Exam 3 Social Psych

T/F Exposure to TV violence in childhood is related to aggression later in life.

True

Is aggression caused by nature or nurture?

Both

feeling that another person "shares" your subjective experience

I-sharing

Dark Triad

Machiavellianism, Narcissism, Psychopathy

1. fear negative evaluation 2. expect to fail 3. blame themselves if they fail 4.

Consequences of shyness

heat and aggression

heat-->hostile feelings-->aggressive thoughts

the belief that attractive people are superior in most ways and people tend to associate physical attractiveness with other desirable qualities Think about children's fairy tales, where Snow White and Cinderella are portrayed as beautiful and kind, while the witch and stepsisters are said to be both ugly and cruel.

"what is beautiful is good" stereotype

The proposition that aggression is influenced by both the intensity of arousal and the type of emotion produced by a stimulus

arousal affect model

When Negative Moods Make Us Less Likely to Help Others

1. If we blame others for our bad mood ("I feel so angry at that jerk who put me in this situation.") 2. If we become very self-focused ("I am so depressed.") 3. If we think about our personal values that do not promote helping ("I have to wise up and start thinking about my own needs more.")

When Negative Moods Make Us More Likely to Help Others

1. If we take responsibility for what caused our bad mood ("I feel guilty for what I did.") 2. If we focus on other people ("Wow, those people have suffered so much.") 3. If we think about our personal values that promote helping ("I really shouldn't act like such a jerk next time; I have to be nicer.")

Yhe four types of interventions that Thomas Denson argues are the most promising for reducing reactive aggression

1. Improving self-control 2. cognitive reappraisal 3. cognitive control 4. mindfulness

General Aggression Model

1. Various aversive experiences (such as frustration or heat), situational cues (such as weapons), and individual differences (such as a hostile attribution bias) can create negative affect, high arousal, and/or aggressive thoughts, each of which can lead to aggressive behavior 2. Whether aggressive behavior is then likely to result depends in part on the outcome of higher-order thinking, which can either inhibit aggression (such as by recognizing the danger of the situation or recognizing that what seemed like a provocation was really just an accident) or facilitate it (such as by perceiving that aggression is encouraged by one's peers in this situation or that a provocation was intentional).

The proximity effect The mere exposure effect

2 basic factors in the attribution process

The Most Dangerous Animal: Human Nature and the Origins of War, David Livingstone Smith

A book that emphasizes that human warfare originated not only to obtain valuable resources but also to attract mates and forge intragroup bonds. Smith argues that although our long-ago ancestors put themselves at risk when they engaged in fighting and warfare, they also increased their chances of attracting mates and achieving status in a group. Therefore, the individuals who could and would fight had greater chances for reproductive success, and they would pass down these tendencies to their offspring, who would tend to do the same, and so on. The greater reproductive success of warriors over pacifists would result in the tendencies toward aggression and war to evolve to become part of human nature.

feeling of being drawn toward another and desiring the company of a person

attraction

Executive functioning and aggression

A growing body of research finds a link between poor executive functioning and high aggression

Does finger length predict aggression?

A number of studies show correlations among finger-length ratio, testosterone, and aggression. Men tend to have relatively shorter index fingers relative to ring fingers; shorter ratios (especially on the right hand) are considered more "masculine." Lower ratios are thought to be associated with exposure to higher prenatal testosterone levels. Studies have shown that for men, lower 2D:4D ratios (that is, more "masculine" ratios) are associated with higher scores for the trait of physical aggression, reports of being more threatening and physically aggressive toward their dating partners, personalities higher in aggressive dominance, and mental toughness and aptitude in sports However, a meta-analysis of dozens of studies was able to assess how reliable and strong these kinds of findings are, and the results were underwhelming, reporting only a small relationship between 2D:4D ratios and aggression in men (and no reliable relationship in women) (Hönekopp & Watson, 2011). More generally, the initial confidence that many had in the link between testosterone and human aggression has met with a harsh reality: The association between testosterone and human aggression is weaker and less reliable than expected. Other factors seem to play critical roles in determining when and whether this association is likely to emerge.

-beliefs about the needy person's responsibility influences helping -effect particularly strong among those who believe in a just world

attributions of responsibility

similarity in subjective experience Whenever two people who are at a common event laugh, cry, jump to their feet, cheer, shake their heads, slap high-fives, or roll their eyes at the same time, they feel as if they have shared a subjective experience. "I-sharing"

A type of similarity can trigger attraction among strangers

What can account for the gender differences in overt aggression?

According to an evolutionary perspective, males are competitive with each other because females select high-status males for mating, and aggression is a means by which males were able to achieve and maintain status. As researcher Vladas Griskevicius said in an interview about his work on this topic, "For men, . . . not caring about status, which can be implied by backing away from a fight, can be evolutionary suicide" (Science Daily, 2008, December 8). Similarly, Joseph Vandello and Jennifer Bosson (2013) argue that for many men, manhood is a status that is precarious. In other words, it must be earned and maintained repeatedly through action. Situations that threaten this status increase the likelihood and acceptability of aggressive behavior (Kroeper et al., 2014; Mescher & Rudman, 2014; Reidy et al., 2014). Also consistent with evolutionary accounts are crime statistics that indicate that male-to-male violence is most likely to occur when one male is perceived as challenging the other's status or social power, and male-to-female violence is predominantly triggered by sexual jealousy

The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined

An intriguing and comprehensive book by psychologist Steven Pinker, recent analyses that makes the case that we are living in a time that is less violent and more peaceful than at any period in human history. He calls this reduction in violence perhaps "the most important thing that has happened in human history" and that "no aspect of life is untouched by the retreat from violence" (p. xxi). This claim flies in the face of how people tend to perceive their contemporary world as extraordinarily violent.

No. In a field experiment using an online dating site in China, researchers randomly assigned income levels to the front pages of 360 contrived profiles and then recorded "visits" to the full profiles. Records showed that although men uniformly visited profiles across all levels of income, women visited male profiles with higher income levels at higher rates. This "income attraction" effect was so large that male profiles with the highest income level received 10 times more visits than the lowest (Ong & Wang, 2015).

Analyses of personal ads appearing in magazines and newspapers revealed that in the dating marketplace the "deal" is that women offer beauty, while men offer wealth. Is this only in the US?

Biologically they are different and socialized differently. There are universal responses because they are evolutionary driven, we are attracted to people in patterns that favor the conception and survival of offspring

Are males and females similarly motivated while looking for a mate?

Beautiful people because they are being judged on something other than looks

Are more attractive or more plain looking people happier when they get a good evaluation without being seen?

Yes

Are people in collectivist cultures at a higher risk of loneliness?

Others! researchers actually gave people money with one of those two sets of instructions, and they found that people who spent the money on others were significantly happier than those who purchased something for themselves. This held true across a wide variety of age groups and cultures, even in places in which resources were very limited charitable giving had twice the association with happiness as income did.

Are we happier spending money on ourselves or others?

says there are three relationship stages 1. the stimulus stage, in which attraction is sparked by external attributes such as physical appearance; 2. the value stage, where attachment is based on similarity of values and beliefs; and 3. the role stage, where commitment is based on the enactment of such roles as husband and wife. Note: In evaluating any stage theory, the critical issue is sequence. Does the value stage always precede the role stage or might a couple work out roles before exploring whether their values are compatible? Most researchers do not believe that intimate relationships progress through a fixed sequence of stages.

Bernard Murstein's (1986) stimulus-value-role (SVR) theory

low agreeableness, low openness, and high neuroticism self control

Big Five Personality Factors linked to aggression

A gorilla who protected a little boy who was knocked unconscious Showed empathy and caring, picked him up, and cradled him. She took him to the zoo keeper

Binti Jua

False. It makes them more likely to aggress

By engaging in safe but aggressive activities, people are less likely to aggress later. (blowing off steam) T/F

The presence of others inhibits helping

Bystander Effect

If the name is not specified it takes more time to help If their name is specified, they are more likely to help

Bystander helping online

used to determine the level of commitment partners bring to a relationship This model is important because commitment levels predict how long relationships will last. In studies of dating and married couples, research shows that the best-adjusted ones are those in which each partner is committed and sees the other as mutually committed

Caryl Rusbult et al.'s (1998) investment model

a reduction of the motive to aggress that is said to result from any imagined, observed, or actual act of aggression

Catharsis

Yes those who exercised for 2 minutes as opposed to only 15 seconds saw the physically attractive woman as even more attractive and the unattractive woman as less attractive. This study and others like it (Allen et al., 1989) showed that arousal—even without distress—intensifies emotional reactions, positive or negative.

Can arousal even w/o being in distress cause attraction?

intimacy, passion, commitment (middle of the triangle)

Consummate Love (Sternberg)

T/F People are much less likely to help someone when they're in a bad mood.

False! Although negative moods can often boost helping, it is not as strong and consistent a relationship as that between good moods and helping Note: one important variable is whether people accept responsibility for their bad feelings. If we blame others for our feeling lousy, we're less likely to be generous in our behavior toward others. If, instead, we feel guilty for something bad that we have caused to happen, we are more likely to act prosocially

Desentization

Diminished emotional responsiveness to a negative or aversive stimulus after repeated exposure to it

self-reliant and uninterested in intimacy, indifferent and independent

Dismissing attachment (adult)

aggressing against a substitute target because aggressive acts against the source of the frustration are inhibited by fear or lack of access

Displacement

Yes

Do chimps show empathy?

Yes

Do individualistic cultures volunteer more than collectivist cultures?

yep psychologically distance ourselves from all of the distractions

Do individuals have a worse chance of being helped in an emergency in a big city than in a small town?

Higher

Do people help kin more when risks are higher or lower?

Yes People are more likely to help in a pleasant smelling area than in a neutral smelling area

Do scents impact moods?

Yes! Looking at preferences for female body size in 545 cultures, Judith Anderson and others (1992) found that heavy women are judged more attractive than slender women in places where food is frequently in short supply. The white students saw the heavy women as the least attractive, but black students did not similarly discriminate. Follow-up studies showed the same difference in perceptions of black and white men (Hebl & Turchin, 2005). Why the difference? Based on the fact that white Americans are, on average, thinner than black Americans, one possible explanation is that people in general prefer a body type that is more typical of their group. Another possibility is that white Americans identify more with the "mainstream" weight-obsessed culture as portrayed in TV shows, magazine ads, and other media.

Do some cultures prefer heavier set women?

Mirror image because it is familiar! Theodore Mita and others (1977) tried this interesting experiment with female college students and found that most preferred their own mirror images, while their friends liked the actual photos. In both cases, the preference was for the view of the face that was most familiar.

Do we find our mirror image or a photo of us more attractive?

Yes

Does spanking increase aggression?

Yes

Does the bystander effect occur online?

only if the target person perceives the person as not selective

Does the hard-to-get effect work?

Time pressure! The topic of the speech didn't make much of a difference. People are less likely to stop and help somebody if they are in a hurry.

Does the topic of a speech or time pressure deter people from helping more?

Yes, it can conflict with one's good intentions of helping those in need Darley and Batson's (1973) Good Samaritan Study: hurried participants walked past a person in need while people who weren't in a hurry didn't

Does time pressure conflict with one's good intentions of helping those in need?

commitment only (bottom right of triangle)

Empty Love (Sternberg)

a special version of how social exchange operates in interpersonal interactions According to this theory, an equitable relationship is a matter of social justice. All over the world, people are most content when the ratio between what they get out of a relationship (benefits) and what they put into it (contributions) is similar for both partners. Note: According to equity theory, the balance is what counts. So if one partner benefits more from a relationship but also makes a greater contribution, then the situation is equitable. In an inequitable relationship, the balance is disturbed: One partner (called the overbenefited) receives more benefits than he or she deserves on the basis of contributions made, while the other partner (aptly called the underbenefited) receives fewer benefits than deserved.

Equity Theory

All humans exhibit patterns of attraction and mate selection that favor the conception, birth, and survival of their offspring

Evolutionary Perspective of attraction

MIT morphed student faces to make more symmetrical more symmetrical means more attractive because they look healthier

Face Morphing Study

T/F For virtually any category of aggression, males are more aggressive than females.

False although boys tend to be more overtly aggressive than girls, boys do not tend to be more aggressive than girls when it comes to indirect or relational aggression. Indeed, for these types of aggression, girls sometimes are more aggressive than boys. Indirect forms of aggression include acts such as telling lies to get someone in trouble or shutting a person out of desired activities. Relational aggression is one kind of indirect aggression that particularly targets a person's relationships and social status, such as by threatening to end a friendship, engaging in gossip and backbiting, and trying to get others to dislike the target.

Stephanie Spielmann and others (2013) theorized that people who fear being single—both because they desire an intimate connection and because of the social stigma attached to being alone in a largely coupled world set lower standards, are less selective, and tolerate lesser relationships. To test this hypothesis, they created a questionnaire called the Fear of Being Single Scale in which respondents are asked to rate their level agreement with statements such as "It scares me to think that there might not be someone out there for me" and "As I get older, it will get harder and harder to find someone." In this study, 214 single and straight men and women completed the Fear of Being Single Scale and then rated their romantic interest in bogus profiles from an online dating site. The profiles depicted someone who was more or less attractive and more or less responsive. As you can see, everyone preferred the more desirable profiles. But participants who feared being single also expressed an interest in profiles that were not attractive or responsive (Spielmann et al., 2013).

Fear of Being Single Scale

Yes The higher the risk, the higher the amount they help their kin

For low risk helping, are people as likely to help a friend as they are to help their kin?

Chewong

Group of people who live in the mountains of the Malay Peninsula, do not even have words in their language for quarreling, fighting, aggression, or warfare.

people prefer relationships that are psychologically balanced

Heider

A Japanese word literally meaning "pull away," it is the name of an anxiety disorder common among young adults in Japan. Sufferers isolate themselves from the outside world by staying inside their homes for months or even years at a time.

Hikikomori

- bystanders know or feel connected to each other - effective helping would require multiple helpers - people feel they will be scorned for failing to help - A person in a leadership role, or who is in a helping occupation, is more likely to help

How do you avoid or reduce the bystander effect?

Richard Dawkins wrote the book, "The Selfish Gene" and shifted the debate to the nature, nurture, and behavior of the genes which is more about the species not the individual The survival of the genes not the survival of the fittest is the most important

How does helping others fit with natural selection?

1. Groups in which the members know or feel connected to each other are usually more helpful than groups of strangers 2. When effective helping would require multiple helpers, such as in cases in which helping might be more dangerous if attempted alone, the presence of others can sometimes lead to more helping rather than less helping, presumably because the potential costs and benefits of helping would favor multiple helpers acting together 3. when people think they will be scorned by others for failing to help, the presence of an audience increases their helpful actions 4. Diffusion of responsibility can be defeated by a person's role. A group leader, even if he or she has only recently been assigned to that position, is more likely than other group members to act in an emergency 5. some occupational roles increase the likelihood of intervention. Registered nurses, for example, do not diffuse responsibility when confronted by a possible physical injury

How to mitigate the bystander effect?

One year 18-month-old human infants with an adult experimenter. At various points in time, the experimenter appeared to have trouble reaching a goal. For example, he accidentally dropped a marker on the floor and tried unsuccessfully to reach it, or he couldn't put some magazines into a cabinet because the doors were closed. Twenty-two of the 24 infants tested in the study helped the experimenter in at least one of the tasks, and many infants helped on several tasks. In doing so, the infants apparently understood that the experimenter needed help—that is, that he was having trouble completing a task by himself. the experimenter never requested help from the infants, nor did he praise or reward the infants when they did help. Second, for every task he needed help with, the experimenter created a similar situation in which he did not seem to have a problem. For example, rather than accidentally drop the marker on the floor and try to reach it, the experimenter sometimes intentionally threw the marker on the floor and did not try to retrieve it. In these situations, the infants were not likely to take action such as picking up the marker. This suggested that when they did help the experimenter, the infants did so because they understood he was trying to achieve some goal. The researchers also tested three young chimpanzees using a similar procedure. The chimpanzees also helped the human experimenter when they saw that he appeared to need help reaching his goal, although not across as many tasks or as reliably as the human infants did. Neuroscience research supports the idea that the capacity for empathy is part of our biology. Seeing someone else experience positive or negative emotion triggers in an empathic perceiver's brain activation of neural structures associated with the actual experience of that emotion. This activation, in turn, predicts individuals' tendencies to actually engage in everyday helping behavior (Lamm et al., 2011; Morelli et al., 2014). In addition, the hormone oxytocin—which is well known as being involved in mother-infant attachment as well as in bonding between mating pairs—is implicated in empathy and prosocial behaviors (Uzefovsky et al., 2015; Weisman et al., 2015).

How young do humans show empathy?

anger

strong feelings of displeasure in response to a perceived injury

machismo, macho

strong or aggressive masculine pride

How does the prefrontal cortex impact aggressive behaviors?

Impaired prefrontal processing can disrupt what is executive functioning , the cognitive abilities and processes that allow humans to plan or inhibit their actions. Executive functioning enables people to respond to situations in a reasoned, flexible manner, as opposed to being driven purely by external stimuli (Hoaken et al., 2007). A growing body of research finds a link between poor executive functioning and high aggression

Decreasing! despite social commentaries on how detached people have become (for example, club membership rates are lower than they used to be), a comparison of multiple recent surveys of American high school and college students have indicated that loneliness rates have steadily declined from 1978 to 2012 (Clark et al., 2015).

Is loneliness decreasing or increasing?

weapons effect in hunters vs non hunters

Individuals may differ in what associations they have with various weapons. Bruce Bartholow and others (2005) found that hunters were less likely than nonhunters to associate hunting guns with aggression. Hunters had more positive associations with hunting guns; for example, they linked guns with sport and the pleasurable experiences they had had hunting with friends and family. Nonhunters not only had more negative, aggressive thoughts after exposure to hunting guns than did hunters, but they also behaved more aggressively while doing a subsequent task. However, exposure to assault guns had a very different effect: Hunters had more negative, aggressive associations with assault guns than did nonhunters, and they behaved more aggressively than nonhunters after exposure to them. In other words, hunters cognitively differentiated hunting guns from assault guns more than nonhunters did, and so these two types of weapons triggered very different effects for them.

Social status, culture and aggression (Japan and US)

Instead, collectivist cultures show greater support for hierarchy and social rankings, and anger in these settings is more likely to reflect a display of dominance from those occupying a high social status. Consistent with this hypothesis, Jiyoung Park and others (2013) found that Japanese individuals of relatively low status expressed anger less often than those of higher status did. For Americans, in contrast, those who felt they had relatively low status expressed anger more frequently than did those who felt they had relatively high status.

1. feelings of attachment, affection, and love; 2. fulfillment of psychological needs; and 3. interdependence between partners, each of whom has a meaningful influence on the other. Note: Not all intimate relationships contain all three ingredients. A summer romance is emotionally intense, but in the fall, both partners resume their separate lives. An "empty shell" marriage revolves around coordinated daily activities, but emotional attachment is weak and psychological needs go unmet. Clearly, relationships come in different shapes and sizes. Some are sexual; others are not. Some involve partners of the same sex; others, partners of the opposite sex. Some partners commit to a future together; others drop by for a brief stay. Feelings run the gamut from joyful to painful and from loving to hateful, with emotional intensity ranging all the way from mild to megawatt.

Intimate relationships often involve three basic components

Freud: we have a death instinct Lorenz: Aggression is an innate, instinctual motivation * males aggress to achieve and maintain status * female aggress to protect offspring - aggressive behavior is strongly affected by learning - positively and negatively reinforced - positive correlation b/w corporal punishment and several categories of subsequent antisocial behaviors

Is aggression innate or learned?

People from different cultures enhance their beauty in very different ways Ideal body shapes vary across cultures, as well as among racial groups within a culture Standards of beauty change over time Situational factors can influence judgments of beauty

Is beauty a subjective quality?

probably truth to this statement, but more evidence for universal features of attractiveness across cultures, so not in the eye of the beholder but its pretty objective HOWEVER: social psychologists believe that physical attractiveness is subjective, and they point for evidence to the influences of culture, time, and the circumstances of our perception. When Johannes Hönekopp (2006) had large numbers of people rate the same faces, he found that although some faces were seen as more attractive than others, individuals differed a great deal in their private preferences. Charles Darwin (1872) - people from different cultures enhance their beauty in very different ways all contributing to the "enigma of beauty" (Newman, 2000). In dramatic ways, what people find attractive in one part of the world may be seen as repulsive in another part of the world (Landau, 1989).

Is beauty in the eye of the beholder?

Likely in the middle

Is helping motivated by altruistic or egoistic concerns?

Yes. The color red is routinely associated with sex. In many species of primates, females display red swelling on their genitals, chest, or face as they near ovulation. In human rituals that date back thousands of years, girls painted red ochre on their face and body at the emergence of puberty and fertility. Today, women use red lipstick and rouge to enhance their appeal, red hearts symbolize Valentine's Day, red lingerie is worn to entice, and red-light districts signal the availability of sex through prostitution. Exampe: In a study of the "red-sex link," Andrew Elliot and Daniela Niesta (2008) had male and female research participants rate female photos that were set against a solid red or white background. Everyone saw the same photos, yet the attractiveness ratings were highest among the men in the red background condition (see d Figure 9.5). In other studies, men continued to rate women as more attractive—and as more sexually desirable (but not generally more likable)—in the presence of red compared to women who were surrounded by gray, blue, or green. What is the process by which female red sparks male attraction? Follow-up research provides an answer: Women in red are perceived to be sexually receptive

Is there a color for 'sex'?

chikan

Japanese adult businessmen to grope schoolgirls on public transportation In recent years this practice has become more widely criticized in Japan and a number of steps have been taken to curtail it, but the problem persists. A Japanese 3-D video game called Rape-Lay has players simulate raping a woman and her two "virgin schoolgirl" daughters in a subway. This game caused an international uproar in February 2009 when it was discovered to be on sale (temporarily) at Amazon.com (Fennelly, 2009). Numerous websites, DVDs, and even fetish clubs in Japan are available for men to watch or act out their fantasies of groping schoolgirls and young women in train cars.

measured sexual arousal and behavior in volunteers who received natural or artificial stimulation in a laboratory

Johnson and Masters

groundbreaking research during the 1940's

Kinsey Research on sex

found that people who were alone were more likely to help in an emergency than people who were with others

Latané and Darley

intimacy alone

Liking

How does serotonin influence aggressive behaviors?

Lower amounts of serotonin correlates to more aggressive behaviors Drugs that boost serotonin's activity can dampen aggressiveness, along with a range of other impulsive and socially deviant behaviors.

teenage boys The older they were, the more the men wanted increasingly younger women.

Men are attracted to younger women because of fertility and women to wealthy men for resources, however _______ are attracted to older women..

Are individuals with low self-esteem more likely to aggress than people with average or high self-esteem?

Mixed The relationship between self-esteem and aggression may also be quite different across cultures; the results of a recent meta-analysis of studies conducted in China found that higher self-esteem was moderately associated with greater aggression (Teng et al., 2015). Although self-esteem is not a great predictor of aggression, narcissism clearly is.

Are step parents more or less likely to harm their children?

More likely preschool children living with a stepparent or foster parent were 70 to 100 times more likely to be fatally abused than were children living with both biological parents.

narcissism

Narcissism involves having an inflated sense of self-worth and self-love, having low empathy for others, tending to focus on the self rather than others, and being especially sensitive to perceived insults. Narcissism is consistently and positively correlated with aggression in response to provocation, particularly if the provocation is public rather than private one of the dark triads

Berkowitz proposed that negative feelings, not frustration, triggers aggression

Negative Affect

Is collectivism a predictor of helping?

No The research on the relationship between individualism or collectivism and prosocial behavior, however, is quite mixed at this time. This inconsistency may stem in part from differences in the kinds of helping studied. Compared to individualists, collectivists may be more likely to help ingroup members but less likely to help outgroup members or to help in more abstract situations people from the more individualistic states in the United States (primarily in the West and Midwest) tended to exhibit greater charitable giving and volunteering than people from the more collectivistic states. This was particularly true for donations and volunteering that were not specific to one's ingroup affiliations.

Does blowing off steam make people less aggressive later?

No. In sum, relying on catharsis is dangerous medicine—more likely to inflame aggression than to put it out

Is the association between testosterone and human aggression strongly correlated?

No. The association between testosterone and human aggression is weaker and less reliable than expected. Other factors seem to play critical roles in determining when and whether this association is likely to emerge.

Yes (self-fulfilling prophecy)

Once shyness begins, it perpetuates itself. T/F

Stress Example: the way neighbors who never stop to say hello come together in snowstorms, hurricanes, power failures, and other major crises

One condition that strongly arouses our need for affiliation is ____

Passionate: All-consuming, intense emotional reaction passionate love is fueled by two ingredients: a heightened state of physiological arousal and the belief that this arousal was triggered by the beloved person. Companionate love: affection we feel for a person Companionate relationships rest on a foundation of mutual trust, caring, respect, friendship, and commitment less intense but is in some respects deeper and more enduring Study: passionate and companionate love scales to heterosexual couples who had been together for varying amounts of time and found that the passionate love scores of both men and women initially rose over time but then peaked and declined somewhat during marriage. Companionate love scores, however, did not similarly decline. In fact, in couples that stay together, partners are likely to report that "I love you more today than yesterday" (Sprecher, 1999). Like the slow but steady tortoise in Aesop's fable, companionate love may seem to be outpaced by the flashier start of passionate love, but it can still cross the finish line well ahead.

Passionate Love vs. Companionate Love

-We are attracted to others with whom a relationship is directly or indirectly rewarding. -All humans exhibit patterns of attraction and mate selection that favor the conception, birth, and survival of their offspring (evolutionary perspective)

Perspectives on attraction

Why does the southern US has the highest murder rate?

Possibly because of the culture of honor or the hot weather

corporal punishment

Punishment that physically hurts the body, such as slapping, spanking, etc.

T/F people in the southern and northern central regions, or people in rural areas, tend to be more helpful than people in other regions or in urban areas

True and False this holds true for only some measures of helping and not others

a mutual exchange between what we give and what we receive Example: Rebecca Curtis and Kim Miller (1986) brought pairs of students into the laboratory, arranged for them to talk, and then "revealed" to one member in each pair that he or she was liked by the partner or disliked. When the students were later reunited for conversation, those who thought that they were liked were, in turn, warmer, more agreeable, and more self-disclosing. Feeling liked is important. When groups of men and women were asked to reflect on how they fell in love or developed friendships with specific people, many spontaneously said they had been turned on initially by the realization that they were liked

Reciprocity

The building blocks of social exchange are rewards, costs, comparison level for alternatives, and investments. These factors are strongly associated with the satisfaction and commitment partners experience in their relationship

Relational Building Blocks

False more likely because it reduces guilt and makes us feel better

T/F People are much less likely to help someone when they're in a bad mood

does corporal punishment work?

Spanking a child may result in immediate obedience to the adult and a quick reduction in aggression or other bad behavior, but in the long run, according to numerous studies, not only doesn't it work, it tends to backfire: More corporal punishment now is associated with more aggression later.

Schachter found that people who were expecting to receive painful electric shocks chose to wait with other nervous participants rather than alone. But when Irving Sarnoff and Philip Zimbardo (1961) led college students to expect that they would be engaging in an embarrassing behavior—sucking on large bottle nipples and pacifiers—their desire to be with others fell off. It seemed puzzling. Why do people in fearful misery love company while those in embarrassed misery seek solitude? He theorized: external threat triggers fear and motivates us to affiliate, particularly with others who face a similar threat

Stanley Schachter Stress Affiliation Study

A theory that sees love as having three elements: intimacy, passion, and commitment various combinations of these three that give rise to other types of feelings of love

Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love

True To lower some of the costs of helping, some legislatures have created "Good Samaritan" laws that encourage bystanders to intervene in emergencies by offering them legal protection, such as for doctors who volunteer medical care when they happen upon emergencies, or for people who otherwise would worry about criminal prosecution if they call the police to report a drug overdose (Albert, 2015; Arditi, 2015). Other kinds of Good Samaritan laws increase the costs of failing to help. Sometimes called "duty to rescue" laws, these laws require people to provide or summon aid in an emergency, so long as they do not endanger themselves in the process. In the United States, this kind of duty to rescue law is relatively rare, but they are more common in Europe and Canada.

T/F Although some people sometimes help despite tremendous risk, most people often seem to conduct a cost-benefit analysis before deciding whether or not to help

true

T/F Great apes and babies have empathy

True Men are more violent than women

T/F In almost every culture, males are more violent than females

False - they do

T/F Infants do not discriminate between faces considered attractive and unattractive in their culture.

True

T/F Men are more likely to help women

True purely altruistic motives may not keep individuals motivated long enough to withstand the personal costs associated with some kinds of prolonged helping. As Mark Snyder noted, "The good, and perhaps romanticized, intentions related to humanitarian concern simply may not be strong enough to sustain volunteers faced with the tough realities and personal costs of working with [persons with AIDS]" (Snyder, 1993, p. 258). When helping demands more of us, self-interest may keep us going.

T/F People remaine active volunteers longer if they initially endorsed self-oriented motives, such as gaining understanding and developing personal skills, rather than other-oriented motives, such as humanitarian values and community concern

False

T/F People who are more physically attractive are happier and more intelligent

True

T/F People who are socially connected rather than isolated are healthier and less likely to die a premature death

True

T/F Shyness can lead to the rejection of others

True! Participants are shown pictures of several stimuli, each for 1 to 5 milliseconds, which is too quick to register in awareness much less enable you to realize that some stimuli are presented more often than others. After the presentation, participants are shown each of the stimuli for real and asked two questions: Do you like it, and have you ever seen it before? Perhaps you can predict the result. The more frequently the stimulus is presented, the more people like it. Yet when asked if they've ever seen the liked stimulus before, they say no. These results demonstrate that the mere exposure effect can influence us without our awareness (Kuntz-Wilson & Zajonc, 1980). In fact, the effect is stronger under these conditions

T/F The mere exposure effect is more powerful if you do not even know you were exposed

True In Japan, for example, a significant number of young adults today are afflicted by hikikomori, a form of social withdrawal. Hikikomori, which translates to "pulling away" in English, is characterized by a full withdrawal from intimate relationships outside of the family (Teo, 2010). Those afflicted with hikikomori do not attend school or have jobs and they spend much of their time isolated at home, often in a single room. They do not seem to suffer from depression or other well-known psychological disorders. However, some research suggests the young adults who enter these episodes share histories of parental rejection, family disruption, and peer bullying and rejection (Krieg & Dickie, 2013). Ironically, it appears that people in collectivist cultures are at a high risk for loneliness, relative to Westerners, perhaps reflecting the greater urgency placed on relationships in these cultures

T/F although loneliness is a universal phenomenon, and perhaps rooted in an individual's temperament, it can take shape in different ways from one culture to the next

True

T/F people are more likely to help somebody in an emergency if the reward seems high and cost seems low

False Shyness can arise from different sources. It may stem from an inborn personality trait. Jerome Kagan (1994) and others have found that some infants are highly sensitive to stimulation, inhibited, and cautious shortly after birth. In other cases, shyness develops as a learned reaction to failed interactions. In other words, interpersonal problems of the past can ignite social anxieties about the future (Leary & Kowalski, 1995). Not all shy infants grow up to become inhibited adults. But longitudinal research indicates that there is some continuity, that this aspect of our personalities may be predictable from our temperament and behavior as young children. Toddlers observed to be inhibited, shy, and fearful at age 3, for example, are more likely than toddlers who were more outgoing to be socially isolated at age 21 (Caspi, 2000). The differences can be seen in the adult brain. Using fMRI, researchers have recently observed that people who are shy, compared to those who are bold, exhibit greater activity in the amygdala—a region of the brain responsible for fear processing—when exposed to pictures of strangers (Beaton et al., 2008; Schwartz et al., 2003).

T/F shyness is only learned

True

T/F there is no published research to support the claim that online dating produces romantic outcomes better than more traditional processes

True Ex. did you feel that earthquake? makes us feel more protected Example: study showed a majority of students wanted to wait with other students who were going to get a shock to get cognitive clarify

T/F we seek others out to see how to feel?

True

T/F when we see aggressive in childhood (especially before 15) it is a bad sign

True

T/F women desire physical attractiveness as much as men do when asked about what they want in a short-term casual sex partner

True

T/F: After the honeymoon period, there is an overall decline in levels of marital satisfaction

True

T/F: Attractive people have a better chance than unattractive people of getting help when they need it

False Men are more physically violent Females are often more indirectly, or relationally, aggressive

T/F: For virtually any category of aggression, males are more aggressive than females.

False/2-month-old babies spend more time gazing at attractive faces

T/F: Infants do not discriminate between faces considered attractive and unattractive in their culture

True - think of parental investment!

T/F: Men are more likely than women to interpret friendly gestures by the opposite sex in sexual terms

True

T/F: Women seek help more often than men do

What types of personalities tend to be associated w/ agreeableness

The Big Five five dimensions that account for a great deal of variability in people's personalities across gender and culture. 1. agreeableness (good-natured, trustful, cooperative), 2. conscientiousness (responsible, orderly, dependable), 3. openness to experience (intellectual, independent-minded, prefer novelty), 4. extraversion (outgoing, energetic, assertive), and 5. neuroticism (easily upset, emotionally unstable). being low in agreeableness is a particularly strong predictor of aggression. Being low on the dimension of openness, and high on the dimension of neuroticism, are also associated with aggression

Machiavellianism, Narcissism, Psychopathy

The Dark Triad

(Batson) the proposition that empathic concern for a person in need produces an altruistic motive for helping When a person's motive is egoistic, helping should decline if it's easy for the individual to escape from the situation and therefore escape from his or her own feelings of distress. When a person's motive is altruistic, however, help will be given regardless of the ease of escape. taking the perspective of someone in need is the first step toward altruism. When 13-year-old Avis Martin (left) lost her hair after receiving chemotherapy for leukemia, Sheriff Deputy Rick Johnson and several others showed their empathy and support for Avis by shaving their heads.

The Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

According to this perspective, human beings all over the world exhibit mate-selection patterns that favor the conception, birth, and survival of their offspring—and women and men, by necessity, employ different strategies to achieve that common goal According to Buss, women must be highly selective because they are biologically limited in the number of children they can bear and raise in a lifetime. A woman must, therefore, protect her children and so searches for a mate who possesses (or has the potential to possess) economic resources and is willing to commit those resources to support her offspring. The result is that women should be attracted to men who are older and financially secure or who have ambition, intelligence, stability, and other traits predictive of future success. In contrast, men can father an unlimited number of children and can ensure their reproductive success by inseminating many women. Men are restricted, however, by their ability to attract fertile partners and by their lack of certainty as to whether the babies born are actually their own. With these motives springing from evolution, men seek out women who are young and physically attractive (having smooth skin, full lips, lustrous hair, good muscle tone, and other youthful features)—attributes that signal health and reproductive fertility. To minimize their paternal uncertainty, men should also favor chastity, pursuing women they think will be sexually faithful rather than promiscuous.

The Evolution of Desire / David Buss

Richard Dawkins book suggests, evolutionary perspectives emphasize not the survival of the fittest individuals but the survival of the individuals' genes. If a specific behavior enhances reproductive success, then the genetic underpinnings of that behavior are more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations. In this way, the behavior can eventually become part of the common inheritance of the species (Hamilton, 1964). The behavior of helping others could have served the function of preserving individuals' genes by promoting the survival of those who share their genetic makeup.

The Selfish Gene

intimate, relational, collective

The Three Facets of Loneliness

What factor does cortisol play in aggression?

The combination of high testosterone and low cortisol is what predicts aggression, perhaps particularly aggression in the context of status-seeking or dominance behaviors. When cortisol levels are high, in contrast, the effects of testosterone on aggression are more likely to be blocked or inhibited

1. Notice that something is happening 2. Interpret event as an emergency 3. Take responsibility for providing help 4. Decide how to help 5. Provide help

The five steps to helping in an emergency

Robert Zajonc the tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure (also relevant for social media) ​Proximity does not necessarily spark attraction, but to the extent that it increases frequency of contact, it's a good first step. People do not have to be aware of their prior exposures for this effect to occur. study example: college students ranked participants who attended class more often more attractive

The mere exposure effect

True

The more power and wealth a woman has the less she cares about status of a male and more about his appearance. T/F

The Ifaluk

The most serious act of aggression noted during a year among the Ifaluk, who live on a small atoll in the Federated States of Micronesia, involved a man who "touched another on the shoulder in anger, an offense which resulted in a stiff fine."

the theory that the closer you are to another person in geographical distance, the greater the probability that you will grow to like or even love the person Examples: Leon Festinger and his colleagues (1950) studied friendship patterns in married-student college housing and found that people were more likely to become friends with residents of nearby apartments than with those who lived farther away. More recent research has also shown that college students—who live in off-campus apartments, dormitories, fraternities and sorority houses—tend to date those who live either nearby (Hays, 1985) or in the same type of housing as they do (Whitbeck & Hoyt, 1994). In a field experiment on how people can become friends by chance, researchers randomly assigned first-year college students in a psychology class to their seats for the semester. Those who happened to be seated nearby or even in the same row were more likely to rate each other as friends one year later

The proximity effect

multisystemic therapy (MST)

This approach addresses individuals' problems at several different levels, including the needs of the adolescents and the many contexts in which they are embedded, such as family, peer group, school, and neighborhood Multiple studies evaluating the effectiveness of MST have reported positive results, especially for juveniles under 15 Even the siblings of juveniles who are treated with MST have been found to be three times less likely to be convicted of a felony 25 years later than siblings of offenders who were treated with individual therapy (Wagner et al., 2014). This illustrates the important point that one benefit of MST is that in treating the offender's entire family, the benefits can spread beyond the individual.

3 parts intimacy: closeness of emotional bond passion: romantic and physical attraction commitment: decision and willingness to maintain a long-term relationship according to Sternberg, there are eight basic subtypes of love (seven different forms and an eighth combination that results in the absence of love)—and all can be derived from the presence or absence of three components. The combination can thus be viewed as the vertices of a triangle

Triangular Theory of Love (Sternberg)

T/F the large majority of murders are intraracial rather than interracial

True Among incidents when the killer's race was identified in the United States in 2013, almost 92% of black murder victims were killed by black offenders, and almost 85% of white murder victims were slain by white offenders. Nevertheless, African Americans live in a much more violent America than do whites. The proportion of African Americans—particularly African American males—who are the perpetrators or victims of homicide is consistently much higher than that of other racial groups. For example, according to a 2014 report from the U.S. Department of Justice, although African Americans represented about 13% of the U.S. population in 2010, they were victims of about half of all murders. Reliable data about homicide rates among other racial or ethnic groups are much more limited. Some evidence suggests having an ethnic minority background can be tied to higher instances of aggression in other parts of the world (Lahlah et al., 2013).

Some traits associated with aggression tend to predict aggression reliably only under conditions of provocation T/F

True Among these traits are emotional susceptibility (the tendency to feel distressed, inadequate, and vulnerable to perceived threats), Type A personality (the tendency to be driven by feelings of inadequacy to try to prove oneself through personal accomplishments), and impulsivity (being relatively unable to control one's thoughts and behaviors). When not provoked, individuals with these traits are not much more likely than others to behave aggressively. Provocation, however, can light the relatively short fuses of these individuals, leading to the potential explosion of aggression.

T/F women are at least as likely to aggress against their intimate partners as men are

True HOWEVER: . These results not only defy most people's expectations and stereotypes, they also do not match up with statistics from the police or agencies involved in helping people suffering from intimate partner violence. Researchers in this area explain that the reason for this difference is that men are far less likely than women to report to the police or various agencies that their partners physically assaulted them. Norms play a role in this, of course, as it is seen by many as far more acceptable for a woman to hit her male partner than it is for a man to hit his female partner. Another, and somewhat related, important reason is that the consequences of aggression and violence are far from equal. Women are more often killed, seriously injured, or sexually assaulted during domestic disputes than are men (Straus, 2011; Straus & Gozjolko, 2014). As Barbara Morse (1995) put it, "Women were more often the victims of severe partner assault and injury not because men strike more often, but because men strike harder" (p. 251). Rates of aggression and violence in the form of sexual assault differ greatly by gender, with males being overwhelmingly more likely to be perpetrators and females to be targets.

T/F although the rate of violent crime is actually lower in the United States than in the United Kingdom or Canada, the murder rate is much higher in the United States

True Researchers believe that the higher murder rate in the United States is due to the prevalence of guns. According to one report, the firearm homicide rate was about 20 times higher in the United States than in other high-income countries; for 15- to 24-year-olds, the rate was almost 43 times higher (Richardson & Hemenway, 2011)!

T/F people in negative moods are often more likely to help someone in need than are people in neutral moods.

True However, there are several limitations to this effect

T/F Men are more violent than women.

True This has been found in virtually all cultures studied around the world. Almost 90% of identified murderers in the United States in 2013 were male, and about 78% of murder victims were male. Despite the significant variation in total violence from one country to another, the gender difference remains remarkably stable over time and place: Men commit the very large majority of homicides, and men constitute the very large majority of murder victims (Buss, 2012; United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime, 2011). In the spate of school shootings discussed at various points in this chapter, all of the perpetrators were males. On the other hand, around the world the vast majority of people killed by an intimate partner—such as a family member or current or former romantic partner—are women.

A major cognitive component of empathy is perspective taking: using the power of imagination to try to see the world through someone else's eyes. A key emotional component of empathy is empathic concern, which involves other-oriented feelings, such as sympathy, compassion, and tenderness.

Two components of empathy

Rofé argued that stress sparks the desire to affiliate only when being with others is seen as useful in reducing the negative impact of the stressful situation. Schachter's participants had reason to believe that affiliation would be useful. They would have an opportunity to compare their emotional reactions with those of others to determine whether they really needed to be fearful. For those in the Sarnoff and Zimbardo study, however, affiliation had less to offer. When we face embarrassment, being with others is more likely to increase our stress than reduce it.

Utility

false

We are more likely to help their friend more than strangers

Adolescents because there are many transitions and disruptions

What age category is most likely to feel lonely?

By 1983 there were over 200 definitions behavior intended to harm another individual

What is aggression?

Affiliation

What is the necessary first step in the formation of a social relationship?

Research suggests that people facing an imminent threat seek each other out in order to gain cognitive clarity about the danger they are in.

What specific benefit do people get from being in the presence of others in times of stress?

stress loneliness lack of power

What three states of mind inspire social affiliation?

1. Costs of helping are high. If the anticipated costs of helping in a particular situation seem high, helping would put our good mood at risk. In this case, if we can avoid getting involved and thus maintain our good mood, we are less likely to help. 2. Positive thoughts about other social activities that conflict with helping. If our good mood makes us want to go out and party with our friends, our motivation to engage in this social activity may prevent us from taking the time to notice or take responsibility for helping someone in need.

When feeling good might not lead to doing good

False. Similarity always wins!

When it comes to romantic relationships do opposites attract?

No! Because of utility

When people are embarrassed do they want to be around people?

identity fusion

a strong sense of "oneness" and shared identity with a group and its individual members more likely to help group members, even to the point of risking or sacrificing their lives in the process. The groups to which people feel fused may even be relatively large and abstract.

Male: sex Female: emotional

Which sex would be more upset if their romantic partner were to form a deep emotional attachment or have sex with another person.

Roy Baumeister and Mark Leary

Who assembled evidence for the need to belong?

The Male

Who is likely to say I love you first?

1. Desire to maintain one's good mood. When we are in a good mood, we are motivated to maintain that mood. Helping others makes us feel good, so it can help maintain a positive mood. 2. Positive thoughts and expectations. Positive moods trigger positive thoughts, and if we have positive thoughts about others, we should like them more and should have positive expectations about interacting with others, and these factors should make us more likely to help them.

Why Feeling Good Leads to Doing Good

not as much parental investment

Why are men more sexually promiscuous?

Because they are about to become unavailable

Why are people 'prettier' at closing time?

Inherently rewarding to be in the company of people who are aesthetically appealing. (pleasure areas in brain more active) Self-fulfilling prophecy (treated different, so they behave differently) What-is-beautiful-is-good stereotype

Why are we blinded by beauty?

- desire to maintain one's good mood - positive expectations about helping - positive thoughts - positive thoughts and expectations about social activities

Why do good moods lead to helping?

evolutionary psychologists have speculated that our pursuit of symmetry is adaptive because symmetry is naturally associated with biological health, fitness, and fertility, qualities that are highly desirable in a mate

Why do we prefer symmetrical faces?

Causes more people to help

Why does the motivation to help matter?

Do attractive people receive more help even when the helper does it anonymously, with no chance for any reward?

Yes

Do attractive people get help easier?

Yes Attractive people are more likely to be offered help and cooperation across a number of different settings, whether it be asking for directions on campus, playing a game that could be either competitive or cooperative, or requesting money in a health emergency (Farrelly et al., 2007; West & Brown, 1975; Wilson, 1978). In addition to physical attractiveness, interpersonal attractiveness matters; people who seem particularly nice, sociable, or happy, for example, are more likely to receive help, even for acts as seemingly mindless as holding a door open for someone

Is bullying prevalent across virtually all cultures?

Yes Some cultural differences have been reported in how and where bullying occurs. Bullying in the classroom and involving a large group (such as an entire class) bullying a single target may be more characteristic of East Asian than Western countries, whereas bullying in the playground and involving students who don't know each other well may be more typical in Western cultures

Do concussion injuries impact aggressive behaviors?

Yes damage to the uncinate fasciculus, which connects the orbitofrontal cortex with the anterior temporal lobe, was associated with more aggression and impulsivity and compromised executive functioning

Is helpfulness genetic?

Yes estimates that between 56% and 72% of prosocial behavior can be attributed to genetic effects.

Is aggression heritable?

Yes heritability explains between about a third and a half of the variation in aggression in children. The strength of this relationship can vary, however, depending on the type of aggression studied, such as physical or relational aggression

Does holding a gun increase testosterone?

Yes weapons have an effect on men's testosterone levels as well as on their aggression. Male college students in this experiment handled either a handgun or a children's game for 15 minutes. Relative to the students who interacted with the game, the students who interacted with the gun showed increased testosterone levels and exhibited greater aggression against another person (by adding a lot of "Frank's Red Hot Sauce" to a cup of water they thought another subject would have to drink!). The greater the increase in testosterone in response to the gun, the more hot sauce the students added to the other person's drink. More generally, any object or external characteristic that is associated with successful aggression, or with pain or unpleasantness, can serve as an aggression-enhancing situational cue (Berkowitz, 1993; 1998; 2008). Even brief exposure to words associated with hot temperatures can trigger aggressive thoughts (DeWall & Bushman, 2009).

Does a candy bar help aggression?

Yes Whereas alcohol reduces people's executive functioning and self-control, nonalcoholic sugar-rich drinks can boost them, especially when people's cognitive resources are already depleted through fatigue or other factors, and this in turn can reduce aggression

Does violent pornography increase violence?

Yes it increases male to female violence negative effects of pornography are especially likely to be evident among men who have relatively high levels of sexual arousal in response to violent pornography and also express attitudes and opinions indicating acceptance of violence toward women men who regularly use pornography and whose parents frequently used harsh corporal punishment were most likely to report engaging in sexually coercive behaviors.

Do cultures vary in aggression?

Yes! Cultures vary dramatically in how—and how much—their members aggress against each other. We can see this variation across societies and across specific groups, or subcultures, within a society. Murder rates tend to be much higher in Central and South America, the Caribbean, and Southern and Middle Africa than in other regions in the world (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2011) (see d Figure 11.2). A variety of factors contribute to this tendency, including poverty, drug trafficking, availability of guns, political and social unrest, and so on. Countries with wide disparities in income have murder rates almost four times greater than societies with more equal income distribution.

Do both individualistic and collectivist cultures have cultures of honor?

Yes. Cultures of honor exist in individualist and collectivist cultures, but they may emphasize different types of threats. Ayse Uskul and others make the case that people in the collectivist culture of Turkey focus more on protecting the honor of one's family and close others, whereas people in more individualistic cultures emphasize honor focused on the individual (Uskul et al., 2012, 2014, 2015). Patricia Rodriguez Mosquera and others (2014) found a similar difference in emphasis on family-based honor between Pakistanis (a more collectivistic culture) and European Americans.

do violent video games enhance aggression?

Yes. playing violent video games was associated with increased aggressive behavior, cognition, and affect, and decreased prosocial behavior and affect, whereas playing prosocial games had the opposite pattern.

norm of social responsibility

a social norm stating that we should help when others are in need and are dependent on us

negative reinforcement in aggression

aggression prevents or stops undesirable outcomes the child who can stop other children from teasing by shoving them away has learned the fateful lesson that aggression pays.

positive reinforcement in aggression

aggression produces desired outcomes The child who gets a toy by hitting the toy's owner is likely to hit again

a concern for others; generosity not expecting anything in return

altruism

reluctance to help for fear of making a bad impression on observers example: This is a very common obstacle to helping, but sometimes it can be especially tragic. Melanie Carlson (2008) reports about a gang rape of an unconscious 15-year-old girl by four perpetrators in the presence of six bystanders at a party in 2002. The district attorney said that the bystanders did not intervene for fear of being considered "wusses" or being "made fun of" (p. 3). When Carlson interviewed young men from a university in California about how they would respond in situations like the gang rape, many of them raised similar concerns, indicating that their masculinity would be threatened if they intervened. This kind of concern about being embarrassed in front of friends and breaking perceived norms that promote minding one's own business plays a role in a tremendous amount of bystander inaction, involving everything from sexual assault to bullying to abuse of animals

audience inhibition

aggression

behavior that is intended to harm another individual Examples: Aggressive behaviors come in many forms. Words as well as deeds can be aggressive. Quarreling couples who intend their spiteful remarks to hurt are behaving aggressively. Spreading a vicious rumor about someone is another form of aggression. Even failure to act can be aggressive, if that failure is intended to hurt someone, such as by not helping someone avoid what you know will be a humiliating outcome.

more friends, better social skills, more likely to attract a mate, more active sex life

benefits of beauty

the presence of others inhibits helping

bystander effect

3 conditions: 1. child alone 2. child w 2 confederate that will not help 3. child w 2 confederates who are stuck and can't help 90% would help when alone or when bystanders were stuck. Only 50% helped when bystanders could've helped.

bystander effect in children

Does caffeine enhance aggression?

caffeine significantly increases people's arousal, such as by raising blood pressure and adrenaline—and this in turn can increase aggression participants who thought they had consumed caffeine (but actually did not) showed reduced aggression after they had been cognitively depleted by a long and boring mental task, but those who actually consumed caffeine did not.

a desire to obtain information from others regarding the nature and dangerousness of the threat Example: research participants anticipating the painful task of soaking a hand in ice-cold water preferred to wait with someone who had already completed the task rather than with someone who had not.

cognitive clarity

one of the three facets of loneliness: the outermost layer of our social network comes from remote relationships and the social identities we derive from say, from alumni of the schools we have attended and clubs we join on the basis of common needs or interests. The more voluntary associations we have, the lower one's collective loneliness.

collective loneliness

John Alan Lee (1988) identified three primary love styles: eros (erotic love), ludus (game-playing, uncommitted love), and storge (friendship love). As with primary colors, Lee theorized, these three styles can be blended together to form new secondary types of love, such as mania (demanding and possessive love), pragma (pragmatic love), and agape (other-oriented, altruistic love). On a scale designed to measure these "colors of love," men tend to score higher than women on ludus, and women score higher on storge, mania, and pragma

colors of love theory

partners respond to each other's needs and well-being over time and in different ways, without regard for whether they have given or received a benefit usually limited to close friends, romantic partners, and family members

communal relationships

average expected outcome in relationships. A person with a high CL expects his or her relationships to be rewarding; someone with a low CL does not. Situations that meet or exceed a person's expectations are more satisfying than those that fall short. Even a bad relationship can look pretty good to someone who has a low CL.

comparison level

people's expectations about what they would receive in an alternative situation. If the rewards available elsewhere are believed to be high, a person will be less committed to staying in the present relationship (Drigotas & Rusbult, 1992). If people perceive that they have few acceptable alternatives (a low CLalt), they will tend to remain, even in an unsatisfying relationship that fails to meet expectations (CL).

comparison level for alternatives (CLalt)

intimacy and commitment

compationate love

people seek others whose needs "oppose" their own—that people who need to dominate, for example, are naturally drawn to those who are submissive (Winch et al., 1954). Is there any support for this view? Surprisingly, the answer is no.

complementarity hypothesis

rumination

compulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems and their causes Notes: In the context of anger and aggression, rumination involves repeatedly thinking about and reliving an anger-inducing event, focusing on angry thoughts and feelings, and perhaps even planning or imagining revenge. Angry rumination can take a minor situational factor that otherwise might have faded away after a few minutes and enable it to retain its force to cause anger and aggression over a long period of time. A growing set of studies have demonstrated that this kind of rumination contributes to direct and displaced aggression, arousal and raised blood pressure, negative affect, and aggressive cognitions Rumination also reduces people's self-control abilities. Therefore this is another way that rumination contributes to aggression—by impairing people's ability to inhibit aggression

buying expensive services and products in order to flaunt your wealth may have evolved as a sexually selected mating signal To see if it works, Jill Sundie and colleagues (2011) briefly described to female participants a 32-year-old MBA graduate who made a good living as a financial analyst; who liked to bike, go to movies, and listen to music; and who just purchased a new car—either an expensive Porsche or a Honda Civic. Sure enough participants saw him as a more desirable date when he was said to have bought the flashier car.

conspicuous consumption

a decision-making process in which you compare what you will sacrifice and gain by a specific action

cost-benefit analysis

the proposition that people react to emergency situations by acting in the most cost-effective way to reduce the arousal of shock and alarm

cost-reward model

beauty is not related to objective measures, stereotype, no guarantees, attributional problems, pressure to maintain appearance it's hard to know if attention and praise is in response to one's talent or one's good looks, and one is pressured to maintain one's appearance

costs of beauty

helping in the face of potentially enormous costs

courageous resistance

a culture that emphasizes honor and social status, particularly for males, and the role of aggression in protecting that honor cultures of honor are associated with school violence. For example, states in the United States associated with cultures of honor had more than twice as many school shootings per capita as other states, and high-school students from culture-of-honor states were significantly more likely to bring a weapon to school. Lindsey Osterman and Ryan Brown (2011) also found that suicide rates are higher in culture-of-honor states, which the authors speculate may be due in part to greater concern and focus on interpersonal threat and loss of status, and a greater feeling of personal responsibility for failure to protect one's honor. Study: Participants from Chile (a culture that emphasizes honor) or Canada (a neutral culture regarding honor) listened to a tape of a man describing his violent behavior toward his wife during a conflict. When the conflict was not triggered by an honor-related issue, Chileans and Canadians did not differ in how acceptable they thought the violence was. When the conflict was triggered by the husband perceiving his wife flirting with another man at a party, however, the Chileans were significantly more accepting of the violence than the Canadians were.

culture of honor

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. A novel stimulus gets our attention, and if it's sufficiently interesting or exciting, it elicits physiological arousal. But when we get used to something, our reactions diminish. Familiarity with violence reduces physiological arousal and corresponding brain activity to new incidents of violence

world change orientation

desire to make the world a better place This motivation leads to greater helping behavior in situations that are framed as relevant to this goal, as opposed to situations framed as helping a particular individual

norm of reciprocity

dictates that if someone has helped us, we should help him or her in return. We discussed reciprocal altruism earlier in this chapter; many animals, including humans, help those who have helped them. the expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future

the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way or the belief that others will or should intervene. Presumably, each of those people who watched or listened to Kitty Genovese's murder thought that someone else would do something to stop the attack. Study Example: diffusion of responsibility with 5-year-olds. During the study, children were doing some coloring when the adult experimenter had a little problem—she "accidentally" knocked over a cup containing colored water and it was beginning to spill all over her table and onto the floor. She groaned that she needed some paper towels as she feebly tried to hold back the water with her arms. There just happened to be a pile of paper towels between the children and the experimenter's table.

diffusion of responsibility

No - SELECTION is important! we like others who are socially selective Elliot Aronson and Darwyn Linder (1965) had female college students meet in pairs several times. In each pair, one student was a research participant; her partner was a confederate. After each meeting, the participant overheard a follow-up conversation between the experimenter and the confederate in which she was discussed and evaluated. Over time, the confederate's evaluation of the participant either was consistent or underwent a change—from negative to positive (gain) or from positive to negative (loss). In this study, participants liked the partner more when her evaluation changed from negative to positive than when it was positive all along. As long as the "conversion" is gradual and believable, people like others more when their affection takes time to earn than when it comes easily. Within a heterosexual speed-dating situation, Paul Eastwick and others (2007) confirmed the conversion point: People are drawn to members of the opposite sex who like them—but only when these others are selective in their liking and, hence, discriminating.

does reciprocity mean simply that the more people like us, the more we will like them back?

concern about the costs to the self of not helping a form of helping in which the ultimate goal of the helper is to increase his or her own welfare

egoistic helping

understanding or vicariously experiencing another individual's perspective and feeling sympathy and compassion for that individual

empathy

self-transcendence

emphasizes care for the welfare of other others, whether close or distant, and disengagement from selfish concerns

Justice or fairness

emphasizes that people should help those who deserve their assistance rather than simply because they need help

I cubed theory

emphasizes the role of self-control in aggression The three Is in this theory stand for: 1. Instigation—social factors that often trigger aggressive impulses, such as provocation or social rejection 2. Impellance—personality and situational factors that promote the urge to aggress when encountering instigating factors, such as angry rumination or trait aggressiveness 3. Inhibition—the various factors of self-control we described in the previous section Note: This theory pits the forces of instigation and impellance on the one hand against the power of inhibition on the other to determine the likelihood of aggression. For example, strong provocation coupled with angry rumination can overpower a person's self-control abilities that have been compromised by alcohol, resulting in an elevated likelihood of aggression.

states that people are motivated to preserve important relationships, that declines in satisfaction and commitment motivate threat-mitigating tactics (for example, accommodating the partner rather than retaliating), and that these tactics serve to restore levels of satisfaction and commitment

equilibrium model of relationship maintenance

the attempt to explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that have evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection

evolutionary psychology

people operate by a reward-based model when they are in exchange relationships , which are characterized by an immediate tit-for-tat repayment of benefits. In these situations, people want costs to be quickly offset by compensation, leaving the balance at zero. typically exist between strangers and casual acquaintances and in certain long-term arrangements such as business partnerships.

exchange relationships

the process whereby arousal caused by one stimulus is added to arousal from a second stimulus and the combined arousal is attributed to the second stimulus these symptoms may be attributed or "misattributed" to passionate love. Study Example: field study that took place on two bridges above British Columbia's Capilano River. One was a narrow, wobbly suspension bridge (450 feet long and 5 feet wide, with a low handrail) that sways 230 feet above rocky rapids—a nightmare for anyone the least bit afraid of heights. The other bridge was wide, sturdy, and only 10 feet from the ground. Whenever an unaccompanied young man walked across one of these bridges, he was met by an attractive young woman who introduced herself as a research assistant, asked him to fill out a brief questionnaire, and gave her phone number in case he wanted more information about the project. As predicted, men who crossed the scary bridge were later more likely to call her than those who crossed the stable bridge. In a study of "love at first fright" that took place in two amusement parks, Cindy Meston and Penny Frohlich (2003) similarly found that men and women who were not with a romantic partner rated a photographed person of the opposite sex as more attractive right after they rode on a roller-coaster than they did before they began the ride. Perhaps terror can fan the hot flames of romance.

excitation transfer

violence

extreme acts of aggression

passion and commitment

fatuous love

fearful of rejection and mistrustful of others; suspicious and shy

fearful attachment style

demographic, attitude, attractiveness, subjective experience

four types of similarity

(Berkowitz) the idea that frustration always elicits the motive to aggress and all aggression is caused by frustration Frustration is but one of many unpleasant experiences that can lead to aggression by creating negative, uncomfortable feelings

frustration-aggression hypothesis

the perceived physical attractiveness of a group as a whole is greater than the average attractiveness of its individual members Example: Using an eye-tracking device, the results proved revealing. Participants unwittingly spent more time looking at the most attractive members, which skewed upward their perceptions of the group as a whole.

group attractiveness effect

groups that have altruistic members may be more likely to survive than groups with only selfish members

group selection

aggression replacement training

guiding aggressive people by rewarding prosocial behaviors that meet personal needs

the tendency to prefer people who are highly selective in their social choices over those who are more readily available

hard-to-get effect

When does punishment work?

immediately follows the aggressive behavior, is strong enough to deter the aggressor, and is consistently applied and perceived as fair and legitimate by the aggressor.

a kind of reciprocal altruism in which an individual who helps someone becomes more likely to receive help from someone else In other words, A helps B, and C (who saw A's helpful behavior toward B) then helps A. Through indirect reciprocity cooperation among many members of a group can be established (Roberts, 2015). For it to flourish, individuals in the group are rewarded by others for being helpful and punished for being selfish. Consistent with this point, studies have shown that even monkeys and human infants show reliable preferences for individuals they've observed being helpful to others (Anderson et al., 2013; Hamlin, 2013, 2015; Rand & Nowak, 2013). And animals from reef fish to chimpanzees and humans have been shown to punish individuals they've seen failing to help others, often through social exclusion (dos Santos & Wedekind, 2015; Kurzban et al., 2015; Sasaki & Uchida, 2013).

indirect reciprocity

passion alone

infatuation(Sternberg)

one of the three facets of loneliness: felt when someone wants but does not have a spouse, significant other, or best friends to rely on for emotional support, especially during personal crises

intimate loneliness

something a person puts into a relationship that he or she cannot recover if the relationship ends. If you don't like the way an intimate relationship is working out, you can pack your clothes, grab your laptop, and drive away. But what about all the time you put into trying to make the relationship last? What about all the romantic and career opportunities you sacrificed along the way? As you might expect, investments increase commitment. Because of those things we can't take with us, we're more likely to stay

investment

the tendency to help genetic relatives the process by which evolution selects for individuals who cooperate with their relatives could become an innate characteristic of humans. In fact, . For example, just as humans often risk their lives to save close relatives, ground squirrels, capuchin monkeys, and many other mammals and birds emit an alarm to warn nearby relatives of a predator. The alarm helps their relatives but makes the individual who sounds the alarm more vulnerable to attack Example Study: under low-risk scenarios participants were more likely to help romantic partners than siblings, and they were as willing to help romantic partners with whom they had no biological children as they were to help those with whom they did. Under high-risk situations, however, participants became more likely to help siblings and romantic partners with whom they had biological children, but less willing to help romantic partners with whom they had no children or had adopted children. In other words, under high-risk scenarios, genetic relatedness became more important in decisions about helping.

kin selection

preferential helping of genetic relatives, so that genes held in common will survive

kinship selection

a feeling of deprivation about existing social relations

loneliness

people in a good mood want to keep their good mood lasting

maintenance hypothesis

The idea that males and females of approximately equal physical attractiveness are likely to select each other as partners.

matching hypothesis

motivation to appear moral while doing one's best to avoid the costs involved in actually being moral

moral hypocrisy

Olweus Bullying Prevention Program

more intensive and long-lasting ones that—like multisystemic therapy—involve multiple levels, include parent meetings and training, firm disciplinary methods, better playground supervision, school conferences, classroom management, and individualized work with the students involved in bullying

desire to associate with others, to be part of a group, to form close and intimate relationships Note: Individuals differ in the strength of their need for affiliation. Everyone is highly motivated to establish and maintain an optimum balance of social contact—sometimes craving the company of others, sometimes wanting to be alone—the way a body is set to maintain a certain temperature level.

need for affiliation

the proposition that people help others in order to counteract their own feelings of sadness people who are feeling bad are inclined to help others in order to improve their mood. People who have experienced traumatic events, for example, show mental and physical health benefits from helping others

negative state relief model

hostility

negative, antagonistic attitude toward another person or group.

What each sex invests—in terms of time, energy, survival risk, and forgone opportunities—to produce and nurture offspring.

parental investment

a false impression of what most other people are thinking or feeling, or how they are responding Startled by a sudden, unexpected, possibly dangerous event, each person looks quickly to see what others are doing. As everyone looks at everyone else for clues about how to behave, the entire group may be paralyzed by indecision. When this happens, the person needing help is a victim of pluralistic ignorance . In this state of ignorance, each individual believes that his or her own thoughts and feelings are different from everyone else's, when in fact, many of the other people are thinking or feeling the same way. Each bystander thinks that other people aren't acting because somehow they know there isn't an emergency. Actually, everyone is confused and hesitant, but taking cues from each other's inaction, each observer concludes that help is not required

pluralistic ignorance

Uneasy and vigilant toward any threat to the relationship; needy and jealous

preoccupied attachment

Aggressive behavior whereby the means and the end coincide; harm is inflicted for its own sake Aggression aimed at harming someone for personal gain, attention, or even self-defense fits this definition

proactive aggression or instrumental aggression

confluence model of sexual aggression

proposes that in individuals who are predisposed to sexual aggression, using pornography can increase the risk of sexually aggressive attitudes and behaviors

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

prosocial behavior

Poor self-control is part of the trait ________ in the Dark Triad.

psychopathy Individuals with strong self-control can resist impulses and are able to act in ways that are consistent with their personal and societal standards for appropriate behavior. Children low in self-control tend to be more aggressive as young adults, and poor self-control is one of the strongest predictors of crime, cyberbullying, and aggression toward strangers and romantic partners

studies conducted in bars like this have shown that men and women who are not in committed relationships see each other as more attractive as the night wears on.s

reactance theory

Aggressive behavior whereby harm is inflicted as a means to a desired examples: Reactive aggression is often impulsive, carried out in the heat of the moment. The jealous lover strikes out in rage; fans of rival soccer teams go at each other with fists and clubs. Reactive aggression, however, can also be calm, cool, and calculating.

reactive aggression or emotional aggression

the normal and adaptive motivation that most of us have, which prompts us to reconnect with others when we feel lonely being alone—and feeling lonely—motivates people of all ages to connect with others in order to satisfy a "reaffiliation motive." Examples: individuals who lack power and influence also feel a need to seek out other people. In one study, they found that participants who were primed to imagine lacking power displayed more interest in joining a campus service aimed at fostering new friendships. In a second study, people assigned to a position of low power sought more physical proximity to a partner. Consistent with Rofé's (1984) utility explanation for why people affiliate, it now appears that stress, loneliness, and a lack of power are among the states of mind that inspire social affiliation.

reaffiliation motive

helping someone else can be in your best interests because it increases the likelihood that you will be helped in return If A helps B and B helps A, both A and B may increase their chances of survival and reproductive success. Over the course of evolution, therefore, individuals who engage in reciprocal altruism should survive and reproduce more than individuals who do not, thus enabling this kind of altruism to flourish. Examples: Robert Trivers (1971) cited several examples of reciprocal altruism in animals. Many animals groom each other; for instance, monkeys groom other monkeys and cats groom other cats. Large fish (such as groupers) allow small fish (such as wrasses) to swim in their mouths without eating them; the small fish get food for themselves and at the same time remove parasites from the larger fish. Frans de Waal has observed thousands of interactions among chimpanzees and seen how chimps who share with other chimps at one feeding are repaid by the other chimps at another feeding; those who are selfish are rebuffed, sometimes violently, at a later feeding (de Waal, 1996, 2008, 2013). What's more, de Waal has observed more complicated forms of reciprocation. If Chimp A groomed Chimp B, for instance, B became much more likely to then share his or her food with A. Similar types of behaviors among capuchin monkeys have also been recorded

reciprocal altruism

one of the three facets of loneliness: Somewhat outside our circle of personal space When someone wants but lacks friendships from school and work and family connections the 15 or 50 people whom we see regularly and rely on for occasional help, child care, resources, contacts, and advice.

relational loneliness

intimacy and passion

romantic love

comfortable w/ intimacy and interdependence, optimistic and sociable

secure attachment

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others self-disclosure is to companionate love what arousal is to passionate love

self-disclosure

Natural selection for mating success.

sexual selection

the tendency of a person to avoid social interaction about 40% of Americans consider themselves shy distinct from social phobias

shyness

is an economic model of human behavior according to which people are motivated by a desire to maximize profit and minimize loss in their social relationships just as they are in business Relationships that provide more rewards and fewer costs will be more satisfying and endure longer. Between intimates, the rewards include love, companionship, consolation in times of distress, and sexual gratification if the relationship is of this nature. The costs include the work it takes to maintain a relationship, work though conflict, compromise, and sacrifice opportunities elsewhere.

social exchange theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished (bobo doll)

social learning theory

Bandura

social learning theory; Bobo dolls; social-cognitive theory

built in social thermostat to regulate affiliative tendencies laboratory rats are more likely to approach others of their species after a period of isolation and were less likely to approach others after prolonged contact.

sociostat

When a response decreases in frequency because of too large a frequency or magnitude of reinforcement, stimulus overload has occurred. example: living in a big city and not paying much attention to screams or loud noises

stimulus overload

women of the Bari tribe in Venezuela are highly promiscuous. From an evolutionary standpoint, this behavior does not seem adaptive since women who "sleep around" may scare off potential mates fearful of wasting resources on children who are not their own.

the Bari

Dehumanization

the attribution of nonhuman characteristics and denial of human qualities to groups other than one's own helpful in war cure for this - human connection

cultivation

the capacity of the mass media to construct a social reality that people perceive as true, even if it isn't. The media tend to depict the world as much more violent than it actually is. This can make people become more fearful, more distrustful, more likely to arm themselves, and more likely to behave aggressively in what they perceive as a threatening situation

a study was done by Fisher that found humans stay together for about 4 years (when child is most vulnerable), and up to 7 years if another child is conceived

the four year itch

alcohol myopia

the inability to think about consequences and possible outcomes of one's actions due to alcohol intoxication This narrowed focus can therefore make aggression much more likely to occur, unless the intoxicated person's narrow focus can be distracted toward something safer

altruistic personality

the qualities that cause an individual to help others in a wide variety of situations

hostile attribution bias

the tendency to perceive hostile intent in others Notes: For example, children who are chronically aggressive and have been rejected by their peers see hostile intent where others don't. Such perceptions then increase their aggression, and their peers respond by rejecting them further, locking these children into an ever-escalating vicious circle. Chronically aggressive adults, too, tend to expect and perceive hostility in others' motives and behaviors (Dill et al., 1997). Michael Schönenberg and Aiste Jusyte (2014) had a group of male violent offenders in a correctional facility in Germany view photos of faces and judged what emotion the person depicted was experiencing. Some of the photos were ambiguous—they were a mix of fear and anger, or of happiness and anger (see d Figure 11.11). Compared to a control group of participants (of the same age and educational status), the violent prisoners were much more likely to interpret the ambiguous faces as angry. This result illustrates the violent men's bias of perceiving relatively more hostility in others, which is likely to trigger more aggressive responses in turn.

the proposition that people are highly motivated to protect their freedom to choose and behave as they please. When a valued freedom is threatened (not getting the object of one's affection), people reassert themselves, often by wanting that which is unavailable too much—like the proverbial forbidden fruit (Brehm & Brehm, 1981). (Romeo and Juliet) Humans have a strong need to control our own destinies and choices, and when these freedoms are threatened, we exert extra effort to hang onto them.

theory of psychological reactance

What makes certain cultures peaceful?

these cultures cherish peacefulness, which has become a core part of their identity. Many of these societies have religious or mythological reasons for remaining peaceful, which seems to have helped them stay nonviolent even in the face of violent contact from others.

- Help is experienced as self-supportive when recipient feels appreciated and cared for. - Help is experienced as self-threatening when recipient feels inferior and overly dependent.

threat-to-self-esteem model

similarity, reciprocity, and being hard to get.

three characteristics of others who can influence our attraction

1. when people are asked to rate unfamiliar faces on a 7- or 10-point scale, there is typically a high level of agreement among children and adults, men and women, and people from the same or different cultures People also tend to agree about what constitutes an attractive body. For example, men tend to be drawn to the "hourglass" figure and women like men with a waist-to-hip ratio that forms a tapering V-shaped physique, signaling more muscle than fat (across cultures) 2. researchers have identified physical features of the human face that are reliably associated with ratings of attractiveness, such as smooth skin, a pleasant expression, and youthfulness (Rhodes, 2006). Particularly intriguing are studies showing that people like faces in which the eyes, nose, lips, and other features are not too different from the average. believe that people like averaged faces because they are more prototypically face-like and have features that are less distinctive, so they seem more familiar to us. Consistent with this notion, research shows that just as people are more attracted to averaged human faces than to individual faces, they also prefer averaged dogs, birds, fish, wristwatches, and cars 3. babies who are too young to have learned their culture's standards of beauty show a nonverbal preference for faces considered attractive by adults Young infants spend more time tracking and looking at attractive faces than at unattractive ones, regardless of whether the faces are young or old, male or female, or black-skinned or white

three sources of evidence that certain faces are inherently more attractive, on average, than others.

Cognitive reappraisal programs

train individuals to interpret provocations in more neutral, less emotional terms by thinking about the events from an objective, nonpersonal perspective

T/F teenagers and young adults have a much greater rate of involvement in violent crime

true

T/F we are more likely to help others who are similar to us

true

- bats rely on food to maintain body temp, if they go without eating 1 night, they could die the next day -If a bat recognizes their roost mate has not eaten, they will regurgitate their food so it survives so the group remains

vampire bats and reciprocal altruism

the increase in aggression that can occur because of the mere presence of a gun or other weapon

weapons effect

As reactance theory would predict, closing time posed a threat—which sparked desire—only to those on the lookout for a late-night date

what happens when you think that your chance to get a date for the evening is slipping away?

norm of equity

when people are in a situation in which they feel overbenefited (receiving more benefits than earned), they should help those who are underbenefited

based on his view of the consequences of empathy. According to Batson, if you perceive someone in need and imagine how that person feels, you are likely to experience other-oriented feelings of empathic concern (similar to what some call compassion—DeSteno, 2015), which in turn produce the altruistic motive to reduce the other person's distress. There are, however, instances in which people perceive someone in need and focus on their own feelings about this person or on how they would feel in that person's situation. Although many people (and some researchers) may think of this as empathy, Batson contrasts this with instances in which people's concern is with how the other person is feeling. It's when your focus is on the other person that true altruism is possible. Example: softball game, opposing girl tore a ligament and two girls from the opposing team carried her to the home run

​Batson's model of altruism