exam #3: social psychology

Describe social dominance orientation.

view the world hierarchically and want own group to dominate.

identify how institutional changes can have a positive impact on a disadvantaged group.

Institutional changes in education can have a positive impacts on a disadvantaged groups. Eliminating segregation in schools will create an equal opportunity for all regardless of race to academically and socially improve.

Explain conditions that make optimal contact effective at reducing prejudice?

intergroup contact - promoting contact between groups will lead to prejudice reduction.

How do stereotypes lead to self-fulfilling prophecies?

stereotypes provide expectations of certain groups, which can contribute to SFPS. For example, in the Word, Zanna, & Cooper study, participants were told to act as interviewers for black and white job candidates. Behavior was coded for seating distance, length of interview, and speech errors (indicate anxiety) (DV). -in study 2, white applicants were treated like black applicants in study 1. they were judged to perform less adequately and to be more nervous.

explain factors in family life that influence the tendency to aggress.

1) a violent family life disrupts psychological security and models aggression. 2) rejected or abused children are more likely to become aggressive themselves.

outline evidence that violent media increases the incidence of aggression.

1) experimental and longitudinal research shows that watching media violence contributes to aggression. 2) this is especially true when the hero is easy to identify with and is triumphant 3) aggressive and frustrated people are more susceptible to the influence of media violence than are others. EVIDENCE: According to Singer and Singer, 1981, the more violence an individual watches, the more aggressive that person is. According to Ferguson, 2015, the more violent video games played by children, the more aggressive the tend to be. According to Huesmann et al., 1984,2003; Lefkowitz et al., 1977, the more violent programs an individual watches as child, the more likely that individual is to be violent up to 22 years later.

list reasons intelligence is a factor in aggressive behavior

1) frustration and misunderstanding may contribute to aggression in low-intellect individuals 2) aggression can also impair future intellectual function, leading to more aggressive behavior in the future

Give examples of the harmful impact of stereotypes on those targeted by them.

1) holding a stereotype can change how observers interact with targets, sometimes causing targets to act stereotypically. 2) targets sometimes inadvertently act stereotypically to get along with others. 3) self-objectification - viewing the self as an object to be looked at - can undermine health and performance. 4) stereotype threat - the fear of confirming a negative stereotype - can undermine performance 5) social identity threat - the feeling that your group does not belong in a domain - can repel people from that domain

Summarize ways to reduce aggression at three levels: society, relationships, and the person.

1) improve the quality of life. grant better control access to weapons, punish aggression more effectively, and better address media violence. 2) improve parental care, strength social connections, and promote empathy. 3) improve self-awareness and self-regulatory control, reduce hostile attribution bias, and promote stable bases of self-worth.

identify the personality traits that foster aggression.

1) narcissists and those with low/and or unstable self-esteem are more likely to retaliate with aggression. 2) people with under controlled impulsivity also react aggressively 3) people with over controlled impulsivity aggress when hostility boils over.

1. Define stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. 2. What are the differences between stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination?

1. a. affective component - prejudice: hostile or negative feelings or attitudes toward a group of people based solely on membership in a group. b. behavioral component - discrimination: unwarranted hostile behavior toward a member of a group based solely on their group membership c. cognitive component - stereotypes: an overgeneralization in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group. 2. prejudices are hostile feelings, discrimination are behaviors, while stereotypes are overgeneralization.

1. What is aggression? Explain the importance of intention. 2. What are the two types of aggression and what's an example of each? 3. How can aggression manifest?

1. Aggression is characterized by intentional behavior with the goal of insuring another person who does not want to be injured. 2. Impulsive aggression: aggression solely to harm another person. It stems from anger and intent is to cause harm or pain to the person. It is often impulsive and in response to threat to self. Instrumental aggression: aggression in order to obtain something of value. Stems from a different goal than causing pain. Often for personal gain, attention, and self-defense. 3. Aggression can manifest through direct or indirect methods and verbal or physical methods. DIRECT: -being hit, kicked, pushed, shoved. -having things taken from you. -being yelled at, called names, insulted. -being teased, insulted. -being threatened INDIRECT: -rumors spread behind back -excluded from group -nasty notes written about you -receiving nasty anonymous texts/emails/prank calls. -being ignored -having secrets told. -being object of dirty looks

Explain why some people are more or less likely to perceive prejudice.

1. Because modern prejudice is less apparent, it is more difficult to know if and when one is the target of prejudice 2. people differ in their sensitivity to prejudice, but people commonly underestimate personal discrimination. 3. People may be motivated to deny discrimination out of optimism or a desire to justify the social system. 4. Prejudice can take a toll on a person's mental and physical health.

What is the Robbers Cave study?

1. Boys at a camp were split into two groups randomly. They were made to take part in competitive activities and came to hate each other. Just putting them together and expecting them to work it out did not work. However when the bus broke down and the boys had to all work together to push the bus in order to get something that they all wanted they started to get along again. It shows that mutual interdependence and shared goals end prejudice. 2. Set in a summer camp, white, middle class boys age 11-12 were established into groups: Eagles and Rattlers. They had separate housing, meals, and activities (first stage). In the second stage, there was conflict. They had sports tournaments, of which brought upon verbal hostilities, vandalism, theft, and physical confrontation. In the third stage, there was conflict reduction through superordinate goals.

Explain reasons that stereotypes develop.

1. Socialization 2. Kernel of truth hypothesis (still, unjustified assumptions about individuals) 3. Social role theory: we infer stereotypes that describe who people are from roles that we see people play.

What is stereotype threat? NOTE: Describe the Stone et al. (1999) study.

1. When an individual is threatened by being stereotyped and, as a consequence, acts in accordance with their stereotype. 2. In the Stone et al. (1999) study, white and black males were asked to complete a miniature golf course as a "sports test." The IV: test described as measuring: -Natural athletic ability (black men stereotyped to have more) -Sports intelligence (white men stereotyped to have more) DV: strokes to complete the golf course and measures of anxiety. RESULTS: Whites performed worse when they believed they were being tested on natural athletic ability. Blacks performed worse when they believed they were being tested on sports intelligence. Conclusion: Stereotype threat varies based on context.

Outline psychological strategies for coping with prejudice and discrimination, including possible ways these strategies can backfire.

1. blame the bias, not oneself: 2. devalue the domain: another coping strategy that people turn to in dealing with discrimination is to devalue areas of life where they face pervasive experiences of prejudice and discrimination. backfire: devaluing a certain domain, like getting good grades, because the minority doesn't want to be associated with the majority, may lead them to reject opportunities for self-improvement and economic success simply because they don't want to resemble the majority culture.

Outline social strategies for coping with prejudice and discrimination.

1. confront those with biases: challenge those with biases, instead of staying silent. Doing nothing just lets those with biases continue having the same biases. targets of bias can educate majority members in methods that aren't perceived as confrontational, like encouraging the prejudiced member to reflect on their own values or positive attributes. 2. compensate for other biases: targets of prejudice can also cope with stigma by compensating for the negative stereotypes or attitudes they think other people have toward them. For example, if someone is weight-biased, and they're on a date with another person, they might compensate in another area, like being really friendly or really funny. 3. Seek social support: Seek support from those who have been in the same situation you have been in. According to the rejection identification theory, the negative consequences of being targeted by discrimination can be offset by a strong sense of identification with your stigmatized group.

Identify and describe theories that argue aggression is innate.

1. evolutionary explanations - being aggressive leads to greater dominance dominance -> more offspring, who are more aggressive conclusion: aggression is adaptive. -BUT, inhibiting/controlling aggression is also adaptive, and thus has also evolved. -no experimental testing; only speculative. 2. Biological accounts -brain structures -hormones an increase of testosterone (increases your fight response) and a decrease of cortisol (helps reduces anxiety) leads to more aggression.

identify and describe the frustration aggression hypothesis and the effect of negative affect on aggression.

1. frustration aggression hypothesis: when we are frustrated in effort to achieve a goal, this leads to aggression. 2. negative affect (berkowitz, 1989): anything that causes negative affect leads to aggression: frustration is one cause, while other causes can be pain, bad odors, loud noises, air pollution, heat, etc.

Identify coping strategies for stereotype and social identity threat.

1. identify with positive role models: expose people to role models - people like themselves who have been successful - thus, their stereotype is altered and they feel motivated to do well. 2. reappraise anxiety: a strategy in which the target reinterprets what the stereotype means. In other words, instead of viewing their setbacks as proof as the stereotypes are true, they can view their set backs as normal challenges everyone faces. 3. affirm broader values: a target that practices self-affirmation views themselves as good and competent. When they are faced with a setback, instead of succumbing to their stereotype, they can compensate by affirming other deeply held values.

How are attributions for behavior for in-groups and out-group members different?

1. linguistic intergroup bias - describing stereotypical out-group behaviors with abstract language rather than concrete language. For example: -he hit that man (concrete - situational behavioral description) -he is violent (abstract - dispositional attribution) 2. subtyping - tendency to view stereotype-inconsistent individuals as "exceptions to the rule" - particularly likely with radical devotion from the stereotype - prevents your stereotype schema from needing revision

explain the role of socialization experiences and genes in the likelihood to aggress.

1. men and women differ more in their mode, than in their overall level, of aggression. These differences are influenced by both social roles and biology (e.g. testosterone) 2. men commit the vast majority of violent and homicidal aggressive acts while women are more likely than men to engage in acts of verbal aggression through malicious rumors and gossip. 3. testosterone levels are correlated with aggressive behavior. more testosterone means more likely to agree. 4. another factor men may be more likely than women to engage in physical aggression and do more physical harm because they are generally larger and physically stronger than women 5. a third factor that men are more likely than women to interpret people's actions as intended to provoke them. 6. According to Eagly and Steffen, boys and girls are social with different normative expectations about what men and women should and should not do. Social norms dictate that a certain amount of physical aggression is acceptable among young boys, but not among young girls. Young girls and women might consider physical aggression to be unacceptable, and as a result, inhibit themselves from expressing physical aggression. 7. some people are high in trait aggressiveness 8. maltreatment and stress during childhood may also exacerbate genetic predispositions towards aggression

Outline ways that prejudice can be reduced without contact.

1. prejudice can be reduced through perspective taking and empathy. 1a. perspective taking is a social cognitive process involved in assuming the perspective of others and understanding their thoughts and feelings. 2. Encouraged a more multicultural ideology versus a colorblind ideology.

identify and describe theories that argue aggression is a learned response.

1. socialization - gender a. males and females are rewarded and punished differently for aggression. b. males and females tend to be aggressive in different ways

describe the uniquely human aspect of aggression.

1. technology outstrips natural controls on a aggression: meaning that, the ability to pull triggers, hire hit men, plant bombs, and launch missiles mean we can cause lethal harm so quickly and from d distance that evolved controls controls over violence, such as empathy and signs of submission and suffering, have no opportunity to intercede and limit the damage. 2. humans also have the greatest capacity for self-control, meaning that our brains allow us to inhibit aggressive responses. Regions of our prefrontal cortex such as the medial prefrontal cortex or the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex work to help us control our behavior through helping us reflect on our morals and the consequences of our actions. Moreover, these regions help put a stop to aggressive impulses.

1. What is the out-group homogeneity effect and what does it have to do with stereotype formation? 2. What are the two reasons for the out-group homogeneity effect?

1. tendency to perceive more variability among in-groups than out-groups 2. a. don't have as much contact with out-group members. b. quality of interactions with out-group are more superficial.

1. What is venting? 2. Is it helpful or harmful?

1. the idea that aggressive impulses build pressure that must be released through yelling, punching a pillow, or cursing. 2. It can be harmful because acting aggressively creates more subsequent aggressive thoughts and behaviors.

1. What is social identity theory? 2. What is the minimal groups paradigm? 3. Describe the Tajfel et al. (1971) study.

1. the idea that we desire to belong to "good" groups because of the impact of these groups on our self-esteem. It is maintained with in-group love, out-group bias, or both. in-group favoritism (in-group bias)- the tendency to discriminate in favor of in-groups over out-groups 2. an experimental paradigm in which researchers create groups based on arbitrary criteria and examine behavior. 3. Participants are shown clusters of dots for a brief time and told to estimate how many. They're given false feedback, either an overestimator or underestimater. They were told to distribute resources to others and were given a list of other participants and which group they were in. As a result, they favored their in-group.m

Identify reasons that people use stereotypes.

1. to simplify the process of social perception and to conserve mental energy. 2. to justify prejudicial attitudes. 3. to justify discrimination by dehumanizing, infrahumanizing, or objectifying others. 4. to justify the status quo and to maintain a sense of predictability. 5. to maintain and bolster self-esteem.

1. What are two ways we can try to deal with aggression pre-stimuli? 2. What are two ways we can try to deal with aggression post-stimuli 3. What are two ways we can try to deal with aggression after you already feel aggression?

1. you can avoid aggressive stimuli by avoiding aggressive media, not associating with aggressive people, and avoiding aggression-provoking situations. 2. you can deal with aggression post-stimuli by cognitive restructuring. Or, seeing bad situations in a humorous ways. You can focus on more productive responses. Or, you can reframe the situation by recognizing it as a mistake or that it was a personal attack against you. 3. two ways you can deal with aggression after you already feel aggression is by exercising, taking a time-out, or expressing aggressive feelings in a non-aggressive manner like writing or singing.

identify why people are prone to ethnocentric biases.

People are prone to ethnocentric biases because our worldview determines our view of what is right and good. Because of this, we can't help but judge others on the basis of those cultural values. Ethnocentrism is viewing the world through our own cultural value system and thereby judging actions and people based on our own culture's views of right and wrong and good and bad.

What is the dual process view of prejudice?

Process 1: stereotypes and biased attitudes are brought to mind quickly and automatically though a reflexive or experiential process. Process 2: People employ reflective or cognitive processes to regulate or control the degree to which those thoughts and attitudes affect their behavior and judgment. (Difficult when aroused, upset, preset for time, or distracted)

Describe how stereotypes can skew a person's judgment.

Stereotypes influence how we perceive and interpret behavior, as well as how we remember information. For example, if we have a bias against black people, and are interviewed as a witness of a crime, we might recall the black man having a gun or knife in his hand, even if he didn't have it.

Explain the connection between hostile feelings, categorizing people, and prejudice.

The causes of prejudice are hostile feelings and categorization. Feelings of hostility arise when one is frustrated, threatened, or a witness to injustice, causing prejudice. Additionally, we categorize people as members of social groups. We often see these groups as out-groups and might be prejudiced towards the out-groups and favor our in-groups.

Give evidence of both steps forward in the fight against discrimination and areas where we have room to grow.

Two pieces of evidence of steps taken against discrimination: 1. After the wrongful murder of Matthew Shepherd and James Byrd Jr in 1998, the Matthew Shepherd Act (2009) was enacted. The Matthew Shepherd Act criminalizes those who cause intentional body injury or attempt of body injury, when the crime was committed or motivated on the basis of the race, color, or religion of the victim or the crime was committed because of the gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, or disability of the victim. 2. In 2010, a survey was given and it was found that for the first time ever over 50% of Americans supported same-sex marriages. Which is a great step forward, for a decade ago, the percentage was much less, meaning people were not as accepting of same-sex marriage. WHERE WE NEED TO GROW: 3. In a 2016 survey, nearly half of African Americans said others have treated them as suspicious or unintelligent compared with only about 10% of whites. 3a. African Americans were also six times as likely as whites to report having been stopped unfairly by the police. 4. People have moved on from old-fashioned racism, or in which people are more likely to openly admit to their racist attitudes. However, because of changing norms, this type of racism is obsolete. Instead, there is modern racism, in which prejudice is reveled in indirect ways because people know they shouldn't express blatant prejudice.

how can thoughts, specifically when people are drinking alcohol, affect aggression? NOTE: list reasons why alcohol increases aggressive behavior.

alcohol increases aggressive behavior by lowering inhibition, limiting cognitive control, and creating alcohol myopia. alcohol myopia occurs when a drunk person is fixated on something or something that committed a wrongful act against them. As a result, they won't let the topic pass, thus letting the conflict escalate. Inhibition prevents you from acting on impulse, so when it is reduced by alcohol, a drunk person acts impulsively without much thought. 1) it impairs higher-order thinking 2) we expect it to lead to aggression 3) it impedes a potential victim's ability to read social cues.

Define ambivalent and aversive racism.

ambivalent racism: the influence on white Americans' racial attitudes by two clashing sets of values: a belief in individualism, that each person should be able to make it on his or her own, and a belief in egalitarianism, that all people should be given equal opportunities. aversive racism: conflicting, often nonconscious, negative feelings about African Americans that Americans may have, even though most do in fact support principles of racial equality and do not knowingly discriminate.

What are the three processes that maintain stereotypes when they should be disconfirmed?

attributions (linguistic intergroup bias shown below), sub-typing (shown below), and self-fulfilling prophecies (shown below).

What is categorization and what does it have to do with stereotype formation?

categorization is when we organize objects or people into groups. Categorization supports stereotype formation because we have the tendency to stereotype a certain group (like black people) as being violent and then categorize them into groups. And, because of the categorization, we see stereotype most black people as being violent.

Explain how implicit racism can be revealed. Be able to describe how the IAT works.

implicit racism refers to negative attitudes towards a group of people for which the individual has little or no conscious awareness and which can be automatically activated in intergroup encounters. ex. A computer-driven assessment of implicit attitudes. The test uses reaction times to measure people's automatic associations between attitude objects and emotional words ("bad" and "good") Easier pairings (and faster responses) are taken to indicate stronger unconscious associations.

Outline three factors that inhibit people from acting on their hostile feelings and thoughts.

morals, empathy, and consideration of consequences can mitigate the effects of hostile feelings and cognitions.

Identify regions of the brain that respond to threat.

one region of the brain involved in the detection of social threat is the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, or dACC. This region responds when there is a conflict between our expectations and situation we are in. The hypothalamus and the amygdala are two other brain regions involved in the experiences of dear and anger, which often elicit aggressive behaviors.

Describe right-wing authoritarianism.

rigid in thought, submissive to authority, aggressive toward minorities.

Describe the evidence showing how a cue, like a gun, can increase aggression.

the Berkowitz and LePage (1967) classic weapon-effect study shows that participants became more aggressive when they were in a condition in which they were both angered and in the presence of a gun and a rifle, administering an especially large number of shocks to another person. Moreover, when frustrated, or angered, and presented with cues like a gun, aggression against another person can increase.

what is realistic conflict theory?

the idea that limited resources can lead to conflicts between groups and cause increased prejudiced and for out-groups to be perceived as a threat.

What's the difference between colorblind ideology and multicultural ideology?

the multicultural ideology endorses seeing the value of different cultural identities, whereas the colorblind ideology occurs when someone pretend that group membership does not exist or is not important.