exam 3 text psyc 336

improving contraceptive behaviour

-1) can see that contraceptives accessible to young people who want them - e.g. in schools -2) can provide sex education at early enough age to instruct people in contraceptive use before become sexually active, focus on intentions to use -3) parents can be more open and responsive in communicating with teens about safe sex, so that can plan ahead without feeling guilty

HIV/AIDS

-AIDS- aquired immune deficiency syndrome, caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) -transmitted through fluids - semen or blood -HIV attacks immune system, cant defend itself against life threatening diseases -can be asymptomatic for a decade -originally concentrated in gay men and drug users sharing needles - is transmitted through heterosexual activity, esp in urban ethnic minority youth -all sexually active youth at risk -more likely if use drugs, have unprotected sex, have many sexual partners, and have another STD - adolescents esp at risk for these factors

emotional autonomy: detachment or individuation? background

-Anna Freud -physical changes of puberty cause disruption and conflict in family, conflicts that had been repressed reawakened by sexual impulses of puberty -> more tension, arguments, discomfort in family -> separate selves from parents emotionally, turn towards relationships with peers, specifically opposite sex peers detachment: in psychoanalytic theory, process through which adolescents sever emotional attachments to their parents or other authority figures

group differences in self-esteem: ethnic differences

-Black adolescents' self-esteem > white teens > hispanic, asian native american youth, esp asian youth -why do black youth have higher self-esteem?: 1) benefit from support and positive feedback of adults in Black community, esp family 2) strong sense of ethnic identity enhances overall self-esteem -ethnic differences in patterns of change: -> Black students had higher self-esteem in early adolescence, remained high -> Latinx students had lower self-esteem early in adolescence, but caught up with Black peers -> Asian students started with lowest, and remained lower -ethnic diversity of context matters: -> if in a minority where live or go to school, more likely to have self-image problems than those in the majority

the adolescent identity crisis: the social context of identity development : Resolving the Identity Crisis

-Erikson says establishing a sense of identity is conscious- experienced as well-being -establishing a coherent sense of identity takes a while, into young adulthood - maybe makes more sense to view as series of crises in different areas that surface and resurface throughout adolescence and young adulthood exploration -> reconsideration -> commitment -> exploration (cycle)

AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases - definitions

-STDs = STIs -caused by viruses, bacteria, or parasites -gonorrhea and chlamydia - bacteria -herpes and HPV, AIDS- virus -trichomoniasis - parasite -U.S. has very high rate

prevalence of teen pregnancy

-U.S. has highest industrialized pregnancy rate - most are unintended -fewer young women pregnant today - mainly bc of increased and improved contraceptive use -varies depending on ethnicity -not all teen pregnancies end in birth - in U.S. 25% aborted and 15% miscarried

cognitive autonomy: moral development: stages of moral reasoning

-according to cognitive-developmental perspective, three levels of moral reasoning: -preconventional thinking: dominant during childhood, characterized by reference to external and physical events, focus on rewards and punishments of different actions conventional moral reasoning: dominant during late childhood and early adolescence, focuses on how behavior will be judged by others, importance to roles in society, important to maintain social order -postconventional moral reasoning: emerges during adolescence or young adulthood (if at all), relatively rate, rules and conventions seen as relative and subjective, may have a duty to society, but only if that's moral - occasions where conventions should be questioned and more important principles take precedence -moral reasoning becomes more principled over childhood and adolescence -movement into higher stages of moral reasoning occurs when developmentally ready, when exposed to more advanced type -move from periods of consolidation )consistent with one stage) to transition (variaility in reasoning stage) to consolidation again (at higher stage) -even if dont get to postconventional thinking in adolescence, do emphasize abstract values and moral principles and more introspective about morality -> and appeal of postconventional moral reasoning increases over adolescence -more convinced by more advanced arguments

contextual influences on sexual activity

-adolescents also more interested in sex bc of sex hormones and sexual activity becomes more accepted and encouraged by peers -context more important for girls' involvement in sex than boys- androgens determine interest, but context determines behaviour -permissive attitudes and sexually active friends impact behaviour more -this may be bc boys more universally grow up in an environment tolerant of their sexual behaviour, but depends more on context for girls, less in the environment to hold boys back

changes in self-conceptions general

-adolescents can think abstractly, more proficient and processing large amounts of info -> more likely to employ complex, abstract, psychological self-characterizations -more consistency with how describe selves, and how actually behave -adolescents' ideas about ideal self become more stable over time

cognitive autonomy: individual differences in religiosity

-adolescents differ in importance of religion and spirituality - more report affiliation with religious group than say formal religion is important in lives -religious attendance for teens declined during 1980s and 1990s but little change since then -adolescent girls slightly more religious than boys, black and latinx youth more religious, as are people in south or midwest - people in US more religious than other parts of world

parental and peer influences on sexual activity general

-adolescents from authoritative homes less likely to be sexually active t early age and to engage in risky sexual activity -parent-adolescent conflict associated with early sexual activity -effective parenting, esp by fathers, diminishes adolescents' involvement with sexually promiscuous peers which lessens change of risky sex -low parental monitoring -> more likely to have risky sex

changes in the content and structure of self-conceptions: organization and integration of the self-concept

-adolescents more likely than children to organize and integrate different aspects of self-concept into logical, coherent whole -self-conceptions become more psychological through high school - but may be cross-cultural differences, e.g. in China, where less importance on internet states and more on responsibilities -psychologically complex self-conceptions can be difficult when arent sure how to reconcile inconsistencies/contradictions in personality -recognition that multifaceted/contradictory initially distressing -> but long-term advantages: -> way of coping with faults and weaknesses -> can distinguish among one's true self, ideal self, and feared self: healthy self-concept includes having an ideal self to balance feared self -> e.g. delinquent youth might fear becoming a criminal, but dont have an ideal self as an alterntive

protecting against STDs

-adolescents motivated by benefits much more than costs -feel that condoms reduce pleasure - best predictor of non-use -best way to protect selves is condom use -education about risk factors associated with AIDS important - more likely to take precautions

stability and changes in self-esteem : the wrong question

-adolescents with better family and peer relationships more likely to maintain positive self-esteem and enhanced self-esteem over time -some critics of studies on stability of self-esteem question validity of examining self-esteem so generally -> young people evaluate themselves not only globally, but also along dimensions like academics, athletics, appearance, social relationships, moral conduct

emotional autonomy: individuation

-alternative theory to psychoanalytic perspective -individuation: progressive sharpening of individual's sense of being an autonomous, independent person -doesnt involve stress and turmoil, just slowly depending less on parents

ethnic differences in age of sexual initiation

-average age for first time 17 -more Black boys have sexual intercourse earlier -all ethnic groups, average reported age for sex slightly older for girls -fewer age differences for girls, but hispanic and asian girls tend to have sex a little later than black and white girls -Black males may have higher rates of sexual activity earlier bc higher prevalence of single-parent homes and poor neighborhoods - risk factors for early sexuality -sexual activity higher for lower SES, but narrowing -normative ages for intercourse vary a lot depending on nation -early sexual experiences can be involuntary, esp for girls younger than 13 -also more women who say had sex voluntarily also said didnt really want to have sex, more likely to occur when imbalance of power in relationship, e.g. if they're much older -> young adolescents whose partner is much older much more likely to have sexual intercourse than those whose partner is same age

Ethnicity and Identity: Discrimination and Its Effects

-bc learn identity from context, can be hard with stereotypes, discrimination, and mixed messages make up that context -> experience more discrimination in adolescence than childhood -adverse effects particularly strong if parent born in US, strong attachment to mainstream culture -experiencing high levels of discrimination -> psychological consequences - e.g. self-esteem -> exasterbated if dont have supportive family -feeling discriminated against: predictive of conduct problems, depression, poor sleep, lower school achievment -> source of discrimination matters: discrimination from teachers decreases academic performance, peer discrimination affects mental health -one reason why discrimination may be harmful to mental health is effects of feelings of control - another reason: perceived discrimination -> depression and alienation -> affiliation with deviant peers -> risky and antisocial behaviors -multidimensional model of racial identity: take into account three aspects of racial identity: 1) racial centrality: how important race is in identity 2) private regard: how feel about being part of race 3) public regard: how individuals think others view their race -> in adolescence, racial centrality increases, private regard stable, public regard changes depending on background -e.g. public regard increased in chinese american adolescents, declined in Black and Latinx teens (maybe bc of teacher's expectations) -strong ethnic identity protects against discrimination from adults, but peer influence still strong, esp during adoelscence -> if feel that public regard low, more sensitive to racial cues, which heightens experiences of discrimination and negative effects - better at perceiving subtle signs of racial bias -how factors work together to influence adolescent mental health complex: -positive feelings about race linked to positive well-being, protects against dicrimination -parents who emphasize positives of ethnic socialization and more positive family relationships do better in response to discrimination -but impact of race is central to identity complex - more sensitive to discrimination but also can cope with it better -helps identity if feel like public regard high, but hurts more when experience discrimination bc unexpected

cognitive autonomy: religious beliefs during adolescence general

-become more abstract, principled, and independent during afolescence -more oriented towards spirituality and less rituals, practices, strict observance -place more emphasis on internal aspects of religious commitment over external manifestation - time of spiritual questioning, doubting, creating -two main components of religious development: religiosity : religious practices engage in, and spirituality: personal quest for answers about god and meaning of life -religiosity may be more important for identity development, whereas spirituality migth be more important for cognitive autonomy

changes in the display of intimacy: conflict resolution

-become more likely to end disagreements by negotiation or disengagement (walking away) - less likely to coerce or overpower others

cognitive autonomy: changes in political thinking

-becomes more abstract, e.g. understandings of rights become more abstract -becomes less authoritarian and less rigid across adolescence - less inclined towards obedience and authority -during late adolescence develop coherent and consistent set of attitudes/ideology based on overarching principles -shifts consistent with moral shifts and with idea that cognitive autonomy emerges in late adolescence

behavioural autonomy: changes in susceptibility to influence -parenting and behavioral autonomy

-behavioural autonomy also associated with authoritative parenting -if have authoritative parents, less susceptible to antisocial peer pressure, more susceptible to positive peer influence -substituting peers for parents -> problem behavior, more positive to turn to peers for counsel without ignoring parents -less positive relationship with parents especially peer oriented, at risk for problem behaviour -if grant too much or too little autonomy -> too strongly peer oriented -adolescents who's parents become more and more authoriatiran the most peer oriented - backfires

changes in social roles and the development of intimacy

-behavioural independence allows greater opportunities to be alone with friends engaged in intimate discussion -spend more time in convo with friends than anything else changes in structure of schools in early adolescence allows for younger teens to be in greater contact with older ones

the development of emotional autonomy general

-by end of adolescence, far less emotionally dependent on parents -1) dont generally rush to parents when upset, worried, need help -2) dont see parents as all-knowing or all-powerful -3) have emotional energy wrapped up in relationships outside family -4) interact with parents as people, not just parents - parents confide in children

changes in the content and structure of self-conceptions: false-self behavior

-can distinguish between true and false selves (authentic and inauthentic selves) -more likely to behave inauthentically in romantic situations, with classmates, least likely to with friends -False-self behavior: acting in a way that know is inauthentic -more likely in dates to exhibit false-self behaviour than with parents, more likely with parents than close friends -differ in degree to which they put on a false front: -> more likely to engage if get less emotional support from parents and peers, have low self-esteem, less satisfied with life -> some adolescents engage in false-self behaviour bc they have low self-esteem, others experience a drop in self esteem bc they're knowingly inauthentic -depression and hopelessness highest in adolescents engaging in false-self behavior bc devalue true self -if doing it to please others, or experiment, doesnt negatively impact in the same wat

behavioural autonomy: changes in decision-making abilities general

-can think more hypothetically, so can understand long-term consequences of choices -> esp as adolescence continues -can understand others' opinions and views, which can help to see if should trust advice - or if biases, vested interests

the development of cognitive autonomy general

-changes in beliefs, opinions, and values -studied by looking a moral, political, religious issues -3 trends in developing cognitive autonomy: 1) adolescents become more abstract in the way they think about moral, political, and religious issues 2) beliefs become increasingly rooted in general principles 3) beliefs become increasingly founded in young person's own values, not just system of values passed on by adults -linked to changes in reasoning, hypothetical thinking, more sophistated perception of and interest in ideological and philosophical matters, can consider posibilities - cognitive autonomy late development follows emotional and behavioural autonomy -happens later bc emotional autonomy allows adolescents to look at parents more objectively, then may reevaluate childhood ideas, then test independence behaviourally, and cognitive conflicts that face call into question beliefs

Identity as an Adolescent Issue: general

-changes in identity occur throughout the life cycle -but the changes in identity that occur during adolescence include the first reorganization and restructuring of sense of self, when have the capacity to appreciate the significance of those changes

puberty and the development of intimacy

-changes in sexual impulses provoke interest in sex -> romantic relationships -> more serious, intimate discussions -some of most intimate conversations with friends involve romantic partners -prompts friendships with other-sex peers

Identity as an Adolescent Issue: social roles and identity development

-changes in social roles allow for new choices and decisions -decision-making about school, work, relationships, the future requires adolescents to think about who they are and where they are headed -identity series of interrelated developments that involve changes in how we view selves -3 approaches: -self-conceptions: traits and attributes individuals see in themselves -self-esteem: self-image, how positively or negatively adolescents feel about themselves -sense of identity: who one is, where one has come from, and where one is going

cognitive autonomy: prosocial reasoning, prosocial behavior, and volunteerism: civic engagement

-civic engagement: reflects involvement in political and community affairs -only a small proportion of young people are politically engaged worldwide, doesnt change once old enough to vote -most research on civic engagement focused on community service-> service learning - more common in US -aside from attending school where community service required, best predictors of volunteerism are being actively involved in religion and having parents who are active volunteers - more likely to be female, socially mature, extraverted, altruistic -engaging in community service does lead to short term gains in social responsibility -evidence mixed about if effects of volunteering are different if forced to do it or if it's a choice -> may be related to how volunteer experiences vary in quality

changes in the nature of friendship - conflict

-close friends distinguished from casual friendships through types of conflicts and ways they're resolved -conflict between teens and close friends less frequent, conflict with close friends more emotional, anger and hurt feelings -conflict with close friends more likely to salvage relationship, but may also not survive or be downgraded to less close

changes in the targets of intimacy -some functions of other-sex friendships

-close other-sex friendships in early adolescence set stage for later romantic experiences -> age differences in other-sex friendships with boys older than girls in early and middle adolescence -if have more other-sex friends early in adolescence more likely to date earlier and for longer -two types of adolescents that have close other-sex friends: 1) socially competence and highly popular with same-sex peers 2) socially incompetence and highly unpopular with same-sex peers -for boys, other-sex friends compensates for not having same-sex friends -mixed results of outcomes with girls - may have more positive body image, may be also more involved in antisocial activity --> boys have more to gain from friendships with girls - describe friendships with girls as more rewarding than with other boys, but girls dont feel this way

sexuality as an adolescent issue: cognitive change and adolescent sexuality

-cognitive changes of adolescence - children not introspective or reflective about sexual behaviour -adolescents are: painful conjecture, decision-making, hypothetical thinking, self-conscious concern - all involved in thinking about sex for adolescents -cognitive components: figuring out how to deal with sexual desires and to incorporate sex into intimate relationships

changes in the nature of friendship during adolescence

-companionship in childhood, doesnt include intimacy until adolescence -as needs for intimacy increase, so does emphasis they place on intimacy as important component of friendship

the antecedents of homosexuality

-complex interaction between social and biological influences -partly biological bc: 1) pattern of sexual behaviour depends on hormonal pathways in brain early in life, exposure to certain prenatal hormones 2) strong genetic component, sexual orientation more likely similar among close relatives than distand, and identical over fraternal -more homosexual people have had problems in early family relationships, specifically with father - more likely to describe father as cold and rejecting -> but men only -lesbians more likely to describe mothers as cold and unpleasant -not likely to have gay parents any more than population

sex education

-comprehensive programs better at reducing risky sex than reducing sexual activity -what is needed depends on context - poor urban, suburban and affluent -can increase use of contraceptives and reduce pregnancy and stis these programs should: -provide info about contraception, stis, pregnancy -effective interventions need to teach how to refuse unwanted sex and avoid unintended sex -increase motivation for safe sec -change perceptions of peer norms and attitudes -changing context where teens live - e.g. limiting opportunities for sex after school -abstinence only doesnt work - actually increases teen pregnancy and childbearing

risky sex and its prevention - general

-condom use increased in 1990s but dropped between 2003 and 2013 -condom use higher in younger high schoolers than older ones, most likely bc more older ones on birth control -most popular contraceptive condom, then the pill (opposite of previous generations) -withdrawal still used by a large number of teens - ineffective and doesnt help with stis -increase in sexually active adolescent girls who use long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) -e.g. IUDs or implants - good for this age group bc doesnt require planning - but no STI protection -teen pregnancy half bc of absence of contraceptive use, half bc of failed contraceptive use - more common for adolescents -large proportion of condom users dont use correctly -many adolescents who might benefit from emergency contraception dont know how to use properly -U.S. has high teen pregnancy rates compared to other industrialized countries

research on identity development: studying identity development over time

-cross-sectional and longitudinal studies -coherent sense of identity generally not established before age 18, as originally theorized, esp among boys who lag behind but then catch up -proportion of individuals who have gotten to identity achievement before late adolescence is low -> coherent sense of identity doesnt emerge until late in adolescence and early adulthood -changes in identity status less systematic than thought originally: -> not all individuals follow pattern of diffusion -> moratorium or foreclosure -> stay in foreclosure or go to identity achievement -> Dutch study, majority of foreclosed identity developmenters in identity crisis four years later- foreclosure may be temporary -> may change back into other stages after identity achievement -many individuals who show signs of identity diffusion early on remain here, as do individuals who spend time in state of moratorium -how move through stages not well understood -> turning points related to internal factors and specific events and life changes -does college attendence facilitate identity development? -> hard to answer, yes? but hard to do statistically sound research on this

dating and the development of intimacy: patterns of dating

-dating can mean different things: -group activities mixed sex -group dates -casual dating in couple -serious relationships -casual socializing with other-sex peers occurs before romantic relationships -sequencing of transitioning into romantic relationsips similar patterns across ethnic groups, asian american youth transition a little later -even if history of intimate friendships, transition can be hard - especially communicating with potential romantic partners - initiating and maintaining conversations -asking someone out -turning people down -making or ending romantic commitments

dating and the development of intimacy: the role of context

-dating earlier more common in other industrialized cultures than North America but catch up by late adolescence -Asian teens less likely to date -early maturers do date earlier than late maturers, but age norms in school and peer group more important in determining when start dating -> early maturers whose peers are dating esp likely to date early -family instability, having older siblings, living with single mother more likely to date earlier

the development of dating relationships general

-dating relationships dont become emotionally deep and mature until late adolescence -importance of romantic partner increases over course of adolescence -more willing to acknowledge, analyze, work through disagreements as age - adolescents more negative, controlling, jealous in relationships than young adults

dating and romantic partners general

-dating used to be part of courtship and mate selection, rather than the current recreation -individuals marrying later and later - for young people, dating in high school has little to do with finding a spouse -common in adolescence, but decline in dating in past three decades -girls tend to be romantically involved with older boys, boys involved with girls same age or younger

gender and identity: masculinity and femininity

-degree of masculinity and femininity highly stable over time, even beginning in preschool -the costs of being gender-atypical greater for boys than girls, so boys cut back on feminine behaviors in adolescence more than girls do so with masculine traits -> atypical boys more likely to be bullied than atypical girls -boys suffer greater self-image problems when deviate from gender norms bc: although girls may be pressured to adopt/maintain feminine traits during adolescents, not necessarily required to relinquish masculine traits -> BUT boys socialized to not adopt feminine traits and harsh consequences if not from early on -girls can be highly pressured during adolescence to behave femininly without being punished for exhibiting some masculine traits -> e.g. not pressured to give up athletics or masculine interests, even if are clothing and makeup pressure -but boys are pressured from early childhood to not behave femininely, doesnt intensify in adolescence like for girls bc so intense to begin with

stability and changes in self-esteem - general

-despite stereotypes, there isnt a dramatic drop in self-esteem in adolescence, but there are day-to-day fluctuations -from 14 on, highly stable -stability: the extent to which an individual's relative ranking within a group on a particular trait stays more or less the same over time -> so asking whether self-esteem changes during adolescence (whether people's view of selves becomes more positive or negative) not the same as asking if it's stable (if individuals with high self-esteem in childhood keep having high self-esteem) -changes in self-perceptions greater in early adolescence than during middle or late -middle-young adulthood, stays the same or increases -problems in self-image may still arise for a brief period: -> three concepts of self-esteem, self-conscientiousness: how much worry about self-image, and self-image stability - how much self-image changes day to day -early-mid adolescents have lower self-esteem, more self-conscious, and more unstable self-image (than before or after this period, but esp compared to before) -young adolescents whose self-image fluctuates a lot likely to develop into similar older adolescents -fluctuations in self-image during early adolescence due to: 1) egocentrism makes them very aware of others 2) as become more socially active, realize that can always tell what others are thinking 3) increased importance of peers -> esp interested in peer impressions

emotional autonomy: detachment

-detachment normal and necessary during adolescence - if no conflict that's a problem to Freud -research has not supported this - most families get along well during adolescence, bickering doesnt diminish closeness -actually, emotional autonomy during adolescence a transformation, not breaking off, of family relationships

research on emotional autonomy general

-development begins early in adolescence and continues into young adulthood -more likely to disagree with parents, differing beliefs on parental authority -more and more draw distinctions between what parents have a right to regulate and what isnt their business

identity and gender: gender-role development

-differences within groups of males and females much more substantial than differences between them -other than strength differences, dont differ in abilities -> girls more "people oriented", boys more "things oriented" -most consistent sex-differences in expressions of aggression and intimacy (girls more likely to express verbally, boys through shared activities, and proneness to low self-esteem and depression (girls more prone to both)

sex differences in intimacy: the origins of sex differences

-different patterns of socialization -females strongly encouraged to develop and express intimacy, specifically verbal -also different social pressures in adolescents - boys punished for femininity more than girls punished for masculinity - boys may be nervous that intimacy will be taken as lack of masculinity -a lot of studies about sex differences with white teens - and there might not be the same sex differences for Black youth, for example

the impact of dating on adolescent development: to date or not to date?

-distinguish between adolescents who delay dating bc it's culturally normative and those who delay bc shy, unattractive, or unpopular -if dont date - insecurity and problems with social development (causation difficult to determine) -characteristics of romantic partner impact psychological effects - tend to pick partners who are similar -> when start dating, drinking behaviour correlates more with partner's than friends' -romance has powerful impact on emotional state - entering high-quality relationship increases self-esteem (and vice versa) -> real and fantasized relationships trigger strong emotions -if entered into romantic relationship in past year, report more depressive symptoms, may be bc experienced breakup in same time -> breakup most common trigger of first episode of major depression, esp negative impacts for insecure working model, rejection sensitivity -people most vulnerable to effects of breakups: rejection sensitivity, experienced a series of breakups, other problems, and when were broken up with

adolescent parenthood general

-distinguish between pregnancies and actual births - birth rate much lower and lower than used to be -teenage births 2x as high in US than Canada - may be bc of income inequality and school attendance (lower in US and related to childbearing) -poor women less likely to abort pregnancies, so concentrated on poor youth -cultural differences in marriage and cohabitation impact contect of childbearing - marriage, cohabitating, single-parent -hard to know if problems of teen moms and children related to age or other factors like poverty

have social media hurt the development of intimacy?

-doesnt seem like it, may actually help develop social competence -research shows that digital communication enhances the quality of adolescents' friendships - provides opportunities to engage in same activities as in person, relationships arent compromised -serves an important purpose in helping teens validate the importance of their friendships -has provided new ways for adolescents to enjoy friends' companionship, and can take place in locations and times when talking on the phone difficult -the negative interactions that happen online are the same as in person for the most part - e.g. gossip, jealousy, criticism, conflict -overall, social media seems to positively impact adolescent relationships, not negatively

changes in the nature of friendship - jealousy

-during middle adolescence (between 13 and 15), esp with girls, concerns about loyalty and rejection anxieties more pronounced, overshadow concerns about self-disclosure -increased stress during this time leads to problems - older adolescent problems related to private matters, younger adolescents' about public disrespect -girls and jealousy over friends' friends in early adolescence, esp if low self-esteem and high rejection sensitivity -loyalty might be such a concern in middle adolescence bc might feel more nervous about friendships as transition to other-sex relationships

group differences in self-esteem: sex differences

-early adolescent girls most vulnerable to self-image disturbances -> lower self-esteem, higher self-consciousness, and shakier self-image than boys -> sex differences become smaller over course of adolescence (higher self-esteem at all girls schools) -sex differences esp pronounced in white adolescents -why do girls have a harder time? -> more concerned about physical attractiveness, dating, peer acceptance, have more self-image problems -> although sex differences worldwide, wider gap in wealthy nations than more periphery ones, affluent nations place greater emphasis on physical appearance

consequences for teen mothers

-effects may be more for mothers than children -disruptions in education and occupational careers -more likely to remain poor than others who delay childbearing -poverty and low academic achievement causes and consequences of early childbearing -diversity in routes that adult life takes - chronic problems, psychologically vulnerable but somewhat successful, and normative group - successful -long term may not be as bad for black teen parents if living in community where more normative

theory: sullivan's theory of interpersonal development - stages of interpersonal needs

-emphasized social aspects of growth - psychological development best understood by looking at relationships with others, challenges of life about satisfying interpersonal needs -as children develop, different interpersonal needs surface that lead to feelings on security (when needs satisfied) or feelings of anxiety (when needs frustrated) -preadolescence: need for intimacy and consensual validation in same-sex chumships -early adolescence: need for sexual contact, need for intimacy with other-sex partner -late adolescence: need for integration into adult society -cumulative view of psychosocial development - frustrations and satisfactions earlier on affect later relationships

the impact of dating on adolescent development: early starters

-entering into serious romantic relationship before it's normative (e.g. age 15) associated with negative outcomes _> more research on girls -girls who date early worse off psychologically, associated with problem behaviours -esp negative outcomes for white girls, girls who have strained family relationships, girls who date older boys, and early physical maturers, also those unpopular with peers (maybe bc relationship is too important in needs) -why is there this link? -> hard to study bc cant randomly assign -may be related to pressures on girls to engage sexually before willing or ready

sex differences in intimacy: -how teens of different sexes arent different in intimacy

-equal amounts of intimate knowledge about best friends -when boys with friends, just as likely to share each other's emotional state -just bc intimacy more conscious for girls, it's not absent from boy's relationships - intimacy is just expressed in different ways -noys' friendships more oriented towards shared activities, intimacy more subtle -close friendships with males start at a later age than with females - sex differences in friendship quality at 13, but gone by 18

sexual activity and household composition

-esp impacts girls -adolescent girls whose parents in process of divorce and single-parent households more likely to be sexually active earlier -may be bc parental divorce disrupts parent-child relationship -> risky behaviour - more about quality of family relationships -may also be that personality characteristics associated with marital instability transmitted genetically - more likely to engage in early sex -> if mothers were sexually active earlier so are they -may affect girls more than boys bc: 1) social influence on girls' sexual behavior stronger and more varied than for boys - girls generally more subject to parental controls 2) many single-parent mother likely to be dating and may be role models of sexual activity 3) girls more likely to respond to problems at home by going outside family for alternative sources of warmth and support - more support-seeking behaviors 4) genetic specifically to girls - gene that makes men more likely to leave family may, when passed on to daughters, more likely to go through puberty earlier -> sexual activity earlier

the adolescent identity crisis: Erikson's Theoretical Framework

-establishment of coherent sense of identity: crisis of identity vs. identity diffusion : psychosocial crisis of adolescence -not until adolescence that have mental and emotional capacity to tackle task -> key to resolving crisis in interactions with others: - select and choose from elements that could become part of identity - through others' reactions, learn how they are perceived - learn what to do and what not to do -developing identity social and mental -identity the result of a mutual recognition between young person and society

stability and changes in self-esteem : components of self-esteem

-even within broader domains like academics, have differentiated views of themselves: e.g. in context of teachers vs peer group -may be misleading to characterize adolescent's social, academic, etc. self-esteem without specifying the relationship being referred to (e.g. friends vs. romantic relationships) -some aspects of self-esteem contribute more to overall self-image than others: -> physical self-esteem: how they feel about appearance most important predictor of overall self-esteem, followed by self-esteem about peer relationships -> however, when asked, adolescents say physical appearance one of least important contributors to self-esteem -> not aware of degree to which self-worth is based on feelings of appearance -> physical self-esteem influences overall self-esteem more for girls than boys

sexual activity during adolescence - general

-field's focus on precocious sex (sex at young age), promiscuous sex (many partners), unwanted sex (not voluntary), unsafe sex (threat of sti or pregnancy) -> most of research on sexual intercourse a good deal of sexual activity of adolescents involves activities other than intercourse -individuals dont begin sexual experiences with intercourse, progress towards it through stages of increasing intimacy -> intercourse not isolated behaviour

self-conceptions: dimensions of personality in adolescence

-five-factor model: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness to experience -five-factor model has been successfully applied to adolescents, and across ethnicities -genetic and environmental influences on personality: -> environment more important as age -> temperamental predispositions are observable early on, and harden and get organized in response to environment -> temperament and personality more stable as get older -> bc spend time in environments that reinforce traits -overall, people become less extraverted between childhood and mid-adolescence: maybe bc more self-conscious -drop in maturity during early adolescence -between adolescence and young adulthood: less extraverted, more conscientious, more agreeable, more resilient, more emotionally stable -> few gender differences in maturity by the end of adolescence (although girls start earlier) -personality change slows in early 20s -for the most part, out basic traits stay stable, even if manifestations change

the Development of Ethnic Identity: Recent Immigrants

-foreign-born ethnic minority adolescents tend to express more positive feelings about mainstream american ideals than those who have been there longer -foreign-born and first gen ethnic minority youth do better in school, less likely to be involved in delinquent behavior and problems associated with same ethnic group that has been there longer -> immigrant paradox: adolescents who immigrated more recently to US score higher on adjustment than adolescents from same ethnic group whose family has lived in the US for several generations (not seen in all countries) -> why? maybe bc arrive idealistic, but become more disillusioned as family stays, and disconnect from culture, parents may supervise children more effectively if recently immigrated -process of identity development in recent immigrant adolescents depends on context -> e.g. adolescents living in Vietnamese enclave - pressures to adopt strong Vietnamese identity helped focus identity development but also constrained it

changes in the targets of intimacy - parents and peers as targets of intimacy

-from early adolescence on, teens describe relationships with friends as more intimate and less stressful than with parents -drop in intimacy with parents during adolescence, but decline reverses as get closer to young adulthood -intimacy with friends increases steadily throughout adolescence, same with romantic partners, but greatest increase in late adolescence -so while peers become more important, parents dont become unimportant -adolescents who spend a lot of time with parents also spend a lot of time with peers - distinction between teens with a lot of social contact and support and those who are isolated or lonely -isolated teens dont experience: reaffiliation motive: normal and adaptive motivation that prompts us to reconnect with others when we feel lonely -relationships with peers and families closely linked - see features of relationships with parents in how act wit h friends and romantic partners -likelihood of turning to a peer during time of trouble increases during adolescence but seeking for family stays constant -typically feel more comfortable expressing anger in arguments with family -differences between relationships with mothers and fathers - closer to and argue more with mother, girls especially close with mothers and less close with fathers (mother-son and father-son in middle)

Identity as an Adolescent Issue: Puberty and Identity Development

-fundamental biological, cognitive, and social changes during this period -> changes in appearance impact what's happening on the inside

cognitive autonomy: political thinking and political behavior

-gaps between political thinking in hypotheticals and actual attitudes and behavior -> most influenced by social context, political discussions, news exposure

identity and gender general

-gender identity: sense of self as male, female, or transgender (weird definition) - when gender identity does not match the sex designated at birth (intersex people fit in here how) -sexual orientation: attraction to members of same sex, other sex, or both (?) also weird -gender-role behavior: extent to which behave in traditionally masculine or feminine ways -> these terms not the same thing, dont relate to each other -processes of queer understandings of sexual orientation and coming out: -> traditional model: feel different, attracted to members of same sex, realize that, consciously question it -> that isnt universal though, may be more for gay men since women's sexual orientation more fluid -prejudice against homosexuality can cause psychological distress, esp if encounter hostility -transgender youth experience same variety of sexual orientations as other youth -> higher rates of depression and anxiety in transgender youth -gender identity, sexual orientation, gender-role behaviour fluid rather than fixed, a continuum rather than categories

changes in the targets of intimacy - other individuals as targets of intimacy

-generally adolescents say less intimate with siblings than parents or friends -across adolescence conflict between siblings decreases - but may be bc spend less time together, as closeness and warmth also decrease -benefit from having grandparents in life - drop in seeing grandparents in adolescence unless living with single, divorced mother - ties to grandmothers esp strong in Black households -relationships with nonfamilial adults normative, mentors contribute to healthy development -however, adolescent boys who are friends with young adult men more likely to engage in antisocial behaviour if perceive friends as engaging in them

Abortion

-generally not harmed psychologically by abortion - in U.S. better off psychologically, socially, economically if abort rather than giving birth -if terminate pregnancy less likely to experience a subsequent pregnancy over next 2 years and to use contraception -parental notification lows decrease in abortion but increase in late-term -> more unintended childbearing esp in low SES youth

sex differences in intimacy: how females are more intimate

-girls are more likely to mention intimacy as defining feature of friendship -girls name more people important to them than boys in middle adolescence -girls prefer exclusive friendships less willing to include other classmates in clique's activities -more collaborative in conversations, more likely to provide help if people need it -girls better at seeing things from the perspective of others, esp those who are less fortunate -boys dont measure up in terms of self-disclosure until late adolescence - girls expect self-disclosure will make them feel better and boys think it will be a waste of time and make them feel weird -expression of intimacy clearly more advanced in adolescence girls than boys -this has some liabilities for girls - mental health more positively affected when things going well but suffer more when things are going poorly -more likely to spend excessive time discussion problems - co-rumination - which can bring friends closer but also contributes to depression and anxiety -> can actually make anxiety and depression contagious bc listening to problems contagious or "emotional mimicry" where unconsciously takes on the feelings of another -for boys, co-rumination improves friendships without the negative effects - bc girls more upset by friends' problems and bc boys more likely to use humor in discussions -conflicts:: -> boys conflicts briefer, over power and control, more likely to escalate to physical, usually resolved without effort -> girls' conflicts longer, about betrayal in relationship, only resolved with apology

behavioural autonomy: changes in susceptibility to influence - individual differences in susceptibility to peer influence

-girls less susceptible to peer pressure than boys, Black adolescents less susceptible than boys -asian adolescents especially susceptible to peer pressure -acculturated latino adolescents more susceptible to peer pressure than those born abroad -single-parent parents more susceptible -individuals with brain activity indicating more sensitivity to social evaluation less able to resist peer influence -peers more influencial when in puberty -also those high in sensation seeking more susceptible -better emotional regulators better at resisting peer pressure

cognitive change and the development of intimacy

-have more sophisticated conceptions of social relationships, better communication skills, more self-awareness -can establish and maintain more empathetic, disclosing, sensitive relationships -> easier to be intimate friend if can empathize

emotional autonomy and parenting practices -general

-healthy individuation fostered by close family relationships -adolescents who are the most autonomous are close to their parents, havent severed relationships -strained relationships associated with a lack of autonomy, not its presence -if parents impede individuation process, more psychological distress -if parents use a lot of psychological control - emotionally close to the point of being intrusive or overprotective -> may have difficulty deindividuating -> can impact self-regulation and be linked to mental health -parents also influenced by teens - bullied adolescents more likely to elicit psychological control -adolescents with psychological problems more likely to provoke conflict with parents

the impact of dating on adolescent development: violence in dating relationships

-high proportion of young adolescents think physical violence in relationship acceptable -many parents talk to youth about dating violence, but less likely to talk about this than drugs, alcohol, finances -approximately 40% of american adolescents have been victims of dating violence at some point -dating abuse increases between early and mid adolescence and then declines -males and female adolescents equally likely to be victims of dating violence, violence often associated with drinking, drugs, and stressful events -beliefs about acceptability impacts behaviour - so if friends perpetrate dating violence more likely to -dating violence more common in rural areas, in ethnic minority teens, children of single-parents, low socioeconomic states, queer youth -if aggressive in romantic relationships, predicted by earlier aggression -if victims of romantic violence, more likely to be depressed, contemplate suicide, use illegal drugs, etc. -ways that adolescents behave shaped by "scripts" learned from home and media -> if have witness conflict in parents, more likely to be aggressive or victims of aggression in relationships -qualities of adolescents relationships with others correlated across different types of relationships

the adolescent identity crisis: problems in identity development: identity foreclosure

-identity foreclosure: the premature establishment of a sense of identity, before sufficient role experimentation has occurred -the roles adopted often based on goals set by authority figures

research on identity development general

-identity status: the point in identity development process that characterizes and adolescent at a given time -to determine identity status, most researchers focus on processes of exploration and commitment -some theorists distinguish between exploration in depth and exploration in breadth -other theorists see identity development as more dynamic process- individuals move back and forth between commitment and exploration over time

cognitive autonomy: prosocial reasoning, prosocial behavior, and volunteerism -> prosocial reasoning and prosocial behavior

-if volunteer score higher on moral reasoning measures -girls tend to score higher on prosocial moral reasoning than boys, as do males and females that are more feminine -changes in prosocial BEHAVIOR not consistent -> more consistent that prosocial behavior stable with age and across different contexts -girls more prosocial than girls (maybe bc of parenting/socialization)

research on emotional autonomy: the importance of maintaining the connection

-impacts of emotional autonomy depend on closeness of relationship with parents -> if not close, not psychologically adjusted -> if are close still, despite being autonomous, more adjusted -separating from parents while maintaining emotional closeness important

cognitive autonomy: patterns of religious involvement

-importance of religion declines during adolescence, especially late adolescence -in early years of college, may reexamine and reevaluate beliefs grew up with, may increase in spirituality and decrease in religiosity (escept if go to religious college) -> related to overall development of cognitive autonomy

the development of dating relationships: reasons for dating

-in early adolescence, more important for establishing emotional and behavioural autonomy from parents, developing gender identity, learning about self as a romantic partner, and establishing and maintaining status and popularity in peer group -younger adolescents' choices of dating more about how will be seen by others than actual quality of relationship

sexuality as an adolescent issue: puberty and adolescent sexuality

-increase in sex drive in early adolescence and hormonal changes -although, sexual feelings dont just switch on at adolescence -but dont ejaculate or ovulate until puberty - and pregnancy implications not present until then -also dont develop secondary sex characteristics that are basis for sexual attraction until adolescence

emotional autonomy and parenting style

-independence, responsibility, and self-esteem fostered by authoritarian parents over other three types -guidelines set but flexible and open to discussion in authoritative families -> this give and take well-suited to develop autonomy bc flexibility allows for adjustment as mature and gradual changes as become more responsible -authoritarian households: see autonomy as rebellious or disrespectful, resist needs for independence - may reinforce dependencies of childhood by restricting practice in making decisions and being responsible -if not close and arent supporting autonomy - compounded effects - may be more explicit rebellion -indulgent and indifferent families: no guidance so turn to peers for advice and support, problem when peers dont know what doing - become dependent on friends -> some permissive parents switch style in adolescence bc doing behaviours that disapprove of - can be hard bc as wanting autonomy, become more restrictive

autonomy vs independence

-independence: individual's capacity to behave on their own - a part of being autonomous -autonomy: emotional, cognitive, AND behavioural components -adolescents expected to be more autonomous psychologically and socially, but less so economically

cognitive autonomy: moral development: moral reasoning and moral behaviour

-individuals dont always behave in ways that align with morality, but people who reason at higher stages less likely to commit antisocial acts, cheat, be influenced by peer pressure, or help others and protest -those at lower stages or moral thought more aggressive, delinquent, accepting of violence -situational factors do influence moral choices and reasoning -when define issues as personal choices over ethical dilemmas - moral reasoning unimportant to predicting behavior -more likely to engage in risky behavior when see it as personal taste over right and wrong -> when delinquency and aggression more common in teens who score higher on moral disengagement: tendency to rationalize immoral behavior as legitimate

research on identity development: determining an adolescent's identity status - ways of resolving the identity crisis

-informational orientation: actively seek info, approach process with an open mind -> identity achievers most often -normative orientation: conform to family and social expectations, try to get decisions over with -> foreclosed most often -diffuse/avoidant orientation: tend to avoid making identity related decisions -> identity diffusion most often -individuals who have achieved coherent sense of identity approach life decisions with sense of agency: take responsibility for themselves, feel in control of their decisions, have confidence that they will be able to overcome obstacles along the way -> strong sense of agency is predictive of identity acheivement -if have healthy identity development, more likely to have had authoritative parents with warm but not excessively constraining relationships -> learn to assert individuality but stay connected -absence of warmth from parents associated with problems making commitments, identity diffusion -absence of encouragement of individuality associated with difficulties in exploration

does infant attachment predict adolescent inimacy?

-initial attachment relationship forms basis for model of interpersonal relationships throughout life - internal working model - how view others and ourselves -overlap between working models of friendship relationships and parent relationships -rejection sensitivity - more sensitive to being rejected by others in romantic relationships - seen with those with more insecure attachments -cyberball - told that playing game with other teens, play be tossing ball back and forth, as goes, stop throwing ball to participant -> then compare brain activity when excluded to when included -> if high in rejection sensitivity, show different pattern of brain activity, and those people are more likely to develop depressive symptoms -interpersonal development cumulative - past experiences compound and influence future ones -> insecure children more likely to develop psychological and social problems in childhood and adolescence -> also influences positive peer relations - if have positive ones, allows for more positive ones -conflicting results about direct link between infant attachment and positive working models of future relationships

Identity as an Adolescent Issue: cognitive change and identity development

-intellectual capacities in adolescence allow adolescents to think about themselves in new ways -can think systematically about hypothetical and future events -> 1) can imagine possible selves (various alternative identities they could adopt) -> 2) increase in future orientation ( the ability and tendency to consider the long-term consequences of decisions, imagine what life could be like in the future)

research on identity development: determining an adolescent's identity status

-interview or questionairre -> assign to 4 identity states: 1) identity achievement: has established coherent sense of identity: commitment and exploration 2) moratorium: exploration without commitment 3) identity foreclosure: commitment without exploration 4) identity diffusion: no commitments and not trying to explore - research has supported erikson's theory: -> individuals in identity achievement state psychologically healthier -> individuals in moratorium have most anxiety, least rigid and authoritarian -> individuals in foreclosure: most authoritarian and prejudiced, highest need for social approval -> individuals in identity diffusion: most psychological, behavioral, interpersonal problems

adolescents' reasons for not using contraception

-lack of planning -may be resistant to admitting that choosing to be sexually active -may be why religious conservative teens less likely to use birth control -generally less likely to plan ahead and think about future consequences than adults -lack of access -less important, but some adolescents cant afford birth control or dont know where to get it -can be especially true for younger adolescents, esp if dont feel comfortable discussing with parents -esp problem if in context where need parental consent -lack of knowledge -insufficiently educated about sex, contraception, pregnancy

when do adolescents make decisions as well as adults?

-legal decision making - difficulty around cognitive abilities, emotional factors, and other aspects of development - different timelines -> cognitive abilities complete at 16 (so should be able to vote? in text) - but improvements in impulse control, planning into early adulthoods - more mature later on -make sure that treatment of adolescents consistent with what know about psychological development - specific to what looking at (different factors for decision making for different areas)

antecedents and consequences of high self-esteem: consequences of high or low self-esteem

-little evidence that enhanced self-esteem leads to school success, more likely that success improves self-esteem -but high self-esteem does enhance well-being, and low-self-esteem may leads to mental health problems -low self-esteem is more likely to lead to depression than other way around: may be bc adolescents with negative feelings about themselves less likely to seek positive feedback and social support from others -link between self-esteem and behavior problems unclear

causation or correlation? relationship between early sexual activity and small-scale deviance

-little support for idea that early sex leads to other types of risky or antisocial activity -> instead, involvement in problem behaviour precedes early involvement with sex -> both may have a common underlying pattern - e.g. propensity to risk-taking -risky sex can be viewed as a specific instance of risky behaviour - more likely in youth with higher reward-sensitivity and low self-control -parental supervision may often impact sexual activity - most sexual activity in boy's home (or girl's after that), most commonly on weekdays after school - if are unsupervised after school and dont participate in after school programs, more likely to be sexually active, have multiple sexual partners, more likely to have STD

gender-role socialization during adolescence

-many people stull hold strong beliefs about gender roles -gender intensification hypothesis: the idea that pressures to behave in sex-appropriate ways intensify during adolescence, esp middle adolescence before decreasing -> beliefs about gender roles become more flexible but pressures may drive teens towards gender-steroetypic behavior -adolescents more intolerant about peers behaving atypically than variations in sexual orientation - but queer youth more likely to be gender nonconforming, so mental health impact through that pathway -some studies dont find increase in gender-stereotypic behavior in middle adolescence or gender conformity norm pressure -> maybe bc depends on behavior studied, history of adolescent, and broader context where adolescent exists

children of teen moms

-many problems related to poverty and single-parenthood (context), others related to correlates of teen mom- e.g. poor school achievement (characteristics that make more likely to be teen mom) -born to middle-class teens dont differ much from older middle-class moms - same with poor children -one exception: -adolescent mothers may perceive babies as especially difficult and may not interact in ways that are beneficial -children more likely to have school problems, be involved in delinquency, become an adolescent parent -problems more apparent with age - not sure why -more likely to be unmarried and poor, children at greater risk for psychological and social problems - seen in single parent homes more generally

sex differences in the meaning of sex: girls

-masturbation less prevalent among girls, more likely to first experience sex with another person -for girls, more about integrating sex into an existing capacity for intimacy and emotional involvement -more likely to engage in sex to enhance an emotional connection -different social attitudes about sex, more consequences for cis girls bc pregnancy, society monitors sexual activity of girls more carefully -girl's first sexual partner more likely to be someone that loves, more likely to have mixed feelings and dissaproval by those that confides in about sex -more likely to report feeling afraid, guilty, worried, along with being happy and excited about first sexual experience -as mature, boys and girls more similar in motives to have sex

behavioural autonomy: ethnic and cultural differences in expectations for autonomy

-mental health best when desire for autonomy matches their expectations for what parents willing to grant -white adolescents have earlier expectations than asian adolescents and parents -> asian teens less likely to seek autonomy from parents, discrepancies between teens and parents expectations dont cause same degree of conflict in asian households than white ones-> autonomy associated with greater emotional functioning for white but not asian youth as much -sex and birth order differences small: but depends on parental attitudes towards sex roles - more traditional parents grant more autonomy to sons, more educated grant more autonomy to daughters -if recent immigrants (esp from countries where autonomy granted later), may experience disconnect between teens wanting to have autonomy earlier like is typical in US or Canada (expectations shaped by independence of friends), and parents have difference expectations

the development of dating relationships: sex differences in partner preferences

-middle adolescence: boys emphasize physical attractiveness, girls place more weight on interpersonal qualities -but girls more influenced by attractiveness than think they are -by late adolescence - both sexes emphasize interpersonal qualities and passion, communication, commitment, emotional support, togetherness

sexual harassment and date rape

-more at risk for sexual harassment at school than online - widespread in public school -sexual harassment particularly distressing for early maturing girls who already stand out -girls sexually harassed more likely to focus on appearance and develop eating disorders -significant number of students reporting being sexually harassed by teachers -perpetrators more likely to experience abuse at home, overlap with bullying

changes in sexual activity over time - recent historical trends

-more liberal attitudes about sexual intercourse starting in mid 1960s and especially early 1970s -> shift in sexual behaviour -three interesting trends: 1) percentage of american adolescents who engaged in intercourse increased in 1970s and 1980s, and then declined in mid 1990s and in early 2000s - but more active sexually than previous generations in terms of other sexual activity - e.g. more oral sex - threat of aids? 2) proportion of individuals who had sexual intercourse early has declined but still substantial -1/4 by 9th grade -STIs and pregnancy main reasons of abstaining, younger adolescents who have sex more likely to have risky sex 3) - greatest increase in prevalence of intercourse and decline in age at first intercourse among females -> less of a gap between males and females - sexual activity has increased since 1960s more for girls than boys - few differences in rates of intercourse

changes in the content and structure of self-conceptions: differentiation of the self-concept

-more likely than children to link attributes of self to situations -> personality is expressed in different ways in different situations -adolescent self-descriptions take into account who is doing the describing, distinguish between options of themselves from what others think of them - and understand that may come across differently to others

sexuality - the influence of peers

-more likely to be sexually active when peers are and engage in risky sex when peers do - also about perception, not what's actually happening -older sibling modelling can also impact sexual behaviuor -regular church attendence only associate with delayed sexual activity when friends attend the same church -if parents open with communication, less impacted by peer behaviours -peer behaviours influence adolescent behaviours through: 1)establishing a normative standard that having sex is acceptable - boys esp susceptible to peer influence -sexual activity spreads within a community of adolescents with sexually experienced adolescents initiating partners into more advanced sex -also influence each other directly with statements about their thoughts about sexual behaviour -> can lead to ambivalence if not ready 2) broader environmental context also influences -more likely to engage in sexual activity earlier if poorer neighborhood - may bc feel less hopeful about future so willing to risk future opportunities -but classmates influence more than neighborhood

teen pregnancy - the role of the father

-more likely to have problems with self-esteem, work, school aggression, drugs and alc, law, previous children, more likely to be children of teen dad -proportion of teenage births fathered by adult men has decreased over past 40 years - normative age gap -2-3 years -but teen girls who have sex for first time under 16 with man 3 years older more likely to bear a child and not use contraception -> problem behaviours may be reason why marriage doesnt occur often

timing of sexual initiation

-more likely to lose virginity during June and December -June and to lesser extent, May and July more likely regardless of romantic involvement -December only peak if have serious boyfriend or girlfriend, particularly for girls -maybe bc people more likely to be sexually active when weather very hot or cold, more unsupervised when summer or winter vacation

sexuality: parent-adolescent communication

-more parents report communicating with adolescent about sex than adolescents say have communicated with parent -also parents say have communicated with adolescent about a topic, e.g. stis. when teens say havent -parents underestimate adolescents' sexual activity and assume that if disapprove, adolescent not likely to be sexually active, and adolescents underestimate parents' disapproval of sexual activity -more likely to talk with mothers -more receptive to multiple talks than one big one -most dicussions about safety issues with sex rather than issues of sexual behaviour or relationships -interactive convos the most beneficial, and convos with mothers and daughters the most interactive -> parent-teen communication about sex more predictive of daughter's behavior than sons -impact of parent-adolescent communication on likelihood of sexually activity very small -> but if about contraception, lowers the rate of risky sex -> communication with older siblings about safe sex also effective -what is most important is attitudes and values communicated and how interpreted by teen -> if girls have liberal parents, talking about sex associated with more sexual activity -Hispanic families this is not true- associated with less sexual activity -lecturing counterproductive -if speak regularly with parents about sex more likely to turn down unwanted sex when pressured -parental communication has minimal impact on sexual activity, but can impact riskiness a little bit -adolescents' opportunity to have sex, sexually active friends, and use of alcohol and drugs is better predictor

changes in the display of intimacy: caring and concern

-more responsive to close friends, less controlling, more tolerant of friends' individuality across adolescence -physically and phsyiologically responsive to friends - pairs of friends have behaviours and emotional states that are synchronized -adolescents show more empathy and social understanding when comforting others -across adolescence, attempts to help friends become more about providing support than distraction

behavioural autonomy: changes in susceptibility to influence - responding to peer pressure

-most peer pressure operates when adults absent -conformity to peers higher during first half of adolescence - esp age 14 and boys -higher susceptibility to antisocial behavior if friends antisocial -may be higher in middle adolescence because peer groups exerting more pressure, not that susceptibility has increase -also may be more susceptible bc of heightened orientation towards peers -also brain function differences - presence of friends activates brain regions associated with rewards when a teen - more likely to pay attention to rewards when with friends -bc usually experience pleasure with peers, more likely to go along with the crowd to avoid rejection

social roles and the development of autonomy

-move into new positions with greater responsibility and self-reliance -> e.g. job, driver's license -> requires to take on new responsibilities

the adolescent identity crisis: the social context of identity development : the Psychosocial Moratorium

-need for a psychosocial moratorium: a period during which individuals are free from excessive obligations and responsibilities and can therefore experiment with different roles and personalities -> e.g. encouraged to remain in school for a long time here -can experiment with different roles and identities in context that permits and encourages exploration -having time to experiment with roles important to establish a coherent sense of identity, but role experimentation can only happen in environment that allows it and encourages it -Erikson's moratorium a luxury of affluent, many dont have the economic freedom to experience a long delay before adult responsibilities

teen parenting - after the baby is born

-negative effects can be prevented or minimized by lessening disruptive economic impact of parenthood -> e.g. if marry father and hes not capable of supporting himself financially - at greater risk -> if can be employed, can be source of support and healthy influence -marriage increases risk of having another child soon, which jeopardizes economic situation -teen marriage likely to end in divorce - additional stressor -father is therefore not always able to break cycle of poverty - parental support may be more effective - can allow mother to return to school or work -but long-term not beneficial -but teen moms that receive social support do much better and have healthier children than when lack support - best to live alone but rely on parents for support -school-based childcare may be effective intervention so can stay in school

sexual orientation - same-sex attraction

-normal, healthy, legal - unlike in the past -no consistent predictors to distinguish those who experiment with same-sex relations in adolescents and who identify selves as gay later and who identify selves as straight later -majority of queer adults engaged in heterosexual activity as adolescents -sexual orientation not either-or, most queer people not exclusively gay -males more likely to have same-sex relations before identifying as queer, whereas more women likely to have heterosexual experiences before first same-sex experience

changes in the targets of intimacy - the different roles of parents and peers

-parent-teen relationships have imbalance of power -> provides opportunities to learn from older and wiser people -relationships with friends more mutual, more balanced, less likely to be winner and loser in arguments -> opportunities to share experiences with others with similar perspectives and experiences -study found that support from family members predicted adaptation to new school (when changed schools) and peer support predicted psychological well-being -lack of support from parents or friends in school associated with low self-worth and poorer social adjustment -having support from parents, siblings, or nonschool friends doesnt fully compensate from lack of support from classmates and having support from other friends doesnt compensate for lack or parental support -parents and teens stay close but peers take on increasingly important role in social life across adolescence

cognitive change and the development of autonomy

-part of being autonomous making independent decisions -seeing how others' perspectives influence advice -> requires adolescent level intellectual abstraction -can take others' perspectives into account, reason more sophisticatedly, foresee future consequences of actions -> helps decision making

sexual abuse

-perpetrators and victims often reluctant to admit experiences - so hard to know rates -women who were sexually assaulted more likely to be disabled, raised at or below poverty level, parents substance abuse -adolescents abused and neglected more than young children -if have been sexually abused lower self-esteem, academic difficulties, more mental health problems, more risky behaviour including risky sex -individual differences - better when have parental support system

hormonal influences on sexual activity

-physical maturation - teens who mature earlier more likely to have sex earlier -increase in sex hormones at puberty -boys' and girls' initial interest in sex influenced by surge of testosterone -hormonal change increases interest in sex and arousal when exposed to sexual stimuli -androgens influence males and females, so does estrogen for girls -for boys, increased androgens related to likelihood of being sexually active -also increases development of secondary sex characteristics, which makes them more desirable to girls -estrogens responsible for change in appearance - differences in girls' sexual activity more to do with differences in estrogen levels than androgen levels - more determined by desirability to boys -> but girls interest also important - more dependent on context than biology

prevalence of sexual intercourse in adolescence

-prevalence depends on a variety of factors -dont always answer honestly - men overstate and women understate -regional and etnic differences make it hard to generalize -fewer adolescents sexually active today than in previous decades -35% heterosexual vaginal intercourse in grade 10, 60% by grade 12 - U.S. - doesnt reflect who's currently sexually active -not very promiscuous (many partners) or precocious (few have sex before 13) -more likely to be sexually inactive than previous generations

Identity and Ethnicity: the Development of Ethnic Identity

-process similar to process of identity development more generally - unquestioning view of self being displaced or upset by a crisis -> precipitating event often when encounter prejudice., become aware of group's underrepresentation, or feels different from adolescents from other backgrounds -> after crisis, engage in period of exploration of ethnic heritage (e.g. online) -> increases in self-esteem -> eventually value of having strong ethnic identity clear, establish a coherent identity -feelings about own ethnic group more positive during early and middle adolescence, with exploration declining between middle and late adolescence -development of ethnic identity depends on context: e.g. ethnic composition of school, peer group, contact with other teens from different backgrounds -moving through stages of ethnic identity development may be sped up when parents deliberately socialize ethnic identity: -> teach children about ethnic or racial identity and experiences may encounter -> 3 themes: understanding and valuing culture, dealing with racism, succeeding in mainstream society -> also occurs indirectly -ethnic socialization encourages adolescents to think positively about heritage - but if discuss own experiences with discrimination can negatively impact mental health -frequent contact with peers of same ethnic group -> stronger positive feelings about ethnicity, esp when minority in a school, positive ideas about own ethnicity associated with positive ideas about others' ethnicities -mental health impact by orientation to mainstream culture: positive mental health associated with biculturalism - strong, positive ethnic identity and healthy awareness of potential for discrimination, while maintaining involvement in mainstream culture

virginity pledges

-promise to abstain from sex until marriage -only work for younger adolescents, dont impact high school students -after having sex, if made virginity pledge, frequently deny it -if take the pledge less likely to use contraception -pledging has minimal impact in schools where no one takes the pledge and ones where everyone does

autonomy as an adolescent issue

-psychological concern throughout life cycle -important in early childhood and adolescence, but issues not fully resolved until young adulthood

puberty and the development of autonomy

-puberty triggers change in emotional relationships at home -turn towards peers for emotional support, stimulated by interest in sexual relationships and dating and friendship concerns -evolutionarily speaking, independence consequence of sexual and physical maturation, seen in other primates too -changes in physical appearance with puberty provoke changes in autonomy granted

cognitive autonomy: the impact of religious involvement on development

-religious youth better adjusted, less likely to be involved in problem behaviour -may be bc have positive influences in life that prevent problem behaviour, but also just being religious that impacts this -religious involvement can buffer against negative effects of violence exposure if inner-city and Black -religiosity over spirituality more strongly predicts staying out of trouble - not about services, more about being part of community

stages of sexual activity

-reports of sexual behaviour depends on how questions worded and data collected -> E.g. how define virginity? -> also distinguish between acts that culminate in orgasm (associated with virginity) and not -greater prevalence of oral and anal sex recently -progression from less intimate to more intimate has stayed stable over past 60 years 1) most adolescents' first experience with sex: autoerotic behavior - sexual behaviour experienced alone 2) holding hands with someone else 3) kissing/making out 4) fondling/groping 5) oral sex/intercourse -most adolescents talk about contraception after rather than before they have sex -most adolescents experience this sequence gradually over time, for some its more compressed - for those where it's more compressed, may be related to pattern of earlier involvement in adult activities

cognitive autonomy: moral development: assessing moral reasoning

-research involves reasoning and behaviour, related to prosocial behaviour - acts people engagein to help others -dominant theoretical viewpoint grounded in piagetian theory- emphasizes shifts in type of reasoning used to make moral decisions, rather than changes in content of decisions -assess moral reasoning by examining responses to hypothetical dilemmas about real world, difficult situations

dating and the development of intimacy: the nature and significance of romance

-romantic relationships context where intimacy is expressed, rather than learned -> friendship quality predicts romantic relationship quality, not vice versa -early sexual relationships more likely to revolve around love, emotional involvement, and intimacy for girls over boys -> for girls, romantic relationship place of intimacy expression -> for boys, place of intimacy development -although boys' capacity for intimacy behind girls', best to not confuse ability and aspiration - boys less confident and more awkward than girls dating, just as eager to be emotionally close -cultural differences - hispanic youth more likely to emphasize romantic aspects of relationships and traditional gender roles, Black youth more pragmatic and egalitarian

the adolescent identity crisis: problems in identity development: negative identity

-select identities undesirable to family and community -negative identity: the selection of an identity that is obviously undesirable in the eyes of significant others and the broader community ->Erikson - this is a sign of problems in identity development, recognized by others but not in a healthy way -selecting a negative identity represents attempt to forge some sense of self-definition in environment that has made it difficult to establish acceptable identity -> e.g. after trying and failing to receive positive recognition, turns to other route of being noticed -> e.g. son of educated parents good at school, but not enough to please parents, so he drops out of school _. rather be someone bad than nobody at all

antecedents and consequences of high self-esteem: influences on self-esteem

-self-esteem enhanced by approval of others and by succeeding in school -> correlates of self esteem similar in all ethnic groups -being close to parents and feeling like a good child to parents also associated with higher self-esteem -high self-esteem correlated with social network use, but seems like positive feelings -> social media (not the other way around) -if self-esteem is wrapped up in approval of others, esp peers, at risk for self-image problems -> if derive self-image from peers, show more behavioural problems and poorer school achievement

behavioural autonomy: changes in decision-making abilities: improvements in self-regulation

-self-regulation linked to life success -improvements bc of: 1) decline over adolescence in extent to which decisions influenced by immediate rewards - early adolescence care more about immediate rewards, weight costs and benefits later more evenly 2) impulse control - brain areas involving self-regulation still developing, which means not as good at thinking ahead i nearly adolescence -> both of these means may make risky decisions

ambivalence about sex in society

-sex is often portrayed in media -but 80% of adults say that teenage sex always or almost always wrong -problematic aspects of sex have been studied more than normative aspects -increase in research about positive sexual development in recent years -4 aspects of positive sexuality needed for positive sexual development: 1) being comfortable with maturing body 2) accept feelings of arousal as normal and appropriate 3) comfortable about choosing to engage or not engage in various sexual activities - sex is voluntary 4) must understand and practice safe sex

friendships with the other sex - origins of the "sex cleavage"

-sex schism in early adolescent results from: - different interests, engage in different activites, perceive themselves to be different -> more about preferring same sex than disliking other -shift to other-sex sexual relationships tricky -> shift from same-sex cliques to mixed-sex crowds - marked by poke and push courtship (teasing, joking around) -romantic/sexual intimacy slow to develop -intimate friendships with same-sex not displaced by romantic intimacy - but time allocated changes -but many adolescents dont have other-sex friends that are significant for their lives -bc girls tend to spend more time with older boys, and boys spend more time with same age or younger girls - time spent with other-sex peers happens earlier for girls

causes of teen pregnancy

-sexual activity and contraceptive use -vast majority of teen moms dont become pregnant intentionally -but many are more ambivalent that totally negative -teens that are ambivalent about childbearing or that believe that child will be positive experience less likely to use contraception effectively

sexual activity and psychosocial development

-sexual activity during adolescence not associated with psychological problems, even if sexual debut outside of romantic relationship -however need to distinguish between sexual activity and risky sex - associated with same types of psychological and behavioural factors as other forms of risk taking -> porn isnt correlated with risky sex -early sexual activity (before 16) associated with more permissive attitudes towards sex, drugs and alcohol, minor delinquency, low interest in academics, low religious involvement, strong independence orientation -impact of early sexual activity may depend on normativity in culture: e.g. early sexual intercourse in US and Mexico associated with depression esp for girls and outside of romantic relationship, and early -> however in Netherlands, where adults more accepting, no link between depression and early sex -most consistent correlate of abstaining from sex after 18 strong religious commitment - if dont have sex until 20x less likely to marry or cohabit but those who do have better mental health and greater relationship satisfaction

sexuality as an adolescent issue: social roles and adolescent sexuality

-sexual behaviour has new social meaning -> especially important psychosocial concern -adolescence marks onset of deliberate sexually motivated behaviour that is recognized as sexual -also motivated by love and desire for serious emotional relationship -also, can be motivated by desire to enhance status with peers, especially for boys but girls too

sex differences in the meaning of sex: boys

-sexual socialization: the process through which adolescents are exposed to and educated about sexuality -first sexual experience masturbation, generally have a sense of sexual capacity, just about integrating someone else into it -at first, tend to keep sex and intimacy separate, more about recreation -more likely than girls to describe sexual arousal as a reason to have sex -male peers overwhelmingly approving -experience happiness, satisfaction, excitement

the adolescent identity crisis: the social context of identity development general

-society plays important role in determining what sorts of identities are possible alternatives -social context influences whether search for identity full-blown crisis or more manageable challenge -> the more alternatives and the more areas where need to make decisions -> the more difficult it is (esp hard in North American, urban context)

harassment of sexual-minority youth

-substantial number harassed, physically abused, verbally abused by peers -> truancy, mental health problems, school difficulties -as with other forms of discrimination, greater is small, rural, and low-ses schools, and less racially diverse schools -queer youth more likely to channel anger into harassment of others, -more likely to bully youth of other vulnerable groups -homophobic teasing and name calling most common in early adolescence -> may not want to come out, but if hide, increase risk of depression and diminished self-esteem -support from adults at school can be helpful -significant drop in victimization of queer youth in past two decades

research on emotional autonomy: deidealization

-take parents off pedestal that were on when were children -> may be one of first aspects of emotional autonomy to develop -> de idealize, but dont replace with an alternate definition until late adolescence and young adulthood, when see them as people -happens later with fathers bc fewer interactions to see as individuals

changes in the display of intimacy: knowing who their friends are

-teens know more intimate things about their friends -across adolescence, friendship quality increases -> gains in social competence and increased positive affect - "upward spiral" -interact with same people online as offline

the development of dating relationships: phases of romance

-three distinct phases: 1) first phase - 11-13 - discover interest in socializing with potential romantic and sexual partners -actual relationships short (weeks), superficial, related to social status 2) second phase - 14-16- moving towards more meaningful dyadic relationships -dating casual and in group where start breaking off -more involved in emotional side of romance less concerned about status -relationships source of passion and preoccupation -average romantic relationship still only 6 months -> bc dating wrong person could damage group standing 3) by end of high school 17-18, care more about commitment, think about long-term -tensions between needs for intimacy and autonomy -value commitment and caring as important as passion and pleasure -couples spend more time by selves -experiences of LGBTQ youth/sexual minority youth: -stigmas and stereotypes make development of intimate relationships more complicated -may be difficult to engage in social and interpersonal activities that straight friends do -> may end up pursuing sexual activity outside of dating -friendships may be hampered by homophobia

intimacy as an adolescent issue

-truly intimate relationships - open, honest, self-disclosure, trust - dont emerge until adolescence - bc have a strong emotional foundation unlike children's friendships -social world changing in adolescence, peers are increasingly important , esp other sex peers later on

behavioural autonomy: changes in susceptibility to influence - the influence of parents and peers

-turn to advice to different people in different situations -peer opinions matter more in short-term, day-to-day,. social matters -> esp junior high and early high school -turn more to parents when - long-term questions about educational or occupational plans, or values, religion, ethics -if related to friendship, usually turn to peers, but also turn to adults and increases to late adolescence

research on emotional autonomy: the process of individuation

-two potential triggers of individuation: 1) puberty - physical changes influence how viewed, connection to parents declines in early adolescence but increases in late adolescence 2) cognitive development - more sophisticated understandings of selves and parents, may not see parental understandings of themselves as so accurate anymore

identity and ethnicity: multiethnic adolescents

-understudied group - parents not from same racial or ethnic group -developing consistent ethnic identity challenging when biracial, esp during early adolescence -may change racial identity over time, switching from identifying as biracial to monoracial - in study, 3/4 of biracial teens changed self-identification over 4-year period -more likely to have ethnic identity that doesnt match classmates' perceptions -> distress, lower self-esteem

cognitive autonomy: prosocial reasoning, prosocial behavior, and volunteerism -general

-ways that people think about prosocial behaviours more sophisticated in late adolescence -over adolescence, devalue doing prosocial acts for selfserving reasons and value for genuine empathy -if parents engage in discussion, practice authoritative parenting, more prosocial behaviors -> makes teens feel more sympathy to others which impacts prosocial behavior -homes prioritizing familism also impacts prosocial behaviours

intimacy: attachment in adolescence

adult attachment interview: structured interview used to assess past attachment history and internal working model of relationships -assess and code as secure, dismissing, or preoccupied - in terms of internal working models -secure adolescents interact with mom with more assertiveness and less unhealthy anger- fewer issues with emotional autonomy, have more stable romantic relationships -dismissive or preoccupied style more associated with emotional and behavioral problems in adolescence -people's security of attachment in infancy predicts social competence in childhood, security of attachment to close friends in adolescence, and positive romantic relationships in adulthood -secure attachments in adolescence: more social competence, fewer problem behaviors -attachment to mother more important in adolescence -insecurely attached more likely to delay moving or return to parent's home -attachment security tends to be stable, but can change if dysfunctional family situation or lot of stress -in general, attachment becomes more secure over adolescence -positive experiences have even more positive effects with secure teens but negative experiences not as harmful -> insecure - negative experiences worse

intimacy - attachment theory - attachment in infancy

attachment - strong and enduring emotional bond -secure attachment - trusting -anxious-avoidant - indifferent infant -anxious-resistant - ambivalent -disorganize: absence of normal attachment behavior, more at risk for psychological problems

three types of autonomy and definitions

emotional autonomy: aspect of independence related to changes in close relationships -behavioural autonomy: capacity to make independent decisions and follow through cognitive autonomy: (sometimes value autonomy) having independent values, opinions, beliefs

the adolescent identity crisis: problems in identity development: identity diffusion

identity diffusion: the incoherent, disjointed, incomplete sense of self characteristic of not having resolved the crisis of identity -varies in degree from mild state to psychopathological condition that persists -disruptions in individual's sense of time, excessive self-consciousness, problems in work or school, difficulties in forming intimate relationships, concerns over sexuality

Identity and Ethnicity general

if an ethnic minority, integrating ethnic identity into personal identity important task of late adolescence -White youth tend to have weaker sense of ethnic identity than non-white youth, but working-class white adolescents more likely to identify with ethnic group -> more likely to use panethnic definitions (e.g. White compared to Jewish, German, etc.)

sex and drugs

percentage of adolescents who use alcohol or other drugs before sex has increased recently -sexual risk taking, casual sex, nonconsensual sex more likely when alcohol and drugs involved - impaired judgement and loss of control

theory - interpersonal development during adolescence (sullivan)

sullivan believed that capacity for intimacy first develops prior to adolescence in the context of same-sex friendships -sullivan thought forming intimate friendships during preadolescence necessary precondition to forming close relationships as an adolescence and young adult -to sullivan, preadolescence ends with sexuality and puberty, shifting to romantic relationships -this shift can be anxiety-provoking - if dont feel secure, scary to leave safety of nonsexual friendships -sullivan - the overarching challenge of adolescence to integrate need for intimacy with need to sexual contact in a way that doesnt lead to excess anxiety