exam 2

Evolutionary Factors - primates

Changes in diet, reliance on vision, grasping hands and feet came about with arboreal settings, forward facing eyes(facilitate binocular vision), rise of angiosperms (flowering plants)

New World Monkeys

70 species almost exclusively arboreal Found in southern mexico and central and south america Two families: Callitrichidae and Cebid

Primates:

Approx. 230 species of nonhuman primates (lemurs,tarsiers,monkeys and apes.)

Old world Monkeys subfamilies

Cercopithecines: Colobines:

Evolution of Behavior- Behavioral Ecology

Focuses on the relationship between behaviors, natural environment, and biological traits of the species. Based on the assumption that animals, plants, and microorganisms evolved together. Behaviors: Evolved through natural selection Or Are influenced by genes and are subject to natural selection the same way physical characteristics are.

Examples- Primate Cultural Behavior

Japanese macaques and sweet potato washing Orangutan nest building Gorilla depth testing Chimpanzee termite fishing, leaf sponges, hunting "spears", nut cracking Kanzi's stone tool making

Kanzi's stone tool making

Kanzi, a bonobo, began using symbols when he was 2.5 years old, and his younger half sister began using symbols at 11 months old Both went to training sessions with their mother but neither had been taught or were involved in the sessions

Some factors that influence social structure: Body Size

Larger animals require fewer calories per unit of weight then smaller animals Larger animals are better able to retain heat and their overall energy requirements are less than for smaller animals

Primates-Social Characteristics

Longer period of gestation and dependency of offspring Dependence on flexible, learned behaviors Social groups and permanent association of adult males Diurnal(Day time) activities

Some factors that influence social structure: Relationships with Non Predatory Species

Many primate species associate with other primate and non primate species for various reasons, including predator avoidance.

Primate Habitats - primates

Most live in tropical or semi tropical areas of the new and old worlds Most are arboreal, living in forest or woodland habitats No nonhuman primate is adapted to a fully terrestrial environment; all spend some time in the trees.

Prehensile Tails

Some new world monkeys enhance arm swinging by using a prehensile tail that basically serves as an extra hand-enhances balance/decreases chance of falling to death while swinging from tree to tree Old World monkeys DO NOT have prehensile tails

Primates: Physical Characteristics

Specialized limbs and locomotion lack of dietary specialization, reflected in dentition Visual acuity and reduced sense of smell neocortex expansion and greater dependence on learning.

Rhinarium

The moist, hairless pad at the end of the nose seen in most mammals. enhances an animal's ability to smell

Lemurs and Lorises

The most primitive of primates

Nocturnal

This means active during the night. Nocturnal animals, including primates, can be characterized by their huge eyes and great depth perception. However, they typically have bad color perspective.

Arboreal Adaptation

Tree-living Adapted to living in the trees

Gibbons

White handed gibbon brachiating Note the long curved fingers, long arms and heavily muscled shoulders

Hominoids (Apes and Humans)- Characteristics distinguishing hominoids from monkeys:

1. Larger body size 2. Absence of tail 3. Shortened trunk 4. More complex behavior 5. More complex brain 6. Increased period of infant development

Some factors that influence social structure: Life Histories

Characteristics or developmental stages that typify members of a species and influence reproductive rates Ex. lengths of gestation. Time between pregnancies, period of infant dependency, age at weaning, age of sexual maturity, and life expectancy Unpredictable environment favor shorter life histories and stable ones, longer lives. Today the slow rate of reproduction increase the threat of extinction for all the great apes.

Sexual Dimorphism

Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species For example, humans are slighlty sexucally dimorphic for body size with males being taller, on average then the females of the same population.

Natal Groups

Natal groups are the groups that an organism is born into, natal meaning birth

Haplorhines

tarsiers, monkeys, apes, humans

Some factors that influence social structure:

1. Body Size 2. BMR and Diet 3. Diet 4. Distribution of Resources 5. Primate Social Groupings 6. Predation 7. Relationships with Non Predatory Species 8. Dispersal 9. Life Histories 10. Activity Patterns 11. Human Activities

Over half of all living primates are endangered, many face immediate extinction Three reasons:

1. Habitat destroyed 2. Hunting for food 3. Live capture for export or local trade

Grooming serves to indicate submission or reassurance

1. Picking though fur to remove dirt, parasites, and other materials that may be present. 2. Social grooming is common among primates and reinforces social relationships

List the three main primate tendencies

1. arboreal mammals - adapted to life in the trees 2. dietary plasticity - can eat a wide variety of foods 3. parental investment intensive childcare (typical of K selected species)

Polyandrous

A mating system where a female associates with more than one male-- usually two or three-- with whom she mates. males take part in child rearing Among non-human primates, polyandry is seen only in marmosets and tamarins it occurs in a few human societies

Limbs - primates

A tendency towards erect posture Hands and feet possess grasping ability Features of hands and feet: 1. 5 digits on hands and feet 2. Opposable thumb 3. Partially opposable great toe 4. Tactile pads enriched with sensory nerve fibers at the end of digits. 5. Many monkeys are able to grasp objects with an opposable thumb, while others have very reduced thumbs Humans are capable of a "precision grip" Chimpanzees, with their reduced thumbs, are also capable of a precision grip, but they frequently use a modified form.

Sexual Selection

A type of natural selection that operates on one sex, usually males. Long term, this increases the frequency of traits that lead to greater success in acquiring males Sexual selection in primates is most common i species in which mating is polygynous and male competition for females is prominent Sexual selection produces dimorphism with regard to a number of traits, most noticeably body size.

Sexual Selection

A type of natural selection that operates on only one sex in a species. It's the result of competition for mates, and it can lead to sexual dimorphism with regard to one or more traits

Diurnal

Active During the day. During the time of the dinosaurs, most males where lived underground and were nocturnal in order to avoid predation. However, after the extinction of the dinosaurs, mammals were able to become diurnal and utilize the resources of the day light. This process was an example of adaptive radiation. color vision

Primate Social behavior: Communication

Any act that conveys info to another individual Frequently, the result of communication is a change in the behavior of the recipient Communication may be the result of involuntary process or a secondary consequence of an intentional action.

What is meant by Behavior?

Anything organisms do that involves actions in response to internal or external stimuli The response of an individual, group, or species to its environment Such responses may or may not be deliberate and they are not necessarily the result of conscious decision making.

Cladistic Approach

Approach to classification that attempts to make rigorous evolutionary interpretations based solely on analysis of certain types of homologous characters homologous: those considered to be derived characteristics-- common ancestor

Explain how primate social behavior is related to fitness and natural selection

Behavior can be thought of as a phenotype, so those phenotypes or behaviors that allow primates to more effectively reproduce will be passed on

Evolution of Behavior: Primate Behavior

Behavior constitutes a phenotype Individuals whose behavioral phenotypes increase reproductive fitness pass on their genes at a faster rate Genes fo no code for specific behaviors Species vary in their limits and potentials for learning and behavioral flexibility, set by genetic factors Natural selection acts on genetic factors shaped by ecological setting of past and present.

Altruistic Behavior

Behavior that benefits another individual but at some potential risk or cost to oneself example: protecting dependent offspring

Reproductive Strategies:

Behavioral patterns that contribute to individual reproductive success Primates produce only a few young in whom they invest a tremendous amount of Parental care (K-selected)(contrast r-selected) Male competition for mates and mate choice in females are both examples of sexual selection.

Define the key factors that affect a primate female's success at obtaining food

Being higher in the dominance hierarchy increases a female's access to resources. They are given priority over others in the group. hierarchy positions are influenced by: sex, age, level of aggression, time spent with the group, intelligence, motivation, and in macaques, mothers social position

Discuss the anatomical differences of the skeleton between (bipedal) humans and (quadrupedal) apes.

Bipedal humans have their head sitting atop their spine allow them to walk upright and look forward comfortably. Quadrupedal have arms and legs that are the same length, or relatively close. Bipedalism can be considered a controlled falling, while quadrupedalism can be considered a more effective or fluent crawling. -Oftentimes have longer femurs in their anatomical structure

Primate Senses:

Color vision is a characteristic of diurnal primates. Nocturnal primates lack color vision Depth perception is made possible by eyes positioned forward on the front of the face. Primates have a decreased reliance on the sense of smell.

Aggressive Interactions - Affiliation and Altruism

Common affiliative behaviors include reconciliation. Consolation, and interactions between friends and relatives Hugs, kissing, and grooming are used in reconciliation Relationships are crucial to nonhuman primates and the bonds between individuals can last a lifetime Altruism, behaviors that benefit another while posing risk to oneself are common in the primate species.

Anthropoids:(monkeys, apes and humans)

Common traits: 1. Larger brain and body size 2. Reduced reliance on the sense of smell. 3. Greater degree of color vision 4. Bony plate at the back of the eye socket. 5. Different female reproductive anatomy 6. Longer gestation and maturation periods 7. Fused mandible

Primate Cultural Behavior

Cultural behavior is learned, it is passed from generation to generation through observation and instruction Nonhuman primate infants, through observing their mothers and others, learn about food items, appropriate behaviors, and how to use and modify objects to achieve certain ends. More complex, chimpanzee culture includes tools such as termite fishing sticks and leaf sponges.

Explain how parental investment and brain size are related in primates

Culture is learned. Offspring learn through the actions of parents increasing their mental capabilities.

Sexual Dimorphism

Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species for example, humans are slightly sexually dimorphic for body size ales are typically taller than females on average in primates this can take the form of bigger canine teeth in males from populations that have competition for mates

Aggressive Interactions: Consequences:

Dominant actions can keep subordinates away from food and using weight loss and poor nutrition, threatening reproductive success of subordinates Competition can result in injury and death

Behaviors: how they evolve- Primate Behavior

Evolved through natural selection Or Are influenced by genes and are subject to natural selection the same way physical characteristics are.

Chimpanzees

Found in equatorial africa Anatomically similar to gorillas particularly in limb proportions and upper body shape. Locomotion includes knuckle-walking on the ground and brachiation in the trees Eat a variety of plant animal foods Large communities as many as 50 individuals

Orangutans (Pogo Pygmaeus)

Found in heavily forested areas of Borneo and Sumatra Almost completely arboreal Pronounced sexual dimorphism (males= 200lbs, females= 100lbs) Solitary Principally frugivorous(fruit eating)

GIbbons and Siamangs:

Found in tropical areas of southeast asia Adaptations for brachiation may be related to feeding while hanging from branches Diet is largely fruit with leaves, flowers, and insects Basic social unit is a monogamous pair and their offspring Males and females delineate their territories with whoops and "songs"

Why Be Social?

Group living exposes animals to competition with other group members, so why not live alone? Costs of competition are offset by the benefits of predator defense provided by associating with others. Group living evolved as an adaptive response to a number of ecological variables.

Old world Monkeys

Habitats range from tropical forests to semiarid desert to snow covered areas in Japan and China. Most quadrupedal and arboreal All belong to the cercopithecidae family Divided into subfamilies, the cercopithecines and the colobines

Omnivorous

Having a wide variety in diet, including red meat, vegetables, fruits, insects, leaves and stems, and so on. Primates diverse set of teeth (molars, premolars, canines, and incisors), allow primates to grip, tare, cut, and grind up many different foods.

Reproductive Behaviors:

In most primate societies, sexual behavior is tied to the female's reproductive cycle--estrus. Permanent bonding between females and males is not common among nonhuman primates Male and female bonobos may mate even when the female is not in estrus, a behavior that is not typical of chimpanzees

Compare and contrast male and female primates in terms of reproductive strategies and competition.

In most primate societies, sexual behavior is tied to the female's reproductive cycle--estrus. Sexual selection takes place because of competition between males or mate choice of females. K vs. r selected reproductive strategies. most of the time, the mother is solely responsible for raising offspring The selective agent in reproduction is either male competition for mates (more common) or mate choice by females Females are aggressively protected of resources because of their direct link to the welfare of their offspring Males instead secure many mates to secure as many offspring as possible Individuals act to maximize their own reproductive success

The dental pattern of higher primates (old and new world)

Incisors and canines for biting and cutting, premolars and molars for chewing and grinding Dental Formulas: Old World Have two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars on each side in both the upper and lower jaws. 2,1,2,3-- 32 teeth in total New World Have two incisors, one canine, and a varying number of premolars/molars. 2,1,3,2 or 2,1,3,3-- varies

Characterize the variation in primate teeth and the reasons for this variation:

Incisors for cutting, canines for tearing, molars and premolars for mashing and chewing. This variation is to allow for primates to have a wide variety in their diet. Primates are omnivorous and can eat pretty much anything. Very unspecified. "Generalized dentition" Dental comb- found in prosimians and for grooming and jamming into trees to get bugs or gum larger canines are often found in males that compete for mates

Describe the range of primate residence patterns. Relate social grouping to food and reproduction

Large groups: leaves and plentiful food- Can also be characterized for single males who search for food alone Alone or in small groups: insects or insectivores- Less plentiful resource, therefore necessitating smaller groups to control competition Smaller subunits: fruit and nut found in clumps- This type tends to be protective of their resources — a large group that searches for food in smaller groups

Gorillas

Largest of the living primates Confined to forested regions of central Africa Males can weigh up to 400 lbs, and females 200 lbs Primarily terrestrial, using a posture called "knuckle-walking) Group consists of one large silverback male, a few adult females, and their sub adult offspring Confined to forested areas of western and eastern equatorial Africa

Aggressive Interactions

Leads to group disruption, as opposed to affiliative behavior, which promote group cohesion. Conflict within a group frequently develops out of competition for resources, including mating partners and food items. Most intragroup aggression occurs in the form of various signals and displays within the context of a dominance hierarchy. Most tense situations are resolved through various submissive and appeasement behaviors.

Some factors that influence social structure: Distribution of Resources

Leaves are abundant, dense, and support large groups for animals Insects are widely scattered, causing animals to feed on them alone or in small groups of two or three Fruits and nuts occur in clumps and are most efficiently exploited by smaller groups of animals, larger groups break up into smaller subunits to feed

Anthropoids

Member of a suborder of primates the suborder Anthropoidea traditionally the suborder includes monkeys, apes, and humans

Some factors that influence social structure: Dispersal

Members of one sec leave the group in which they were born when they become sexually mature Individuals who leave find mates outside their natal group, so dispersal is believed to decrease the likelihood of close interbreeding.

Colobine Primates

Members of the subfamily of Old World monkeys that includes the African colobus monkeys and Asian langurs

Intelligence

Mental capacity, the ability to learn, reason, or comprehend, and interpret info, facts, relationships and meanings. The capacity to solve problems whether through the application of previously acquired knowledge or through insight

Some factors that influence social structure: Activity Patterns

Most primates are diurnal, but several small-bodied prosimians and the the owl monkeys are nocturnal Nocturnal primates tend to forage for food alone, or in groups of 2 or 3, and use concealment to avoid predators.

Language:

Nonhuman animals have not been considered capable of communicating about external events, objects or other animals It has been assumed that nonhuman animal use a closed system of communication, where vocalization do not include references to specific external phenomena Vervet monkeys use specific vocalizations to refer to particular categories of predators such as snakes, birds of prey and leopards.

Some factors that influence social structure: Diet

Nutritional needs have evolved with the BMR and body size. Benefits are considered in terms of energy, obtained from food versus costs of obtaining and digesting them.

Diet and Teeth - primates

Omnivorous Incisors for biting and cutting, premolars and molars for chewing and grinding. Dental formula: Old world anthropoids have two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars on each side in both upper and lower jaws. 32 teeth total.

Monogamous

One male mating with one female males take part in child rearing

Bonobos (Pan Paniscus)

Only found in an area south of the Zaire River Population is believed to only number a few thousand individuals Exploit the same food as chimps, including the occasional small mammals Male-female bonds constitute the societal core Sexuality include frequent copulations throughout the females estrous cycle.

Endangered Primates

Over half of all living primates are endangered, many face immediate extinction Three reasons: 1. Habitat destroyed 2. Hunting for food 3. Live capture for export or local trade In west africa the most serious problem is hunting to feed the growing population Estimated that thousands of primates, are killed and sold for meat every year Primates are also killed for commercial products

Polygynous

Pertaining to polygeny, a mating system in which males, and in some cases females, have several mating partners Males usually don't take part in child rearing

Evolution of Behavior - Ecological perspective:

Pertains to the relationships between organisms and all aspects of their environment ( temp, predators, vegetation, availability of food and water, types of food, disease organisms, parasites etc)

Grooming

Picking through fur to remove dist, parasites, and other materials that may be present. Social grooming is common among primates and reinforces social relationships. prosimians have horizontal incisors (a dental comb) for grooming purposes

Aggressive Interactions - Intergroup Aggression

Primate groups are associated with a home range where they remain permanently. Within the home range is a portion called the Core Area, which contains the highest concentration of predictable resources and is where the group is most frequently found. The core area can also be said to be a group's territory, and its the portion of the home range defended against intrusion.

Parental Investment

Primates are "K-Selected" this is an adaptive strategy where individuals produce relatively few offspring. As a result, there is increased invested parental care. Because of this, even though only a few infants are born, there is an increased chance of survival for them. r-selected Opposite of K-selection a reproductive strategy that emphasizes relatively large numbers of offspring and reduced parental care. r/K selection is subjective. Different species might be r-selected when compared to some species but K-selected when compared to others. for example, mice are r-selected compared with primates but are K-selected when compared to fish

Primate Social Structure

Primates are among the most social of animals and social behavior is one of the major topics in primate research The subject is broad including all aspects of behavior that occur in social settings

Some factors that influence social structure: Predation

Primates are vulnerable to many predators, including snakes, birds of prey, leopards, wild dogs, lions and even other primates. When predation pressure is high, large communities are advantageous There may be multi- male,multi-female groups or congregations of one male groups.

Describe the arboreal adaptation of primates and include specific anatomical characteristics.

Primates became arboreal and found their adaptive niche in the trees. They began finding food in the trees themselves and primate diets shifted toward omnivory. Primates developed an increased reliance on vision, grasping hands and feet with tactile pads, and depth perception (binocular vision and forward facing eyes as allowed this). also brachiation, and some have prehensile tails.

Describe how primatologists have studied and translated primates' calls

Primatologists studied vervet monkeys and found they had different calls depending on the predator threat. One call the monkeys fled to the trees due to a leopard in the area, and the next call they all looked to the ground due to a snake.

Compare and contrast the two suborders of primates (prosimians and anthropoids) in terms of body form, body size, and dental morphology-

Prosimians: small, no fused skull, orbit (eye socket) is open, grooming claw on index finger of hind foot, dental comb (used for grooming but also for feeding in some species gouging it into trees to get gum or insects), large olfactory bulb Anthropoids: larger brain/body, reduced smell reliance, fused mandible, color vision, bony plate behind eye socket

Communication: primates

Raised body hair is example of an autonomic response Gestures, facial expressions, and vocalizations are examples of deliberate communication. The fear grin, seen in all primates, indicates fear and submission Grooming serves to indicate submission or reassurance. 1. Picking though fur to remove dirt, parasites, and other materials that may be present. 2. Social grooming is common among primates and reinforces social relationships Displays communicate emotional states

Characteristics - Lemurs and Lorises

Reliance on olfaction Laterally placed eyes Shorter gestation maturation Dental specialization called the "dental comb" -Formed by forward projecting incisors and canines

Monkeys

Represent about 85% of all primate species Divided into two groups separated by geography and several million years of evolutionary history

Primatologists

Scientists that study primates

Factors that Influence Dominance Status:

Sex Age Aggression Time in group Intelligence Motivation Mothers social position

Tarsiers

Small nocturnal primates found on the islands of southeast Asia. Eat small insects and small vertebrates which they can catch by leaping from branches. Basic social pattern appears to be a family unit consisting of a mated pair and their offspring.

Some factors that influence social structure: BMR Basal metabolic rate and Diet

Smaller animals generally have a higher BMR than larger ones Consequently, smaller primates require an energy rich diet high in protein, fats and carbs. Larger primates consume large amounts of lower quality foods

Some factors that influence social structure: Primate Social Groupings

Species that rely on foods distributed in clumps tend to be protective of resources, especially if the feeding area is small enough to be defended These subunits may consist of one male, multi-female groups(ex. baboons) or matrilines (ex. macaques) that consists of a female, her daughters and their offspring

Mothers, Fathers and Infants

The basic social unit among all primates is the female and her infants Except in species in which monogamy or polyandry occur, males do not participate in rearing offspring The mother-infant relationship is often maintained through life.

Why are primates social?

The benefit of protection outweighs the potential competition for food Primates are social because the costs of competition are offset by the benefits of predator defense provided by associating with others (group living evolved).

Social Structure-Primate Behavior

The composition, size and sex ratio of a group of animals The social structure of a species is, in part, the result of natural selection in a specific habitat, and it guides individual interactions and social relationships.

Stereoscopic Vision

The condition whereby visual images are superimposed on one another. This provides for depth perception, or the perception of the external environment in 3D Stereoscopic vision is partly a function of structures in the brain.

Describe the skeletal differences between primates that are quadrupedal, bipedal, and suspensory

The most changes are seen in the pelvis. The pelvis is composed of three elements: two hip bones, or ossa coxae joined at the back to the sacrum. In a quadruped, the ossa coxae are vertically elongated bones positioned along each side of the lower portion of the spine and oriented more or less parallel to it. In hominins, the pelvis is shorter and broader and extends around to the side. This configuration helps to stabilize the line of weight transmission in a bipedal posture from the lower back to the hip joint

Humans (Homo Sapiens)

The only living species in the family Hominidae Human teeth are typical primate teeth Dependence on vision for orientation to the world Flexible limbs and grasping hands Omnivorous diet Cognitive abilities are the result of dramatic increase in brain size Bipedal

Strepsirhines

The primate suborder that includes lemurs and lorises

Primate Bonding

The role of bonding between primate mothers and infants was demonstrated in experiments at the University of Wisconsin Psychologist Harlow raised infant monkeys with surrogate mothers made of wire or a combo of wire and cloth In an experiment, infants raised with no mother were incapable of forming lasting ties None of the motherless males successfully copulated, and females who were impregnated either paid little attention to or were aggressive towards infants.

Olfaction

The sense of smell. Primates gave this up with the development of great eyesight and an enlarged brain. They had less space for the muscle that would allow for a great sense of smell. however, primates like lemurs and lorises still rely on it

Cercopithecines:

The subfamily of old world monkeys that includes baboons, macaques and guenons. Omnivorous, cheek pouches, majority found in Africa

Colobines:

The subfamily of old world monkeys that includes the african colobus monkeys and asian langurs.

Locomotion - primates

Vertical clinging and leaping quadrupedal , walk on all fours Brachiation Knuckle walking

Some factors that influence social structure: Human Activities

Virtually all nonhuman primate populations are impacted by human hunting and forest clearing. These activities disrupt and isolate groups, reduce numbers, reduce resources availability and eventually cause extinction.

Binocular Vision

Vision characterized by overlapping visual field provided for by forward-faces eyes. Binocular vision is essential to depth perception.

Vocalizations

a type of nonhuman primate communication; deliberate or not they inform others of possible presence of predators or food (altruistic behavior) often there are several vocalizations to distinguish between what type of predator

Lemurs

are found on the island of Madagascar and other islands off the coast of Africa. They are extinct elsewhere in the world. Large lemurs and diurnal and eat veggie foods, fruits, leaves buds and bark. Smaller lemurs are nocturnal and insectivorous.

Lorises

found in tropical forests and woodlands of India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia and Africa 1. Nocturnal 2. Use a climbing quadrupedalism 3. Some are insectivorous, others supplement their diet with fruit, leaves, gums and slugs. 4. Females frequently form associations for foraging or in sharing the same sleeping nest.

Describe the physical adaptations that all primates share

primates have hairy bodies, long gestation periods, live births, mammary glands, generalized dentition, endothermy, big brains (ability to learn/change behavior), forward facing eyes, lack of dietary specialization, visual acuity and reduced sense of smell, specialized limbs for locomation

Rhinaria

the moist fleshy pad at the end of the nose seen in most mammals It enhances an animal's ability to smell