Exam 4

Donovan volunteers his time to campaign for Joel Goodman. He spent all afternoon putting up "Goodman for Congress" signs around his town and arrived back at Goodman headquarters just in time to watch the Goodman- Hernandez debate on TV. Donovan was eager to watch the candidates debate each other, even though he was 100% sure he was going to vote for Goodman. Donovan's first response to the debate will most likely be "I noticed that Goodman and Hernandez agreed on the new environmental policy." "Did you hear how well Goodman answered that question on job creation?" "I wonder why Goodman was so vague on the school tax issue when I know he has a clear idea about that." "Hernandez is really going to make this a tight race."

"Did you hear how well Goodman answered that question on job creation?"

The rule of the Wason four-card problem is, "If there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number on the other side." Let's say you are presented with A, 8, M, and 13, each showing on one of four cards. To see if the rule is valid, you would have to turn over the cards showing 8 and M. A and M. A and 13. 8 and 13.

A and 13.

Which of the following statements does NOT apply to the results of research on differences between how experts and novices solve problems? Experts possess more knowledge about their fields than novices. Experts often organize problems differently than novices, based on principles. Experts often spend more time analyzing problems than novices. Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field.

Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field.

When the process of analogical problem solving was applied to the fortress and radiation problems, which of the following represented the mapping step of this process? Likening the dangerous mines to the dangerous tumor Developing schemas for each individual problem Connecting the fortress with the tumor Generalizing from groups of soldiers to using many rays to solve the problem

Connecting the fortress with the tumor

Holly was in her mother-in-law's kitchen preparing lunch for the family. When she was ready to dish up the soup, she searched all the cupboards and drawers for a ladle but couldn't find one. She decided to wait until her mother-in- law returned to ask her where the ladle was, leaving the soup in the stove pot. Her mother-in-law later explained that the ladle had been broken, so she told Holly to use a coffee mug to "spoon" the soup into bowls. Holly's ability to solve the "dish up the soup" problem was hindered by which of the following obstacles? Discriminability Perseveration Divergent thinking Functional fixedness

Functional fixedness

Which of the following is not true about divergent thinking? It is open-ended. It has a large number of potential solutions. It is the cornerstone of creativity It has a single correct answer.

It has a single correct answer.

Lydia is 48 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy as an undergraduate. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and she participated in anti- nuclear demonstrations. Which of the following alternatives is most probable? Lydia is a U.S. Congresswoman. Lydia is a U.S. Congresswoman and active in the feminist movement. Lydia is a state governor. Lydia is a state governor and active in the feminist movement.

Lydia is a U.S. Congresswoman.

Gick and Holyoak consider which of the following to be the most difficult step to achieve in the process of analogical problem solving? Noticing that there is an analogous relationship between problems because most participants need prompting before they notice a connection Mapping corresponding parts between the problems because the elements are difficult to identify Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution because of the difficulty in generalizing from one problem to another Solving the problem through reorganization because past experience can make it more difficult to reorganize a problem

Noticing that there is an analogous relationship between problems because most participants need prompting before they notice a connection

The analogy that makes the solution to the mutilated checkerboard problem obvious is the problem. light bulb Tower of Hanoi radiation Russian marriage

Russian marriage

Which concept below is most closely associated with the evolutionary perspective to solving the Wason four-card problem? Permission schemas Falsification principle Social-exchange theory Availability heuristic

Social-exchange theory

Which of the following provides the best example of functional fixedness? Using a pair of pliers as a paperweight Using a tire as a swing seat and as a football practice target Using a juice glass as a container for orange juice Using a wine bottle as a vase

Using a juice glass as a container for orange juice

Amber lives in a housing development between two parallel streets that both connect to a freeway. She usually takes the street to the south when heading southbound on the freeway to work, but that street is closed for repairs for three months. Amber takes the street to the north during that time. After the street to the south is re-opened, she continues to take the street to the north, even though it is a slightly longer route. Continuing to take the street to the north represents a single dissociation. a source problem. a mental set. convergent thinking.

a mental set.

"You can't have any pudding unless you eat your meat," says a man to his son at the dinner table. This is an example of inductive reasoning. a self-serving bias. a permission schema. the illusory correlation.

a permission schema.

One hundred students are enrolled in State University's course on introductory physics for math and science majors. In the group, 60 students are math majors and 40 are science majors. Sarah is in the class. She got all As in her high school science courses, and she would like to be a chemist someday. She lives on campus. Her boyfriend is also in the class. There is a chance that Sarah is a science major. a. 40% b. 50% c. 60% d. 100%

a. 40%

Consider the following syllogism: If p then q. p q This syllogism is a(n) syllogism. abstract conditional concrete conditional abstract categorical concrete categorical

abstract conditional

Mia has lived in New York City all her life. She has noticed that people from upper Manhattan walk really fast, but people from lower Manhattan tend to walk slowly. Mia's observations are likely influenced from a judgment error based on her using the law of large numbers. an atmosphere effect. an illusory correlation. the falsification principle.

an illusory correlation.

The ability to shift experience from one problem solving situation to a similar problem is known as analogical encoding. analogical transfer. insight. in vivo problem solving.

analogical transfer.

Dr. Curious is doing a follow-up study to the mutilated checkerboard problem experiment. In this new study, participants solve the following shoe problem before tackling the checkerboard problem. By doing this, Dr. Curious is studying the effect of on problem solving. The shoe problem: A first-grade class is using a trampoline in gym class, so all the children have removed their shoes, which are all jumbled in a large pile. One of the students, Miguel, is leaving early, so the teacher tells him to grab his shoes and report to the lobby. In his hurry, Miguel grabs two identical left-footed, size 6 red sneakers and runs to his mother still sock-footed. Will the remaining students be able to shoe-up with the remaining shoes without getting a foot-ache? analogies anaphoric interference perceptual segregation divergent thinking

analogies

The text's discussion of the research on in vivo problem solving highlighted that play(s) an important role in solving scientific problems. analogies insight flexibility subgoals

analogies

The radiation problem was used in your text to illustrate the role of in problem solving. means-end analysis functional fixedness analogy mental set

analogy

Derrick purchased a new car, a Ford Mustang, less than a month ago. While sitting in traffic, Derrick says to his girlfriend, "Mustangs must be the best-selling car now. I can't remember seeing as many on the road as I have recently." Derrick's judgment is most likely biased by a(n) representativeness heuristic. availability heuristic. illusory correlation. permission schema.

availability heuristic.

The finding that people tend to incorrectly conclude that more people die from tornados than from asthma has been explained in terms of the representativeness heuristic. availability heuristic. falsification principle. belief bias.

availability heuristic.

Wally and Sharon are out on a date. When Sharon asks Wally where they should go for dinner, Wally says "My coworkers keep telling me about that new Japanese place downtown, so it must be a great place to eat." Wally's response illustrates the use of a(n) availability heuristic. confirmation bias. conjunction rule. permission schema.

availability heuristic.

The tendency to think that a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable is called the . availability heuristic confirmatory bias belief bias mental set

belief bias

The typical purpose of subgoals is to solve insight problems. move the solver directly from the initial state to the goal state. bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state. avoid the need to perform means-end analysis.

bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state.

Given its definition, expected utility theory is most applicable to deciding whether to break up or stay involved with a current girlfriend. go out for junior varsity hockey or junior varsity basketball. buy first class or coach tickets for a spring break trip. take astronomy or geology as a physical science elective course.

buy first class or coach tickets for a spring break trip.

Making probable conclusions based on evidence involves reasoning. a. deductive b. syllogistic c. inductive d. connective

c. inductive

Of the following real-world phenomena, the confirmation bias best explains the observation that people do not always make decisions that maximize their monetary outcome. are more likely to purchase meat advertised as 80% fat free than 20% fat. misjudge homicide as more prevalent in the U.S. than suicide. can cite several reasons for their position on a controversial issue but none for the opposing side.

can cite several reasons for their position on a controversial issue but none for the opposing side.

Consider the following syllogism: If it's a robin then it is a bird. It is a bird. Therefore, it is a robin. In the example above, "Therefore, it is a robin" is a of a syllogism. premise; categorical conclusion; categorical premise; conditional conclusion; conditional

conclusion; conditional

If a motorcycle cop believes that young female drivers speed more than other drivers, he will likely notice young female drivers speeding in the fast lane but fail to notice young male or older drivers doing the same. In this case, the police officer's judgments are biased by the operation of the permission schema. confirmation bias. falsification principle. typicality principle.

confirmation bias.

Intermediate states can be created by restructuring initial states. restructuring goal states. creating operators. creating subgoals.

creating subgoals.

Consider the following argument: Observation: Here in Nashville, the sun has risen every morning. Conclusion: The sun is going to rise in Nashville tomorrow. a. The argument is weak because there is only one specific case. b. The argument is strong because the premise includes scientific evidence. c. The argument is weak because the observation does not consider other cities. d. The argument is strong because there are a large number of observations.

d. The argument is strong because there are a large number of observations.

An experiment measures participants' performance in judging syllogisms. Two premises and a conclusion are presented as stimuli, and participants are asked to indicate (yes or no) if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. Error rates are then calculated for each syllogism. This experiment studies reasoning. deductive intuitive falsification inductive

deductive

Greg was recounting a fishing tale of the one that got away: "I had a huge ahi tuna on my line. I fought for it for a few minutes, then my line snapped. The tuna swam away across the pond." Greg's friend, Matt, didn't believe his story because Matt knew that tuna are salt-water fish and aren't found in ponds. Greg's account contains descriptive information that is inconsistent with base rate information. a belief bias. inductive reasoning based on observations of multiple, specific cases. a focusing illusion.

descriptive information that is inconsistent with base rate information.

In the movie Apollo 13, astronauts aboard a damaged spacecraft have to build a carbon dioxide filter out of random items that are aboard the ship with them. If they do not, they will all die rapidly of carbon dioxide poisoning. The fact that they are able to do so with the help of experts on Earth is similar to the approach developed by Ronald Finke. convergent thinking creative cognition divergent thinking the means-end analysis

divergent thinking

Ali works for Citrus Squeeze, a company that makes orange juice. Sales of their calcium-enhanced OJ have been poor, and the product was cancelled. His factory still had three cases of cartons, and Ali was told he could take them if he wanted them. With the cartons, Ali made several birdfeeders for his backyard and also planted tree seedlings in some of them; he used the remaining ones to build a "fort" for his four-year-old son. Ali's use of the cartons represents convergent thinking. divergent thinking. insight. hierarchical organization.

divergent thinking.

Cosmides and Tooby tested participants' ability to solve variations of the Wason problem, including ones containing stories about a particular culture. Their results showed that is not always necessary for conditional reasoning. familiarity a premise validity using a heuristic

familiarity

In its discussion of expertise and problem solving, your text identifies the kind of scientists who are most likely to make revolutionary discoveries in their fields. This particular discussion suggests that may be more important than in creative thinking. experience; structure structure; experience flexibility; experience experience; flexibility

flexibility; experience

Holyoak and Koh presented different versions of the light bulb problem to assist in solving the radiation problem. They found the version to be more effective, because it had features in common with the radiation problem. insufficient-intensity; surface insufficient-intensity; structural fragile-glass; surface fragile-glass; structural

fragile-glass; structural

Juanita is in a convenience store considering which soda to buy. She recalls a commercial for BigFizz she saw on TV last night. BigFizz is running a promotion where you look under the bottle cap, and one in five bottles has a voucher for a free soda. If Juanita decides to purchase a BigFizz based on this promotion, which is framed in terms of , she will use a strategy. losses; risk-taking gains; risk-taking losses; risk-aversion gains; risk-aversion

gains; risk-aversion

Phoenix Decorating Company is responsible for designing and building many of the floral floats seen in the Tournament of Roses Parade every New Year's Day. Phoenix's designers start preparing the floats for the next year's parade soon after the first of the year. For each corporate sponsor, Phoenix gets their best advertising team members, and they sit in a room for several hours throwing out every idea they can come up with, no matter how good or bad it is. After a substantial list has been created, they then go through every idea and rate its merits or deficits, until they come up with the best idea to pitch to the corporate sponsor. This process demonstrates creative cognition. group brainstorming. convergent thinking. structural analyses.

group brainstorming.

There are two gumball machines outside the local grocery store, one large machine and one small machine. Both machines have only yellow and orange gumballs, and each machine contains 50 percent of each color. For each coin, the large gumball machine dispenses 15 gumballs, while the small machine dispenses 5. Tim is a young genius whose interests include probability and sound decision-making. His "probability project of the day" is to get a greater percentage of either of the colors, but not an equal amount of each color. Given this, and presuming Tim has only one coin, he should use his coin in the large machine. he should use his coin in the small machine. it doesn't make a difference which machine he uses. he should wait for other people to use the machines and see what they get.

he should use his coin in the small machine.

One reason that most people do not easily solve the original (abstract) version of the Wason four-card problem is that they ignore the falsification principle. are influenced by the atmosphere effect. confuse the ideas of validity and truth. incorrectly apply the permission schema.

ignore the falsification principle.

A researcher records a brainstorming session in an industrial research and development department rather than in an artificial laboratory setting. Later, she analyzes the recorded discussions, identifying certain problem-solving techniques. This research is an example of research. think-aloud protocol situationally-produced mental set environmental functional fixedness in vivo problem-solving

in vivo problem-solving

Kirk is a generally anxious person. His anxiety sometimes gets in the way when he tries to make decisions. The anxiety Kirk feels is an example of an emotion. expected immediate integral incidental

incidental

Bonnie has ordered her monthly supply of medicines through the mail for the past five years. Except for one order, all orders have arrived within two business days. Bonnie placed an order yesterday, and she expects to receive her order tomorrow. Bonnie is using an omission bias. inductive reasoning. the conjunction rule. the similarity-coverage model.

inductive reasoning.

In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the state involves having three discs stacked on the left peg, with the middle and right pegs empty. transitory goal intermediate initial

initial

Newell and Simon called the conditions at the beginning of the problem the intermediate state. goal state. initial state. source story.

initial state.

In the two-string problem, tying the pliers to one of the strings best represents a(n) state. functional fixedness goal intermediate initial

intermediate

Consider the following conditional syllogism: Premise 1: If I don't eat lunch today, I will be hungry tonight. Premise 2: I ate lunch today. Conclusion: Therefore, I wasn't hungry tonight. This syllogism is valid. invalid. biased. abstract.

invalid.

Consider the following conditional syllogism: Premise 1: If I study, then I'll get a good grade. Premise 2: I got a good grade. Conclusion: Therefore, I studied. This syllogism is valid. skewed. invalid. robust.

invalid.

Sanfey and coworkers' "ultimatum game" experiment revealed that people tended to make the decision of ____. irrational; accepting any offer irrational; accepting only high offers rational; accepting any offer rational; accepting only high offers

irrational; accepting only high offers

The validity of a syllogism depends on the truth of its premises. the truth of its conclusion. its form. both the truth of its premises and the truth of its conclusion.

its form.

The analogical paradox refers to problem-solving differences between experts and novices. laboratory and real-world settings. experimental groups and control groups. well- and ill-defined problems.

laboratory and real-world settings.

Your textbook suggests that a trait that appears to be common to both mental illness and creativity is . low pressure tolerance high levels of neuroticism low capacity for divergent thinking latent inhibition

latent inhibition

Finke's creating an object studies show that people were more likely to come up with creative uses for preinventive objects if they made the objects themselves. had received training in creative thinking. had been preselected as "creative" individuals. were told they were expected to be creative.

made the objects themselves.

The solution to the candle problem involves realizing that the match box can be used as a container for tacks. match box can be used as a shelf. candle can be cut in half. candle can be oriented horizontally or diagonally.

match box can be used as a shelf.

Gick and Holyoak proposed that analogical problem solving involves the following three steps: restructuring, searching, and simulating. noticing, mapping, and applying. surfacing, structuring, and generalizing. well-defining, insighting, and means-end analysis.

noticing, mapping, and applying.

Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a(n) novel object. familiar object. frequently used object. object with a specific function.

novel object.

Finke's "creating an object" experiment had participants create a novel object by combining parts. Once they created an object, they were given the name of an object category and instructed to interpret their creation as a practical object or device within that category. Finke used the term preinventive forms to describe the object parts. novel objects before a function was described. practical objects within the category. inventions rated high in both practicality and originality.

novel objects before a function was described.

The elements of the problem space include all of the following EXCEPT initial state. operators. goal state. intermediate states.

operators.

By using a(n) , a country could increase the percentage of individuals agreeing to be organ donors dramatically. opt-out procedure opt-in procedure pragmatic reasoning schema permission schema

opt-out procedure

Utility refers to outcomes that achieve a person's goals. how useful a reasoning process is. the validity of a syllogism. degree of risk aversion one has.

outcomes that achieve a person's goals.

When the "abstract" version of the Wason four-card problem is compared to a "concrete" version of the problem (in which beer, soda, and ages are substituted for the letters and numbers), performance is better for the concrete task. performance is better for the abstract task. performance is the same for both tasks. performing the abstract task improves performance of the concrete task.

performance is better for the concrete task.

The application of a(n) makes it easier to solve the "drinking beer" version of the Wason problem. conjunction rule permission schema atmosphere effect availability heuristic

permission schema

Research in neuroeconomics has found that the function of the may be to deal with the cognitive demands of a given task, while the is responsible for handling emotional goals such as resenting an unfair outcome. basal ganglia; corpus callosum striate nucleus; locus coeruleus prefrontal cortex; insula diencephalon; putamen

prefrontal cortex; insula

Gestalt psychologists consider problem solving as a process involving reorganization or restructuring. multiple goal states. sensory operators. continuity and form.

reorganization or restructuring.

The circle problem, in which the task is to determine the length of a line inside a circle, was proposed to illustrate how analogies can be used to solve problems. means-end analysis. representation and restructuring. the problem space.

representation and restructuring.

The radiation problem can be solved using representation and restructuring. means-end analysis. warmth judgments. mental set.

representation and restructuring.

Warmth judgments on nearness to a solution prior to the solution of an insight problem and prior to the solution of a non-insight problem. gradually rise; gradually rise gradually rise; rise suddenly just rise suddenly just; gradually rise vary unpredictably; vary unpredictably

rise suddenly just; gradually rise

Mr. Huff always passes back exams to his algebra class in descending order (the highest grade is handed out first). Today, Maddelyn was the first to receive her exam. Joy complained, remarking, "Maddelyn, you always get the highest grade in algebra. It was true all last year and so far this year." Maddelyn was not sure if this was correct. To figure out if this was true, Maddelyn should search her memory for instances when she did get her exam back first and for instances when she did not. search her memory for instances when she did not get her exam back first. search her memory for instances when she did get her exam back first. wait until the next exam is passed back to see if she gets hers back first.

search her memory for instances when she did get her exam back first and for instances when she did not.

Newell and Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems. Their research program was based on the idea that problem solving is a process that involves insight. algorithms. parity. search.

search.

The information processing approach describes problem solving as a process involving design fixation. creative cognition. insight. search.

search.

The water-jug problem demonstrates that one consequence of having a procedure that does provide a solution to a problem is that, if well-learned, it may prevent us from seeing more efficient solutions to the problem. being able to solve other problems at all. understanding why the procedure works successfully. discriminating between well- and ill-defined problems.

seeing more efficient solutions to the problem.

Considering the fortress and the radiation problems together, the fortress problem represents the problem. source target exemplar prototype

source

Many people receive unsolicited calls from telemarketers or unwanted "junk" mailers advertising offers for products such as cable or internet services or cellular phone companies. Most people do not consider these offers and do not make a change to the plans or services that they receive because they do not want to make a decision that requires serious consideration or thought. This is an example of the bias. actor-observer dual systems self-serving status quo

status quo

People are most successful at noticing an analogous relationship between problems if they focus on surface features. structural features. operators. mental sets.

structural features.

Gentner and Goldinmeadow (2003) illustrated that analogical encoding causes problem solvers to pay attention to features that their ability to solve other problems. surface; diminish surface; enhance structural; diminish structural; enhance

structural; enhance

The fortress problem involves a fortress and marching soldiers, while the radiation problem involves a tumor and rays. Therefore, the two problems have very different surface features. operators. structural features. mental sets.

surface features.

Experts than novices. spend less time analyzing problems are better at reasoning in general are more likely to be open to new ways of looking at problems take a more effective approach to organizing the solution to a problem

take a more effective approach to organizing the solution to a problem

The evolutionary approach proposes that the Wason problem can be understood in terms of people's innate language abilities. ability to work well with a group of others. innate reasoning abilities. tendency to detect when others are cheating.

tendency to detect when others are cheating.

Illustrative of functional fixedness, people are more likely to solve the candle problem if fewer tacks are provided. pliers are also presented. the box is empty. the candle is already lit.

the box is empty.

A syllogism is valid if the conclusion follows logically from the two premises. the two premises and the conclusion are true. there is evidence to support the two premises. there is no more than one exception to the conclusion.

the conclusion follows logically from the two premises.

According to your text, the key to solving the Wason four-card problem is a mental model. a categorical syllogism. the law of large numbers. the falsification principle.

the falsification principle.

tereotypes are reinforced by all of the following EXCEPT the availability heuristic. illusory correlations. selective attention. the falsification principle.

the falsification principle.

Cecile has dreamed of owning her own home for years, and she can finally afford a small cottage in an older neighborhood. She notices that she feels more positive about her home when she drives home by the abandoned shacks, but she hates her home when driving past the fancy mansions with their large lawns. Cecile's emotions are influenced by the principle of diversity. confirmation bias. the framing effect. the law of large numbers.

the framing effect.

At a lunch meeting with a client, the CEO of Gossip Polls, Inc., was asked to determine America's favorite day of the week. Hundreds of Gossip employees across the U.S. started collecting data immediately, calling people at their residences. One hour later, the attitudes from 10,000 Americans, across all 50 states, were collected. A staff member called the CEO, still at her lunch meeting, to tell her the results of the poll: America's favorite day of the week is Monday. Given your text's discussion of inductive reasoning in science, we might suspect that the observations in this poll are not representative because the participants were only asked one question for this poll. the participants were not sufficiently geographically diverse. the people who are home to answer the phone in the early afternoon are not an appropriate cross-section of the U.S. population. everyone in America was not asked their opinion.

the people who are home to answer the phone in the early afternoon are not an appropriate cross-section of the U.S. population.

The conjunction rule states that the probability of two events co-occurring is the sum of the probabilities of each event occurring. the probability of two events co-occurring is equal to or less than the probability of either event occurring alone. people make decisions based upon both the costs and benefits of the choices. people make decisions based upon possible benefits when the choices are framed positively and based upon possible costs when the choices are framed negatively.

the probability of two events co-occurring is equal to or less than the probability of either event occurring alone.

Failing to consider the law of large numbers most likely results in errors concerning confirmation bias. utility. the falsification principle. the representativeness heuristic.

the representativeness heuristic.

Gabrielle is blonde, extremely attractive, and lives in an expensive condo. If we judge the probability of Gabrielle's being a model quite high because she resembles our stereotype of a model, we are using the representativeness heuristic. the availability heuristic. framing. the law of small numbers.

the representativeness heuristic.

In an experiment that combined both physiological and behavioral approaches to the study of decision making, PFC activity was recorded while participants accepted or rejected proposals to split a sum of money ($10). PFC activation was greatest for accepted offers. greatest for rejected offers. the same for accepted and rejected offers. dependent on how much money the responder was offered.

the same for accepted and rejected offers.

Janet is alone in a room that contains a chair and a shelf with a book resting on top. She attempts to retrieve the book, but the shelf is a foot above her reach. How will Janet retrieve the book? Psychologists would NOT classify this scenario as a problem because the solution is immediately obvious. there is an obstacle between the present state and the goal state. the initial state is not clearly defined. the goal state is not clearly defined.

the solution is immediately obvious.

Insight refers to prior learning facilitating problem solving. prior learning hindering problem solving. the tendency to respond in a certain manner, based on past experience. the sudden realization of a problem's solution.

the sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Consider the following syllogism: All of the students are tired. Some tired people are irritable. Some of the students are irritable. It is likely that most people will judge this syllogism as invalid because of the influence of the atmosphere effect. invalid because this syllogism does not involve a pragmatic reasoning schema. valid because this is indeed a valid syllogism and the logic is apparent. valid because this conclusion is believable.

valid because this conclusion is believable.

Consider the following syllogism: All cats are birds. All birds have wings. All cats have wings. This syllogism is valid. invalid. true. both valid and true.

valid.

The best description of the purpose of think-aloud protocols is that they are used to determine what information a person is attending to while solving a problem. which people can be considered more creative in ability to solve problems. how to develop computer programs that best mimic human problem solving. how a person's expertise increases his or her likelihood of solving a problem, relative to a beginner.

what information a person is attending to while solving a problem.

People tend to overestimate what negative feelings will occur following a decision more so than positive feelings. what positive feelings will occur following a decision more so than negative feelings. what positive and negative feelings will occur following a decision to the same degree. subjective utility values following a decision.

what negative feelings will occur following a decision more so than positive feelings.

Actions that take the problem from one state to another are known as intermediate states. subgoals. operators. mental sets.

operators.

A string led to a restructured representation in the two-string problem. stationary swinging knotted unknotted

swinging

identified people's tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of a problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution as a major obstacle to successful problem solving. Information processing psychologists Gestalt psychologists Psychophysicists The analogical problem solving approach

Gestalt psychologists

Which of the following is not part of a complete definition of a problem? Is difficult Involves obstacles between one's current state and a desired goal Has one correct answer The solution is not obvious

Has one correct answer

Which of the following statements would most likely invoke the operation of a permission schema? No artists can be beekeepers, but some of the beekeepers must be chemists. All A are B. All B are C. Therefore, all A are C. I forgot to charge my cell phone last night, therefore I missed an important call today. If I get an A on my cognitive psychology exam, I can go out with my friends Saturday night.

If I get an A on my cognitive psychology exam, I can go out with my friends Saturday night.

Consider the following syllogism: Premise 1: All dogs are cats. Premise 2: All cats say "meow." Conclusion: Therefore, all dogs say "meow." Which statement below describes this syllogism? Both premises are valid The conclusion is valid The conclusion is not valid The conclusion is true

The conclusion is valid

Which problem provides an example of how functional fixedness can hinder solution of a problem? Tower of Hanoi problem Two-string problem Mutilated checkerboard problem The radiation problem

Two-string problem

Jonas bought a new leather jacket after saving for many months for the luxury purchase. On the first day he went out wearing the new garment, he found a $50 bill on the sidewalk outside of his office. He now refers to the jacket as his "lucky jacket" and believes that it has some magical power to give him good fortune. Jonas's belief in the jacket's cosmic ability is an example of the availability heuristic. an illusory correlation. selective attention. the falsification principle.

an illusory correlation.

In Kaplan and Simon's experiment, they presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. Participants in the group had the fastest response time. blank color black and pink bread and butter

bread and butter

If you are given the information that in order to vote in a presidential election, you must be at least 18 years of age, and that Will voted in the last presidential election, you can logically conclude that Will is at least 18 years old. This is an example of using reasoning. inductive deductive conjunctive descriptive

deductive

Metcalfe and Wiebe gave participants problems to solve and asked them to make "warmth" judgments every 15 seconds to indicate how close they felt they were to a solution. The purpose of this experiment was to demonstrate a difference between how people solve insight and non-insight problems. show how people progress through the problem space as they solve a problem. show that some problems are easier to solve than others. measure the time-course of solving well-defined versus ill-defined problems.

demonstrate a difference between how people solve insight and non-insight problems.

Glinda is sure that if her boyfriend proposes, she will feel elation. This is an example of an expected emotion. immediate emotion. integral immediate emotion. incidental immediate emotion.

expected emotion

Josiah is trying to decide whether or not to take a new job in a new city. He is worried that if he takes the job and fails, he will suffer from intense anxiety and depression. This is an example of expected emotion. immediate emotion. integral immediate emotion. incidental immediate emotion.

expected emotion.

Experts categorize problems based on how similar the objects in the problem are. general principles that problems share. surface and deep structures. event-specific knowledge.

general principles that problems share.

Imagine that your friend James has just taken up the habit of smoking cigars because he thinks it makes him look cool. You are concerned about the detrimental effects of smoking on his health, and you raise that concern to him. James gets a bit annoyed with your criticism and says "George Burns smoked cigars, and he lived to be 100!" You might point out that a major problem with his "George Burns" argument involves framing. the conjunction rule. sample size. none of these

sample size.

In analogical problem solving, the problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution. . source; target target; source prototype; target exemplar; source

target; source

Kaplan and Simon's experiment presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. The main purpose of their experiment was to demonstrate that people arrive at the solution to an insight problem suddenly, but proceed more methodically towards the solution of a non-insight problem. a person's mental set can hinder finding a solution to a problem. people often have to backtrack within the problem space to arrive at an answer to a problem. the way the problem is represented can influence the ease of problem solving.

the way the problem is represented can influence the ease of problem solving.