctrination

We all think we are too smart to join a cult, but the reality is that cults are populated by ordinary people like you and me. (One might ask how we are defining the term "cult." What might be a cult to one person, is simply another person's religion/hobby/political party.) We join cults because we are social animals who want to be part of a group. More specifically, we want to be part of an "in-group" that is far wiser/interesting/connected/etc... than everyone else. Being part of an elite group of individuals makes us feel good about ourselves.

Expectation

We are all have subjective encounters with the world. When it comes to experiences, the buildup to an experience - how you anticipate it will happen - will inform how you interpret the actual experience.

Self-Serving Bias

We were all raised to think we should have high self- esteem. As a result, we hate encountering our not-so-successful selves. This is why when you get an "A" on a paper you attribute your success completely to yourself. When you get a "C" on a paper you attribute your lack of success to your professor's terrible teaching. In short, you ignore and excuse your failures. At the same time, you assume you are smarter/better/more successful than you really are

Illusion of Control

We would like to think we have control over our context, but things are frequently out of our control. The trick is to identify what we do have control over, address those things, and then acknowledge that there are things over which we have no control.

Using Quotations

When to Quote Directly: Wording is so amazing you can't improve it or shorten it without weakening it. Author is respected authority who gives your own claims credibility (this helps with ethos!). Quote Practices: Quotes serve a purpose. You need to have a reason for every single quote you use. Keep them short, generally four lines or less. Copy things EXACTLY as this will help your credibility.

Signal Verbs

Words that introduce or frame the source you are citing. Tip: Avoid the signal verbs "states" and "says."

Special Pleading

You apply standards, principles and/or rules to other people or circumstances, while making oneself or certain circumstances exempt from the same criteria without providing justification.

Hasty Generalization/Argument from Small Numbers

an inference drawn from insufficient evidence It also forms the basis for most stereotypes about people or institutions: because a few people in a large group are observed to act in a certain way, all members of that group are inferred to behave similarly. The resulting conclusions are usually sweeping claims of little merit EXAMPLES: because my Fiat broke down, then all Fiats must be junk women are bad drivers; men are slobs; English teachers are nitpicky; computer jocks are . . . ; and on and on..

Personification

ascribing human qualities to the non-human (e.g. Mother Nature is angry and sending winter storms).

Subjective Validation

cognitive bias where we assume an argument or statement is true if it is positive and addresses us personally (McRaney 119). Subjective validation is a close friend to the Texas Sharpshooter Fallacy where we look for meaning in things, but we take it one step further by making the meaning all about us. Think about subjective validation as the algorithm for self-absorption that gets manifest online by only encountering stories that are personally meaningful (due to the data algorithms designed by engineers!). Examples: You LOVE bacon/wine/chocolate/doughnuts/coffe/bread and you see an article that makes the claim that consuming bacon/wine/chocolate/doughnuts/coffee/bread is healthy for you. Because you love bacon/wine/chocolate/doughnuts/coffee/bread you will believe the article because it validates something you enjoy.

Proposal Arguments

deal with questions of policy! This is an argument where the claim either supports or opposes a proposed change. A proposed action should be taken and there need to be good reasons to do it. A should do B because of C.

Hyperbole

deliberate overstatement (e.g. Ringling Brothers claims it has the "greatest show on earth!")

Metonymy

don't call something by its actual name, but by something associated with it, frequently reduces a whole to a part (e.g. All hands on deck - sailors are reduced to a body part).

Faulty Analogy/Weak Analogy

inaccurate or inconsequential comparisons between objects or concepts. analogies—ways of understanding unfamiliar ideas by comparing them with something that's better known EXAMPLES: Politicians and diapers must be changed often, and for the same reason.

Thesis and Antithesis

juxtaposition of two opposite or contrasting ideas. (e.g. Our world may be ecologically degraded, but there are other possibilities for ecological health).

Compare and Contrast

look at similarities and differences between two things.

Allusion

reference to something else that has cultural force (e.g. Gay marriage proponents referenced their own struggle to that of the Civil Rights Movement).

Anaphora

repetition of word or phrase (e.g. Obama repeated "Yes we can..." at key moments in campaign speeches).

Simile

something is like something (e.g. lips are like a red, red rose - look for the word "like").

Metaphor

something is something (e.g. eyes are windows to the soul - look for that "to be" verb).

Deductive Reasoning

starts with a claim and then finds specific examples to support that large claim. The goal is certainty. This is done through a syllogism. EXAMPLE: All of our snowstorms come from the north.

Alliteration

use of the same letter or sound at the beginning of a word (e.g. bouncing, baby boy).

Imagery

use of vivid or descriptive language that "paints" a visual image through words (e.g. wine dark sea).

Whataboutism

when one person brings up a serious issue and the other person responds by bringing up a different, but sometimes similar, issue so that the audience will be distracted from the first topic. It is a way to deflect from the actual issue that is being argued about.

illusion of transparency

"Your subjective experience is not observable, and you overestimate how much you telegraph your inner thoughts and emotions. Stop worrying about how your insecurities are transparent to others (they aren't). Do not get upset when others can't read your mind. When you are emotional you cannot really assess how others perceive you, or your argument.

Quantitative Evaluation

Arguments that rely on criteria that can be measured, counted, or demonstrated in some objective manner. (e.g. something is taller, faster, quieter, more powerful, or did the best at the box office this weekend or garnered a certain score from reviewers).

Factual Arguments

Arguments where the claim can be proved or disproved with specific evidence or testimony.

Warrant

Assumption(s) that must be shared by the speaker and the audience in order to get from the data to the claim. Assumption that makes the claim seem believable. Answers the question: How did I get from the data to the claim. Key Word: "Since."

Text

Anything that can be read. A text can be a book, a film, a photograph, a billboard, a tweet, an advertisement - and way more than that. A text might also include Moby Dick, or Lady Gaga's meat dress, Miley Cyrus' twerking at the MTV Video Music Awards, Sean Connery's eyebrows, the shape of somebody's body, the clothes someone wears (or isn't wearing), body piercings, a tattoo, the flow of a river, a clear cut forest, the length of a skirt...

Formal Definition

A definition that identifies something first by the general class it belongs to (genus) and then by the characteristics that distinguish it from other members of that class (species). The best definition of x is...

Alternative Facts

A propaganda tool that deliberately disseminates lies and falsehoods in order to create an alternative reality that better serves those who wield power. Because language is not stable, alternative facts frequently rely on equivocation to act as if they are not lies. Alternative facts are provable lies. (Popularized by George Orwell in 1984).

Crap Detector

A system for determining what information is deceptive, ignorant, or false. This process involves triangulation, assessing both the credibility of the site/medium posting the information and of the author, checking the author's sources, and skepticism of search engines. PROCESS Triangulation: Check the claims by looking at three different credible sources for corroboration. Credibility of Site/Medium: Look at the URL. Typically a .gov and .edu is going to be more credible. The country of origin might be a clue regarding bias (e.g. .ru for Russia vs. .ca for Canada). Click on embedded links and see if they lead you to credible websites. Credibility of Author: Question anonymous postings. Blogs that allow for comments and that get a response from the author are typically going to be more credible. Look for credentials of the author related to the topic being addressed. Skepticism of Search Engines: The top posts that come up on a Google search are not necessarily the most credible. To obtain better results, type "critique" or "criticism" when performing a search on a topic.

Meme

A unit that carries cultural practices and is disseminated from person to person through things like writing, images, gestures, speech, etc. The imitation of an idea or style that replicates and spreads within a culture.

Dogmatism

A writer who asserts or assumes that a particular position is the only one that is conceivably acceptable Fallacy of character that undermines the trust that must exist between those who make and listen to arguments. When people or organizations write dogmatically, they imply that no arguments are necessary: the truth is self-evident and needs no support. EXAMPLE: "Brother national socialist, do you know that your Fuhrer is against smoking and thinks that every German is responsible to the whole people for all his deeds and omissions, and does not have the right to damage his body with drugs?"

Sound

Argument where the conclusion will follow from the premises and the premises are indeed true in real life. Truth matters!!! If the premises are true and inferences are all valid, then the conclusion must be true. True premise + valid reasoning = Sound Argument EXAMPLE All dogs are canines. Pippa is a dog. Therefore, Pippa is a canine. It is true that all dogs are canines (accordingly to our classification system). Since Pippa is a dog, then she must be a canine.

Qualitative Evaluation

Arguments that rely on criteria that can be explained through language and media. Relies on values, traditions, and emotions. (e.g. something is more ethical, beneficial, noble). May consider social impacts, what force it has in the world.

Amputation & Amplification

All forms of technology or media both extend (amplify) and amputate (cut something off). EXAMPLE when one engages with the technology of diving a car, the sensation of speed and distance are amplified as the foot presses down on the accelerator, but the foot does not feel the ground crushed by speeding tires.

Non Sequitur

An argument whose claims, reasons, or warrants don't connect logically. Often occur when writers omit steps in an otherwise logical chain of reasoning. EXAMPLES: You don't love me or you'd buy me a new bike. Scherer: Mitch McConnell has said he'd rather you stop tweeting, that he sees it as a distraction. Trump: Mitch will speak for himself. Mitch is a wonderful man. Mitch should speak for himself.

Strawman Fallacy

Attack arguments that no one is really making or portray opponents' positions as more extreme or far less coherent than they actually are. The speaker or writer thus sets up an argument that is conveniently easy to knock down (like a man of straw), proceeds to do so, and then claims victory over an opponent who may not even exist. EXAMPLES: "war on women" and "war on Christmas."

Ad Hominem Arguments

Attacking the person making the argument rather than the argument itself The attack on the person is completely irrelevant to the argument the person is making Logical Form: Person 1 is claiming Y Person 1 is a moron Therefore, Y is not true EXAMPLES: My opponent suggests that lowering taxes will be a good idea -- this is coming from a woman who eats a pint of Ben and Jerry's each night! Tony wants us to believe that the origin of life was an "accident." Tony is an atheist who has spent more time in jail than in church, so the only information we should consider from him is the best way to make license plates.

Paralipsis

Basically, this fallacy occurs when speakers or writers say they will NOT talk about something, thus doing the very thing they say they're not going to do. It's a way of getting a point into an argument obliquely, of sneaking it in while saying that you are not doing so. EXAMPLE: Trump: I will not call him a lightweight, because I think that's a derogatory term, so I will not call him a lightweight. Is that OK with you people? I refuse to say that he's a lightweight.

Ethics

Branch of philosophy that deals with what is right and wrong Note that your values and beliefs - your worldview - will influence what you perceive to be right or wrong. It is important to be aware of our values and beliefs, and to recognize that others will value and believe different things.

No True Scotsman

Calls into question the purity or actualness of something as a way to refute an argument. Making a universal claim about something, someone finds an exception, then it is attacked by saying that thing isn't real or true What category does something belong in, or to what degree does it belong there EXAMPLE "The name "No True Scotsman" comes from an odd example involving Scotsmen: 'Suppose I assert that no Scotsman puts sugar on his porridge. You counter this by pointing out that your friend Angus likes sugar with his porridge. I then say "Ah, yes, but no true Scotsman puts sugar on his porridge.

Moral Foundations (six of them!)

Care/harm: This foundation is related to our long evolution as mammals with attachment systems and an ability to feel (and dislike) the pain of others. It underlies virtues of kindness, gentleness, and nurturance. fairness/cheating: This foundation is related to the evolutionary process of reciprocal altruism. It generates ideas of justice, rights, and autonomy. [Note: In our original conception, Fairness included concerns about equality, which are more strongly endorsed by political liberals. However, as we reformulated the theory in 2011 based on new data, we emphasize proportionality, which is endorsed by everyone, but is more strongly endorsed by conservatives] loyalty/betrayal: This foundation is related to our long history as tribal creatures able to form shifting coalitions. It underlies virtues of patriotism and self-sacrifice for the group. It is active anytime people feel that it's "one for all, and all for one." authority/subversion: This foundation was shaped by our long primate history of hierarchical social interactions. It underlies virtues of leadership and followership, including deference to legitimate authority and respect for traditions. sanctity/degradation: This foundation was shaped by the psychology of disgust and contamination. It underlies religious notions of striving to live in an elevated, less carnal, more noble way. It underlies the widespread idea that the body is a temple which can be desecrated by immoral activities and contaminants (an idea not unique to religious traditions). liberty/oppression: This foundation is about the feelings of reactance and resentment people feel toward those who dominate them and restrict their liberty. Its intuitions are often in tension with those of the authority foundation. The hatred of bullies and dominators motivates people to come together, in solidarity, to oppose or take down the oppressor. We report some preliminary work on this potential foundation in this paper, on the psychology of libertarianism and liberty.

Cherry Picking/Stacking the Deck

Cherry Picking When only select evidence is presented in order to persuade the audience to accept a position, and evidence that would go against the position is withheld. The stronger the withheld evidence, the more fallacious the argument Logical Form: Evidence A and evidence B are available Evidence A supports the claim of person 1 Evidence B supports the counterclaim of person 2 Therefore, person 1 presents only evidence A EXAMPLES: My political candidate gives 10% of his income to the needy, goes to church every Sunday, and volunteers one day a week at a homeless shelter. Therefore, he is honest and morally straight. The reviews for the product were exceptional because only the positive reviews were made public on the website. Stacking the Deck Writers stack the deck when they show only one side of the story—the one in their favor. EXAMPLE: In a 2016 New Yorker article, writer Kathryn Schulz discusses the Netflix series Making a Murderer. Schulz notes that the filmmakers have been accused of limiting their evidence in order to convince viewers that the accused, Steven Avery, had been framed for the crime:

Plagiarism

Claiming as your own the words, research or creative work of others. When it comes to giving credit, your textbook outlines some important points on page 486 of your textbook. Here are the most common things you will want to cite: Direct quotations Facts that are not widely known Judgements, opinions, and claims made by others

Argument from Ignorance

Claiming that because something has not yet been proven, then it is not the case. Or, claiming that because something has not yet been disproven, then it is the case. EXAMPLE Arguments from teenagers: "My mom didn't say I couldn't borrow her car, so I figured it was fine if I borrowed it for the weekend."

Stasis Theory

Coming up with appropriate arguments by determining the nature of a given situation; a question of fact; of definition; of quality; or policy. 1. Did something happen? (Arguments of Fact) You can prove or disprove it (just make sure you know the source of the facts) 2. What is its nature? (Arguments of Definition) Make sure you agree on the definition of what is being discussed 3. What is its quality or cause? (Arguments of Evaluation) Need criteria that are used as measurement standards 4. What action should be taken? (Proposal Arguments) Give a solution! EXAMPLE Let's apply stasis theory to the 2017 film Wonder Woman. Arguments of Fact - Did something happen? Yes, a film was produced and released in a particular year with a particular cast, director, and production crew. Arguments of Definition - What is its nature? In this case, we could explore the many definitions of feminism, heroism, or even human nature. Arguments of Evaluation - What is its quality or cause? For this, you need criteria that are used as a standard of measurement. You could examine how much money it grossed, how the female director compared to other female directors, or how many awards it received. Proposal Arguments - What action should be taken? This all depends on what your argument is. If you think that Wonder Woman is a film that empowers women, then you might propose that it serve as a model for other filmmakers interested in female empowerment.

Inoculation Theory

Communication theory that protects beliefs against persuasion. By exposing an individual to a weak version of an argument, it can protect the individual against a stronger version of the argument.

Crap Detection & Triangulation

Crap Detection: A system for determining what information is deceptive, ignorant, or false. This process involves triangulation, assessing both the credibility of the site/medium posting the information and of the author, checking the author's sources, and skepticism of search engines. Triangulation: Check the claims by looking at three different credible sources for corroboration.

Dissemination vs. Dialogue

Dissemination: The act of spreading something, especially information, widely; circulation. Promiscuous scattering, one-way, audience-centered, indiscriminate almost gratuitous giving, democratic, riddles; messages are multiple and interpreted differently, distance, absence disembodied, no control; death misunderstanding & remix, incorporeality ghostlike speaker unknown and effects unknown, passive Dialogue: Exchange between two or more people with the goal of achieving understanding through rational discussion. Soul to soul, two-way, speaker-centered, reciprocity, aristocratic, understanding/transparency, intimacy, presence embodied, message controlled, materiality, active. Unlike dialogue where you "think" the other person understands (remember, we can never be certain!), and where you can dialogue back and forth as a means of assessing understanding, dissemination is promiscuous and prone to misunderstanding.

Pathos

Emotion. A speaker will use techniques to spark emotion - fear, anger, pride, envy, compassion - to encourage the acceptance of a claim. We use emotion to make decisions. Pathos can do the following: Build bridges with an audience Sustain the audience's memory (images are particularly useful for impacting an audience's memory) Create openness through humor (satire - humor that critiques - is particularly important in a democratic society because it reminds anyone in a position of power that they are not immune from mockery and critique). EXAMPLE: advertisement tells us to simply trust our hearts to "know" when something is "real" and implies that this capacity for emotion will guide us to the correct pint of ice cream. Thanks Häagen-Dazs, I wouldn't have been able to make a decision about ice cream without your emotional appeals.

Rogerian Approach

Empathetic approach to argumentation which attempts to establish common ground among people who disagree by attempting to see the perspective of the other. Goal is a "Both/And" or a "Win/Win." Structure: Introduction - Describe Issue/Problem and alternative positions related to the issue/problem. Contexts - Describe the contexts where the alternative position could be valid. Writer's Position - State your position and when that position would be valid. Benefits to Opponent - Explain why your opponents would benefit from your position.

Aristotle's Magic Triangle

Ethos, Pathos, and Logos Any well-crafted argument MUST have all three to be effective (logos, ethos, pathos) Specific means of appeal

Toulmin Method

Evaluation tool for arguments. Key components of an argument are the claim, qualifiers, the reason, warrant, and backing. "My claim is true, to a qualified degree, because of the following reasons, which make sense if you consider the warrant, backed by these additional reasons," It is raining, so I should take my umbrella, since it would keep me dry because it is made of waterproof material, unless it has a hole in it. Claim: We eat too much. Qualifiers: A great many of us eat too much. Reason: What we want is not available. Warrant: Eating too much is a problem and has sparked food industry responses. Backing: Quinoa, kale, pomegranate high-end restaurants.

Slippery Slope

Exaggerates the possibility that a relatively inconsequential action today will have serious consequences in the future. Usually connected by "the next thing you know" Logical Form: If A then B then C, then ultimately Z EXAMPLES: We cannot allow our child to walk alone for two blocks to school. If we let her walk alone to school, she will get picked up by a stranger in a van, who will force her to work in a factory in some other country. Therefore, we must drive her everywhere.

Inartistic Proofs (Hard Evidence)

Exist independently of the argument you are making. You don't invent or create them, rather you use things to support the argument you are creating. Facts: Make them credible. Statistics: Numbers that are always interpreted. Know where they come from, what they mean, know their limitations. Surveys and Polls: Question poll numbers, ask who commissioned the poll, who published it, who was surveyed (sample size), and what stakes do those polled have in the poll? Testimonies and Narratives: Occurs in courts. Personal perspectives can support a claim if the person making the clam has earned the audiences' trust.

Invalid

Fallacy. Premises do not provide a conclusive reason for the conclusion. Something has gone wrong with how you took your existing information to get your new information or conclusion. EXAMPLE If it's raining outside then my dog will be wet. My dog is wet, therefore it is raining outside. Your dog could be wet for other reasons like sprinklers, a pitcher ofwater spilling, or a child with a water pistol. This is known as "affirming the consequent" where you look at the consequence instead of the antecedent.

False Dilemma/Either-Or Choices

False Dilemma/Either-Or Fallacy/Black-or-White Fallacy Reduce a complicated argument to simple terms which obscure other alternatives Uses "either this or that" language but can also be characterized by omissions of choices. Logical Form: Either X or Y is true. Either X, Y, or Z is true. EXAMPLES: • You are either with us, or you are against us. o Beware of absolutes!• I thought you were a good student, but you weren't in class today. o There are a number of legitimate reasons why you might not be in class.

Equivocation

Half truths or arguments that give lies an honest appearance that are usually based on tricks of language Parsing words carefully can sometimes look like equivocation or be the thing itself. EXAMPLES: Consider the plagiarist who copies a paper word for word from a source and then declares that "I wrote the entire paper myself"—meaning that she physically copied the piece on her own.

Overly Sentimental Appeal

Highly personal and emotional appeals that make an audience feel guilty if they challenge an idea a policy, or a proposal. It is a type of manipulation used in place of valid logic. Won't anyone think of the children Logical Form: X must be true. Imagine how sad it would be if it weren't true. Assertion, emotional appeal, request for action (conclusion) - nowhere is there any evidence presented EXAMPLE: Power lines cause cancer. I met a little boy with cancer who lived just 20 miles from a power line who looked into my eyes and said, in his weak voice, "Please do whatever you can so that other kids won't have to go through what I am going through." I urge you to vote for this bill to tear down all power lines and replace them with monkeys on treadmills.

Narrative Imperative

Human impulse to turn all experiences into stories. Beyond that, the impulse to "story" our world by imposing a narrative on it. EXAMPLE If you are driving on the freeway, you might see the narrative imperative in action. To summarize the comedian George Carlin, everyone who drives faster than you is a maniac, and everyone who drives slower than you is an idiot. Now that you are familiar with the narrative imperative, you will start to notice it in action all around you.

Operational Definition

Identifies an object by what it does, or by the conditions that create it. X must satisfy Y requirements in order to... X is in category Y or X is defined by a), b), and c)...

Reasons for Arguing

Inform or convince (frequently has evidence based on research) Persuade - Implies a call to action and to change (frequently has emotional appeal) Make Decisions - explores the pros and the cons (problem is that we act as if there are only two options) Understand and Explore - Open to possibilities without prejudice or bias -Invitational Arguments: Invites others to explore a topic together without judgement Rogerian Argument: Empathetic approach which attempts to establish common ground among people who disagree by attempting to see the perspective of the other. Goal is a Both/And or a Win/Win

Red Herring/Chewbacca Defense

It changes the subject abruptly or introduces an irrelevant claim or fact to throw readers or listeners off the trail. The red herring is not only a device writers and speakers use in the arguments they create, but it's also a charge used frequently to undermine someone else's arguments. EXAMPLES: People skeptical about climate change will routinely note that weather is always changing and point to the fact that Vikings settled in Greenland one thousand years ago before harsher conditions drove them away. True, scientists will say, but the point is irrelevant to arguments about worldwide global warming caused by human activity.

Media vs. Medium

Medium: Specific technologies through which messages are transmitted. (e.g. radio, television, film) Media: Technically, this is the plural of medium, but in our contemporary world it is frequently singular as in "the media" to describe the media industries that influence public opinion.

Groupthink

People are so desirous of maintaining group harmony that they don't challenge group decisions. Because groups so desire harmony, they don't consider alternatives and they don't express outright disagreement.

Dunning-Kruger Effect

People with a limited knowledge of something overestimate their knowledge/competence on that topic. EXAMPLE Do you have co-workers who think they know far more about something than they actually do? Do they speak up about things that they do not have in-depth knowledge about? It is likely that they are suffering from the Dunning-Kruger Effect.

Left vs. Right (politically)

Political positions based on ideologies and associated with political parties. The "left" is currently associated with the Democratic Party and is considered to be "liberal." The "right" is currently associated with the Republican Party and is considered to be "conservative." The "left" typically favors having government resolve social issues. The "right" typically wants government to be smaller so that individual rights can prevail.

Valid

Premises of the argument logically guarantees the conclusion. Focused on connections between statements (i.e. form is what matters, not content or truth!). Does not deal with truth! EXAMPLE All dogs have four legs. Pippa has four legs. Therefore, Pippa is a dog. Pippa does indeed have four legs! However, just because she has four legs does not make her a dog. She could be a rat or a toad or a cat. More importantly, not all dogs have four legs! In this case, it just happens to be true that Pippa is both a dog and she has four legs.

Primary Sources vs. Secondary Sources

Primary Source: Provides direct or firsthand evidence about an event, object, person, statistical data, experiment results, audio/visual recording. Secondary Source: Interpret, analyze, or evaluate primary sources. These could be articles in newspapers or magazines, book or movie reviews.

Public Sphere vs. Public Screen

Public Sphere: Society engaged in critical, public debate in order to form public opinion. Accessible to everyone; ability to gather and escape corporate or political control; discourse is rational and deliberative - consensus, openness, dialogue, rationality and civility. Separation of public and private. The public sphere is a utopian ideal. Public Screen: The screen becomes a new form of participatory democracy that is not based on consensus, but permits for unruly and disciplined bodies to express themselves. The public and the private are blurred due to the ability to carry screens with you. Dissemination model. In our contemporary context where the "public screen" dominates, numerous voices assert their views and claims on the screens that we carry in our pocket, look at on our computers, or even glimpse on our television. The public screen is characterized by the privileging of the image over rational language.

Qualifiers

Puts limits on the claim that is being made (always a good idea). l Avoid: All, Always, Every, Never, None, No one l Use: Most, many, strongly suggests, possibly, rarely, few, usually, sometimes, on occasion, unless, in most cases (additional qualifiers can be found on page 153 of your textbook).

Reasons/Evidence

Reasons/Evidence: Reason for the claim!!! Data used as evidence, grounds for the claim. Must back up the claim! What counts as evidence will vary for every context and every discipline - go for best quality possible. Frequently uses "Because" as a link between claim and evidence. Evidence: Textual quotes, facts, statistics, experts, authorities, anecdote, personal experience, testimony, precedent.

Bandwagon Appeal

Recommend a course of action because everyone else is following it. Joining a cause because of its popularity Logical Form: Idea X is popular. Therefore, X is the right thing to do. EXAMPLES: • That politician is very popular. Therefore, everything she does for our nation is the best thing possible. • All boys have locker room talk. Since everyone does it, there is no reason to be upset about it.

Kairos

Right or opportune moment to act. The most suitable time and place for making an argument and the most opportune ways to present the argument. EXAMPLE We have all put Kairos to work when we have decided when we should/should not tell our parents something that will displease them. When we do decide how to tell them, we try to create the best possible conditions so they will be more amenable to listening to your case.

Slacktivism

Showing support for a cause that requires minimal effort, results in only being beneficial to the egos of those participating and producing little change inthe world. Shallow, low-cost efforts substitute for substantive action. EXAMPLE We are all slacktivists to varying degrees. Any social media platform is a great venue to see this in action as one clicks on the "Like" option for various causes. Consider how in the middle of a face-to-face conversation we will take out our phone and start scrolling on it to not have to fully engage with the person in front of us. The key here, is that our technologies produce different types of individuals and different types of arguments!

Ethos

Speaker's credibility. Clear motives should be present in the speaker and the argument the speaker makes. Frequently ethos is conveyed through: • Trustworthiness Authority or expertise Clear motives EXAMPLE If I walked into a mechanic's and saw that the mechanics were dressed in white linen suits with perfectly manicured nails, I would distrust their knowledge of working with cars since they would lack the signs that they are willing to get dirty while working on a car. In contrast, if the mechanics were wearing clothing that was designed to get dirty, and had oil under their fingernails, I would trust that they actually worked on cars.

Argument

Study of effective reasoning. Use of evidence and reason that expresses a point of view and attempts to establish a form of "truth" (reasons support claims). Reason giving can come in multiple forms; spoken, written, visual texts. When you engage in arguments, keep the following in mind: 1. To effectively argue, you need to know your audience. 2. Recognize that argumentation is both a product and process (how does one argue and what are the results). 3. Arguments always contain a set of values.

Rhetoric

The art of persuasion (keep the audience in mind if you want to persuade people) Rhetoric is not always interested in truth, rather, it simply wants to persuade others of what is being claimed. However, rhetoric, as articulated by the Ancient Greeks, particularly Aristotle, has some important concepts that will inform how we argue. With rhetoric, you should always keep the audience in mind if you want to actually persuade people!

Medium is the Message

The form of a medium embeds itself in the message, creating a symbiotic relationship by which the medium influences how the message is perceived. Don't look at the content (e.g. the words), instead look at the FORM. The form itself (the medium) is the message!!!

Illusion of Asymmetric Insight

The illusion of asymmetric insight makes it seem as though you know everyone else far better than they know you, and not only that, but you know them better than they know themselves. You believe the same thing about groups of which you are a member. As a whole, your group understands outsiders better than outsiders understand your group, and you understand the group better than its members know the group to which they belong...The illusion of asymmetrical insight clouds your ability to see the people you disagree with as nuanced and complex.

Worldview

The lens through which you see the world. This is demonstrated through attitudes, values, and stories. Our worldviews are shaped by things like culture, religion, wealth, geography, education, politics, nationality, ethnicity, and gender which filter how we see the world. That is, they act as a lens that shapes our attitudes, values and stories about the world. Our worldview is expressed through practices which can range from who we date, to what degree you pursue in college, to how you decide to spend money.

The Rider and the Elephant

The mind is divided like a rider on an elephant. The rider represents your rational self and the elephant represents your emotional self. The emotional elephant is more powerful than the rational rider. If there is a disagreement between the elephant and the rider, then it will be the emotional elephant who wins.

Rhetorical Situation (Context)

The relationship between topic, author, audience, and other contexts (e.g. social, cultural, political) that evoke an appropriate response (Lunsford and Ruszkiewicz 29). The key factors are writer/speaker, a speech/text/message, audience, and the context for the speech. CONTEXT MATTERS!!!! Please, take care to not decontextualize arguments that you might make, or evidence you might use.

Illusion of Explanatory Depth

We believe we understand more about our world than we actually do. When we are required to actually explain something, we discover we know a lot less about it than we thought. EXAMPLE Have you ever done poorly on an exam and you blame your memory for your poor performance? You have likely committed the illusion of explanatory depth. You assumed that because you recognized a concept or idea, then you understood it.

Confirmation Bias

We ignore empirical evidence that does not fit our worldview, we ignore the arguments of particular individuals because we may have explicit or implicit biases against them, and we ignore arguments that make hard demands of us. What we have CHOSEn to pay attention to, and we pay attention to things that CONFIRM what we already believe

Logos

The use of logic or reason. An appeal to rationality where the argument seems reasonable through the use of enthymemes or examples. EXAMPLES OF LOGOS Induction: Provides specific examples and then draws a conclusion based on them. I.e. Twenty out of twenty-five individuals hospitalized for COVID were not vaccinated. Therefore, being vaccinated will reduce your chances of being hospitalized. Deduction: Starts with a claim and then finds specific examples to support that large claim. Done through a syllogism. Syllogism: Logical Argument that uses deductive reasoning to reach a conclusion Enthymeme: Syllogism with the first major premise implied or suppressed - it's the part that is left out. Definition: Walks the audience through a concept. Example: Definitions of concepts like liberty, and health in the context of hot-button issues like abortion. Division and Classification: Arranges things into categories. Example: Decisions regarding individuals considered "high risk" and "low risk" for COVID and the subsequent treatments. Consequence: Argues cause and effect - very tricky to claim clear connections. Example: Individuals raised in poverty are more likely to succumb to health issues like diabetes. Testimony: Uses individuals' lived experience. Example: Doctors testify that insurance companies prioritize financial gains over the health of the patients. History and Texts: Allude to past historical events and texts. Example: The US has a proud history of resistance and protest based off of the events of the Revolutionary War. Chronology: Presents details in a chronological order. Example: The spread of a contagious disease occurs in three steps: individual exposure to the contagion, incubation of the contagion in individual, illness in individual is then spread to others. Cultural Beliefs and Traditions: Base an argument on shared values. Example: The US has long valued freedom of speech as evidenced by the First Amendment. Counter-Argument: Concedes the opposing view and then refutes it by showing how the opposing view is wrong.

Argument from Tradition

Using historical preferences of the people (tradition), either in general or as specific as the historical preferences of a single individual, as evidence that the historical preference is correct. Traditions are often passed from generation to generation with no other explanation besides, "this is the way it has always been done"— which is not a reason, it is an absence of a reason.

Conformity

We all do it because we all want to survive. While most people in Western culture like to think that they "march to the beat of a different drummer" (we would all like to think we are part of the counterculture), the reality is that we typically follow the orders of an authority figure (sometimes with poor results, as McRaney points out), and we attempt to blend in with those who around us so that we "fit in." This attempt to "fit in" is not necessarily a sign of weakness, but an attempt to establish a posse of like-minded people who can help us survive.

Fundamental Attribution Fallacy

We always judge ourselves by our circumstances, but we judge others based on their dispositions - even when their dispositions are shaped by their circumstances! We explain someone's behavior based on internal factors like personality or disposition and underestimate the influence that external factors play on a person's behavior.

Enclothed Cognition

We assume that clothing does not impact how we perceive ourselves. Sure, others might perceive us differently based on what we are wearing, but if we are doing EVERYTHING online from the comfort of our home then we may as well wear our pajamas. After all, the key is to be comfortable. Right? Nope. The truth is that we perform better when we are dressed for the activity we are pursuing. Clothes have an incredible power...over your mind. EXAMPLE Want to be successful in this course? Then take off those pajamas/yoga pants/hoodie/sweatpants and put on a clean pair of jeans, a button-up shirt, or something that might equate to "business casual." Also, brush your teeth (take care of your teeth!), comb your hair,and tidy up your workspace. Dressing the part of the "successful college student" will help you take your role, and your studies, seriously.

Settled-question Fallacy

We behave as if there is a broad-based consensus on answers to important and controversial questions that aren't actually settled. EXAMPLE The abolition of slavery is a settled question as we are no longer debating whether slavery should be legal. However, there are still live debates regarding symbols associated with slavery (e.g. the Confederate flag).

Academic Arguments

Well-informed argument that appeals to reason and relies on research to support its claims. Follows standard writing styles which includes the use of paragraphs, punctuation, and a format that is clear and compelling.

Hypothesis

Well-informed guess at what the conclusion of one's research will reveal. Require being tested against evidence and opposing argument.

Arguments of Definition

What is its nature? Argument where the claim specifies that something does or does not meet the conditions or features that are set forth in the definition.

Backfire Effect

When people encounter evidence or arguments that challenge their beliefs, they reject that evidence and actively entrench themselves even more in their original stance. This cognitive bias means that logic and evidence can backfire and result in people more strongly supporting their view than they did before. AVOIDING IT Avoid the Fringes Work Together Reframe Nudge Theory Seek Self-Affirmation Familiarity Backfire Effect Overkill Effect Filling the Gap/Replacing Leg of Table

Dunbar's Number

You can maintain relationships and keep up with only around 150 people at once (McRaney 146). Approximately 150 casual relationships - those you would invite to a large party (range from 100-200). Fifty is the number of actual friends - those you might invite to dinner. Fifteen is the number of intimate friends - those who support you during hard times. Five is the central support group of best friends and family members. 500 are the acquaintances and 1500 are those you can put a name to.

Argument from Authority

You consider the opinions of certain individuals to be better due to their status or training alone. Just because someone has status or expertise in one area does not mean they are an expert in all areas. EXAMPLE You go to your argumentation professor for advice on how to raise children. Even though she doesn't have children, or specialize on anything related to children, you cite her in an argument with your spouse regarding child-rearing: "Make children entertain themselves device-free, as it will boost creativity."

Rebuttal

You must consider and anticipate the counter-responses to your argument and respond to them. By answering questions and objections raised in the audience you will demonstrate ethos. If you don't respond to questions and objections, your argument will be weakened. This is hard for us to do!

Inductive Reasoning

provides specific examples and then draws a conclusion from these specific examples. The goal is probability. EXAMPLE: Most of our snowstorms come from the north. It's starting to snow. This snowstorm must be coming from the north.

Faulty Causality/Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc

the faulty assumption that because one event or action follows another, the first causes the second Of course, some actions do produce reactions. In other cases, however, a supposed connection between cause and effect turns out to be completely wrong. EXAMPLE: Doctors now believe that when an elderly person falls and breaks a hip or leg, the injury usually caused the fall rather than the other way around.