Exam II
24) The reinforcing effects of nicotine are a) Thought to occur through the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway b) Likely to involve direct effects of nicotine on the nucleus accumbens c) Due to the rapid activation of neuromuscular junctions in the peripheral nervous system d) Due to activation of the HPA axis e) None of the above
E
Forms of AMPH/METH Administration
Oral Injected Intranasal Inhaled
Loss of DAT during meth use has similar affects on the brain as...
Parkinson's
Amph blocks ____________ Results in what?
VMAT can't load vesicle with dopamine → buildup of DA on inside of cell → DAT gets confused and pumps DA from inside of syn cleft to outside
Nicotine binds throughout the brain but ________________ is the main point with nicotine receptors (alpha 4 beta 2)
VTA
Nicotine has reinforcing effects where?
VTA
Strong CPP for nicotine when injected into...
VTA
Where does nicotine act? Is this different from cocaine/amph?
VTA where dopamine synapse is located (act on DAT)
Direct delivery of nicotine into the _____________ increases _____________ release in the _____________
VTA dopamine nucleus accumbens
_____________ nicotinic receptors responsible for _____________ _____________ release
VTA nucleus accumbens dopamine
Cocaine & AMPH are dopamine... They activate the... and reinforce...
agonists mesolimbic system drug-taking behavior
Cocaine is generally classed as... Describe this. What other drugs are in this class?
alkaloid (nitrogen-based chemicals that have prominent physiological effects) nicotine and opiates
Most important ionotropic receptor - why?
alpha 4 beta 2 - responsible for reinforcing properties
What drug was thought to increase creativity?
amphetamine
There have been legal uses of cocaine, mainly as...
anesthetic agent
Opponent processes
any process which functions as the antagonist of another process B state is the opponent process (basal state)
Why are nicotine receptors basically everywhere in the brain
because the cholinergic system is widely distributed
Cocaine chemical name
benzoyl-methyl-ecognine
Caffeine is known to release dopamine in the _____________, but not in the _____________
brain nucleus accumbens
Adverse effects of caffeine
can impair quality of sleep some other things that are not necessarily attributable directly to caffeine but could be encouraged by it caffeine just happens to be present when people are using other drugs Increased incidence of osteoporosis and bone fractures in elderly men and women (caffeine contributes to bone loss by increasing the elimination of calcium through the kidneys and urine, and also reduces the absorption of calcium from the intestines) Increased risk of panic attacks in those individuals already suffering from a panic disorder low birth weight of baby if mom consumes it
Long term meth use does what to DAT
causes less of them
Tar alters composition of __________ that sweep unwanted particles → allows __________ compounds to settle on pulmonary tissue
cilia carcinogenic
Cocaine was an additive in what drink?
coca cola
Cocaine is extracted from the leaves of the...
coca shrub
Most widely used psychoactive substance in the world
coffee
AMPH andMETH abuse reaches peak level when? Also when the speed kills slogan was produced
1960's-70's
Cocaine reached epidemic proportions as crack cocaine abuse became rampant in America during the...
1980's
Interface between cerebral cortex and underlying brain regions
Cingulate gyrus
17) Which of the following is associated with caffeine consumption? a) Increased risk for stroke b) Lowered markers of inflammation, such as the cytokine interleukin-1 c) Increased risk for developing Parkinson's disease d) Reduced risk for osteoporosis e) Vigilance and concentration on mundane tasks is impaired
B
19) Which of the following is true about nicotine? a) Metabolized in the liver only b) Activates the HPA axis c) Acts on the brain in a matter of minutes d) Activation of the HPA axis is fully dependent on CRH neurons
B
28) Once methamphetamine and cocaine enter the brain a) They will be cleared at the same rate b) Their binding sites in the brain will not overlap c) The duration of impact on the brain is likely to differ for each drug d) Methamphetamine impacts the nigrostriatal pathway, while cocaine affects only the mesocorticolimbic pathway
C
Where does caffeine cause release in dopamine?
in areas that control movement like the striatum and PFC
Enzymes that break down xenobiotics and detoxify them are part of the _________________ family ________________ is the main enzyme from this family that metabolizes caffeine
cytochrome P450 CYP-1A2
Adult use of nicotine has... What is this due to?
declined public health awareness, restrictions on advertising and smoking in public
Average age of first-time users of nicotine is...
declining
Long-term CNS effects of meth
decrease in DAT density in basal ganglia (can be seen after 3 year abstinence)
Potent and more powerful derivative of amphetamine, which has no medical application
methamphetamine
The German army in WWII issued _________________ and _________________ pills to enable prolonged vigilance and strength among their soldiers.
methamphetamine cocaine
How does nicotine indirectly activate the sympathetic nervous system?
occupies and activates nicotinic cholinergic sites causes release of dopamine and acetylcholine and glutamate
Currently, the ______________ epidemic has eclipsed problems associated with methamphetamine, although that should not be taken to mean it is no longer a problem.
opiate
A state vs B state
opponent processes A state - "happy" peak B state - low depressive peak (opponent process)
Physical dependence
physical symptoms ensue after elimination of drug reintroduction of drug eliminates symptoms
Acute effects of cocaine
powerful burst of energy general sense of well-being aphrodisiac properties have been reported but can also cause impotence heart rate and respiration are increased appetite is diminished blood vessels constrict and blood pressure is increased pupils of the eyes are dilated
Harrison Act
prohibits the use and manufacture of cocaine, along with heroin, and renders them illegal
Meth is a...
psychostimulant
How does nicotine hijack the brain?
takes it away from acetylcholine by binding cholinergic receptors
Nicotine is from the ______________ plant
tobacco
A legal complication with stimulant medications, like Ritalin, is their increased use on college campuses by individuals who do not have ADHD, and their use as a club drug. True or False?
true
Amphetamine actions last longer than cocaine, by a matter of hours. True or False?
true
As a person tries to remain abstinent after ceasing cocaine/amphetamine use, they are likely to experience exhaustion, an increase in food intake, and a loss in the experience of pleasure. True or False?
true
Chronic tolerance, which refers to tolerance across days, occurs to methamphetamine. True or False?
true
Evidence that someone has used cocaine or amphetamines can be detected in the urine of an individual 2-3 days after the drug has been taken. True or false?
true
Figure 6.1 depicts the consequences of taking cocaine as being an initial high, followed by a crash. This is the basis of the term "cocaine blues." True or False?
true
Khat (qat) is best obtained from the fresh, moist leaves of the shrub Catha edulis, but not from the dried leaves of this plant. True or False?
true
New preparations of stimulant medications are available which have extended-release properties, thereby increasing the effectiveness of the drug from around 4 hours to approximately half a day. True or False?
true
The benefit of using amphetamine-based stimulants as a study aid is questionable on the grounds of the state-dependent learning phenomenon, as well as other research showing that they can negatively affect complex reasoning. True or False?
true
The crash depicted in Figure 6.1 is also thought to become a chronic state when cocaine users are not taking the drug. The reason for this is suggested to be depletion of monoamines, such as dopamine. True or False?
true
Tolerance to cocaine or the amphetamines is quite complex. Acute tolerance typically occurs within a session of repeated use of certain drugs. In the case of cocaine, this has been demonstrated when using heart rate as a measure, but not when using blood pressure as a measure. True or False?
true
Typical reasons for death due to stimulant overdose are strokes, respiratory problems and myocardial infarction (heart attack). True or False?
true
Withdrawal symptoms from cocaine or amphetamine abuse are typically *not life threatening*. Rather, the changes are in mood (depression) and anxiety, sleep disturbance, along with agitation and intense craving. True or False?
true
Reviews of scientific evidence argue that kids with ADHD can benefit from receiving stimulant- based medication. True or False? However, this benefit does not reduce their risk of developing substance abuse problems in adulthood. True or False?
true, false
The active components of Khat are cathine and cathinone, whose basic effects are indistinguishable from amphetamine, in that they stimulate dopamine elevations and can exert their effects for several hours. True or false? However, since the drug is typically ingested, it's effect is much more intense. True or False?
true, false
Nicotine causes increased dopamine where?
nucleus accumbens
Brain areas activated: More widespread activation during rush (when actual cocaine was delivered) More restricted activation during craving when saline was infused)
1. Anterior cingulate (AC): attention 2. Striatum (Cau, Put): motor response 3. Ventral tegmentum: source of mesolimbic pathway 1. NAc (nucleus accumbens) 2. Amy (amygdala)
What percent of people who try to quit smoking are successful?
3%
Health benefits are usually linked to how many cups of coffee a day
3-6
The peak blood levels of caffeine can be measured in about _________ min. after ingestion
30-60
Cocaine needs to be taken within ____________ during binges; methamphetamine every ____________
30-60 mins 2-3 hrs
Dependence on caffeine
60% of people there are withdrawal symptoms - headache, tiredness, lack of concentration, anxiety, irritability, increased muscle tension, depression, nausea/vomiting
Thought question: Is medication for ADHD based on a clear-cut case that it is a true medical disorder?
?
1) Animal studies have shown that nicotine a) has potential cognitive benefits b) has little cognitive benefit c) produces better learning when administered repeatedly d) impairs memory formation after a single injection
A
16) Which of the following is TRUE about caffeine dependence? a) It is not dependent on the amount of caffeine that a person consumes b) Most people (>90%) will only show dependence after consuming more than 360mg caffeine daily c) Withdrawal symptoms will start no earlier than 2-3 days after cessation of drinking caffeinated beverages d) Depression is common during withdrawal, but not headaches or tiredness
A
26) An impairment in cognitive function due to chronic methamphetamine abuse would be most consistent with evidence for a) Drug-induced downregulation of dopamine D2 receptors b) Increased baseline or resting activity in the orbitrofrontal cortex c) The role of the hypothalamus as an integrator of basic physiological needs d) Increased expression of DAT in the striatum
A
29) The opponent-process theory developed by Solomon and Corbit is based on _______, and helps to explain why chronic abuse of cocaine and methamphetamine results in _________. Using this theory, it is _____ that becomes stronger with each use of the drug. a) The normal counter-regulatory processes of biological systems, depression, state B b) The activities of the HPA axis, Parkinsons' disease, state A c) Cancer cell biology, anxiety disorders, state B d) Hyperpolarization effects in neurons, higher dopamine release, state A
A
3) Which of the following areas is directly stimulated by nicotine to cause DA release in the nucleus accumbens? a) Ventral tegmental area b) Hippocampus c) Amygdala d) Hypothalamus
A
33) Although chronic cocaine and/or methamphetamine abuse may _______, it is very likely that ______ a) Reduce basal OFC activity, these neurons will be active in response to drug-associated cues b) Reduce basal OFC activity, it will not be associated with depression c) Increase OFC basal activity, it will not be associated with a reduction in DAT levels in the striatum d) Reduce OFC basal activity, this will be associated with anxiety, but never depression
A
34) The HPA axis requires that neurons in the hypothalamus release ____ into the pituitary, where it will stimulate the release of ____ into the blood. The end result is release of ______ from the adrenal, and _______ biological effects. a) CRH, ACTH, glucocorticoids, potential life-saving b) Vasopressin, CRF cortisol, immunosuppressive c) ACTH, CRH, corticosterone, potential life-saving d) CRF, ACTH, testosterone, immunosuppressive
A
38) Stimulant drugs like cocaine, amphetamine and methamphetamine can produce a) Vigilance and prolonged wakefulness, but any information learned in a drug-induced state may not be easily retrieved when the individual is off the drug b) Increased sexual desire and can be used to treat erectile dysfunction c) Paranoia, but rarely compulsive stereotyped behavior d) Heart attacks and seizures, but only when someone lacks an enzyme to break down the stimulant drugs e) All of the above
A
9) Which of the following is not true about the neurochemical effects of caffeine? a) Acts as an adenosine receptor agonist b) Acts as an adenosine receptor antagonist c) By blocking adenosine receptors, it indirectly increases glutamate release d) Excites the brain by inhibiting the actions of adenosine
A
A German chemist, __________________, isolates cocaine and identifies it as the active ingredient that provides the stimulant properties of coca leaves
Alfred Niemann
_________________ and _________________ are active in response to drug-related cues
Amygdala anterior cingulate
12) Caffeine from a single caffeinated beverage is absorbed into the blood by _______, and can circulate in adult humans for ______ a) 30 minutes, no more than 1 hour b) 30-45 minutes, at least several hours c) 60 minutes at the earliest, 60-100 hours d) non-smokers only, 5-7 hours
B
23) Nicotine stimulates _______, which _______ a) Dopamine receptors in the skeletal muscles, causes muscle relaxation b) A brain region called the area postrema, can cause nausea and vomiting c) An area called the nucleus tractus solitaries (NTS), produces a calming, relaxing effect d) Dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens, which accounts for the reinforcing effects of nicotine
B
27) In studies that have determined the brain expression of the dopamine 2 (D2) receptor in cocaine abusers, the major findings are a __________ expression of D2R in the ________. a) Increased, striatum b) Decreased, striatum c) Increased, prefrontal cortex d) Decreased, anterior cingulate gyrus
B
36) Which of the following statements is most likely to be correct? a) Synthetic cathinones have a far longer duration of action than amphetamines b) Cocaine has a shorter duration of action than synthetic cathinones c) The psychoactive effect of cocaine has a very long duration of several hours because its metabolites are present in urine for several days d) The mechanism of action by which cathinones affect DA levels is similar to amphetamine, but not for cocaine e) All of the above
B
39) Animal research on stress-induced relapse behavior was inspired by studies in humans that showed that a) Laboratory stressors, such as speech and arithmetic tasks, can increase cortisol in healthy human subjects b) Laboratory stressors in addicted individuals can increase the wish for a drug or produce craving c) Even a small dose of drug in recovering addicts can cause relapse d) Laboratory stressors do not increase craving, but relapse occurs in abstinent addicts who experience excessive daily hassles
B
4) Which of the following is TRUE about nicotine? a) Found in the sympathetic nervous system b) Its actions occur at ionotropic receptors c) It blocks the actions of the enzyme cholinesterase d) A,BandC
B
42) The rationale for testing the role of CRH in animal studies of stress-induced relapse is based on a) The known neuroendocrine effects of CRH in the hypothalamus b) The ability of CRH to cause stress-associated behavioral changes, like anorexia and anxiety-like behavior c) The knowledge that CRH is found in areas outside the hypothalamus, although the importance of CRH in these areas is not known d) Evidence that infusing CRH into the brain will cause animals to show less fear and anxiety
B
43) In studies conducted by Jane Stewart, it was found that ___________ attenuated relapse to drug seeking behavior, but that this had to occur _________. a) Giving a CRH antagonist into the BNST during stress, prior to extinction b) Giving a CRH antagonist into the BNST during stress, once the extinction phase was complete c) Giving CRH into the amygdala, prior to extinction d) Giving a CRH antagonist into the extended amygdala, at the end of the acquisition phase
B
6) When cocaine addicts think they might get cocaine, but actually receive saline injection (eg., Breiter study, 1997), the brain areas that are activated the most are? a) Ventral tegmental area, basal forebrain b) Amygdala, nucleus accumbens c) Anterior cingulate, hippocampus d) Areas of the striatum, prefrontal cortex
B
A nasal inhaler that contained amphetamine Used for treatment of asthma (since dilates nasal and bronchial vessels)
Benzedrine (bennies)
10) Caffeine is considered a ________ molecule, but which has been __________ a) Xylene, methylated b) Xanthene; demethylated c) Xanthene; methylated d) Methylated; modified by xanthine molecules
C
14) Caffeine is a _______ reinforcer in animal _______ a) Negative (i.e. aversive), CPP studies that use very low non-stimulatory doses (1-3 mg/Kg) b) Strong, self-administration studies c) Weak, self-administration studies d) Strong, CPP studies that use very high stimulatory doses of caffeine (>3mg/Kg)
C
18) Which of the following is not true about smoking? a) People with a college education smoke less than those who did not go to college b) The poor smoke more than the rich c) Since the 1960's the number of people that smoke has steadily increased d) Only slightly fewer women than men are known to smoke
C
30) Methamphetamine differs from cocaine by _______, which ________ a) Binding only vesicle monoamine transporters, leads to increased loading of dopamine into the vesicles b) Binding only to the DAT on the axon terminal membrane, then reverses its DA pumping direction c) Binding both axon terminal membrane DAT and vesicle monoamine transporters, which also results in a cytoplasmic buildup of DA inside the terminal d) Stimulating the release of DA molecules once they have been stored by the vesicles, causes terminal membrane DAT to reverse the DA pumping direction
C
35) Which of the following routes of administering methamphetamine or cocaine produces the quickest psychoactive effect? a) Intravenous injection b) Oral c) Inhalation of smoked forms d) Intranasal
C
40) It is well established that drugs of abuse will create a stress-like state in the brain. Therefore, addicts who are trying to stay clean may relapse in response to stress because a) Natural stressors in life activate the same pathways that are activated by drug, thereby creating craving b) Natural stressors in life, by inducing neurochemical changes similar to that produced by drug, are actually serving as cues for craving and potential relapse c) A and B are both plausible d) None of the above, stress-induced changes could never be the basis for craving
C
41) To test the effects of stress on relapse in an animal self-administration study, it is important to impose the stressor during the a) Acquisition phase b) Early during the extinction procedure c) At the end of the extinction phase d) During both the acquisition and the extinction phase
C
5) Which of the following is a common tool for showing that cocaine and methamphetamine addicts have severe deficits in the activity of their brain? a) A constant craving for fried eggs b) An intense dislike for Richard Nixon's picture as he points an accusing finger at drug addicts c) NeuroImaging technology that measures and color codes the activity of neurons in a living brain d) The DSM-5 definition of drug abuse and dependence e) CandD
C
7) When animals self-administer nicotine, it is likely that a) They will increase their responding significantly as the dose of nicotine is adjusted to higher and higher concentrations b) A yoked animal will very likely show the exact same pattern of neurochemical changes c) Each delivery of nicotine stimulates release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens d) All of the above
C
Health consequences of tobacco use
Cardiovascular disease, Atherosclerosis, Coronary heart disease and stroke Respiratory diseases: Chronic bronchitis, Emphysema, Cancer Stroke (could be due to atherosclerosis) - ischemia affects cognitive function could effect motor control
Manufacturing process of cocaine
Coca leaves are broken down in a mixture of Kerosene, ammonia, and water Eventually the mixture is strained and processed into a cocaine paste (crude) Crude cocaine base + Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Cocaine hydrochloride Add baking soda to cocaine HCl dissolved in water; heat to evaporate Hydrochloride; allow to dry: result = solid cocaine, which crackles when smoked (hence, "crack" cocaine)
Two major sources of coffee in the global economy
Coffea arabica - more common; Brazil & Colombia Coffea robusta - contains x2 caffeine content; Indonesia & Africa
Latin-American countries are responsible for much of the illegal manufacture of cocaine
Colombia (top producer) Brazil Bolivia and Peru
11) Which of the following is true about the metabolism of caffeine? a) Occurs in the liver b) Some of the metabolic products are chemical components found in tea and chocolate c) Occurs very rapidly so that very little caffeine is found in plasma after 1 hour d) AandB e) A,BandC
D
13) The ability of caffeine to be soluble in oil, means that it can a) Easily traverse the endothelial cells of blood vessels in the brain b) Easily access adenosine receptors in the brain c) Cross the blood-brain barrier d) All of the above
D
15) Which of the following is NOT true about the development of tolerance to caffeine? a) Blood pressure and heart rate increases can become tolerant b) The high consumption of glucose by the brain does not readily show tolerance c) The arousal and wakefulness effects of caffeine are not readily tolerant d) Tolerance requires that people take more than 300 mg caffeine *per beverage* volume
D
2) Which of the following is known to cause anxiety-like behaviors in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), but promotes fear-like responses in the amygdala? a) Glucocorticoids b) Vasopressin c) Cortisol d) CRH e) AandC
D
20) Which of the following is true? a) Theophylline and theobromine are metabolites of caffeine after it has been degraded by a CYP450 enzyme b) Xanthines are metabolized by cytochrome P450, which can be found in the liver c) Adenosine should be present in high concentrations in the brain when people wake up in the morning d) AandB
D
22) The health benefits of caffeine may be _________, although it should be avoided during pregnancy, since it has been linked to _______________ a) Reduction of stroke and heart disease, increased birth weight in newborns b) A cure for panic disorder, reduced birth weight in newborns c) Reduced risk of type 2 diabetes, increased risk of liver cirrhosis d) Reduced risk of cancer, reduced birth weight in newborns
D
21) Which of the following should occur when nicotine is injected into the VTA? a) Dopamine is released in the nucleus accumbens b) Metabotropic D2R receptors are directly stimulated by nicotine on VTA neurons c) A conditioned place preference can develop if the injections always occur in the same context d) There is antagonism of the reinforcing effects of dopamine e) AandC
E
25) Which of the following statements is incorrect regarding the history of cocaine use? a) The consumption of the coca leaf by indigenous natives of South America was found to increase energy b) The manufacture of Coca-Cola originally included cocaine as an ingredient c) The energizing and mood-elevating effects of cocaine were championed by Freud, who argued it should be given to depressed patients d) The extraction of cocaine from the coca leaf did not occur until the beginning of the twentieth century e) Medicinal agents given to children once contained cocaine, and it is still used for medicinal purposes today
D
32) Human cocaine addicts exposed to cocaine-associated cues (eg., a cocaine video) show a) Reduced activity of the amygdala b) Increased activity of the anterior cingulate only c) Reduced craving and reduced activity of amygdala d) Increased craving and increased activity of the amygdala and anterior cingulate
D
37) Stimulant drugs like cocaine and amphetamine are classic ______, which also cause _______ a) Parasympathetic activators, a lowering of heart rate b) Components of diet pills, increases in appetite c) Sympathomimetic, the eating disorder called anorexia nervosa d) Sympathomimetics, anorexia
D
8) Which of the following is not a methylxanthine? a) Caffeine b) Theobromine c) Theophylline d) CYP450
D
______________ receptor downregulation is associated with reduced activity in the frontal lobe
D2
Cocaine mechanisms of action: binds with and deactivates... which does what?
DA transporter (DAT) blocks reuptake of DA after it is released by terminal buttons therefore, cocaine = DA agonist postsynaptic firing rate is abnormally increased
Signs of cocaine abuse
Dilated pupils heart rate remains high Paranoia and Hallucinations - "crawling" sensations on the skin Depression, anxiety, insomnia, chronic irritability Decreased appetite and significant weight loss Continuously stuffy or runny nose Bleeding of nasal membranes Intense cocaine craving
31) In your reading, two studies (Ward et al, 1997, Comer et al, 2001) looked at tolerance to cocaine, amphetamines and methamphetamine. What conclusions about tolerance can be drawn from these studies? a) Acute tolerance (within a session) and chronic tolerance (across sessions) can develop for heart rate b) Daily methamphetamine use can develop tolerance for subjective feelings - eg., When methamphetamine is given across three days, the first day there is a high, but on the succeeding days, the drug produces more negative feelings c) Acute tolerance can develop to the subjective feelings of cocaine, but it seems that across days, cocaine can still produce a high on the first dose of each day d) AandB e) A,BandC
E
T/F Nicotine is NOT super toxic
F
T/F There are many cholinergic receptors in nucleus accumbens
F BUT dopamine is released here
T/F Caffeine is soluble in only water
F water AND oil
Who recommended cocaine as a therapeutic treatment for depression?
Freud (but eventually changed his mind after he became addicted)
Addition of ____________ converts the cocaine paste into powdered cocaine (called cocaine hydrochloride)
HCl
Coca chewing was practised by the...
Incas in the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes
Functional Tolerance to nicotine
Initial effects involve acute nicotine poisoning • Nausea, vomiting, autonomic symptoms Transition to comfortable smoking is rapid Increase in use follows as a result of tolerance
Meth death rate is ... than that of cocaine Why?
LOWER than because people realize more quickly how much meth is ****ing them up so they're more likely to stop before it kills them people manage cocaine much better
Mechanism of Action of Amphetamine (and Meth) on Dopamine Nerve Terminals
Like, Cocaine, it blocks the DAT, where it interferes with the DA transporter of the synaptic vesicles (VMAT). This depletes the vesicles, and increases DA levels in the cytoplasm of the terminal. This causes the DAT to function in reverse, which means more DA is released into the synaptic cleft. Can directly stimulate the release of dopamine from terminal buttons Capable of DA reuptake blocking Postsynaptic firing rate is abnormally increased
Is nicotine a direct dopamine agonist? Is cocaine/amph?
NO YES
Two subtypes of cholinergic receptors
Nicotinic (ionotropic) - skeletal muscle and brain; mostly excitatory Muscarinic (metabotropic) - brain, heart and smooth muscle; excitatory and inhibitory
Long-term Cocaine Use major brain areas affected Reduced metabolic activity in the...
Reduced blood flow and metabolic activity in areas of the brain important for emotion, decision making, attention impaired neuronal activity Frontal cortex (executive decisions) Cingulate gyrus (attention) Amygdala (fear/anxiety) Basal ganglia (striatum) orbitofrontal cortex
Health benefits of caffeine
Reduced concentrations of inflammatory markers Reduced risk for experiencing stroke Improved glucose metabolism, insulin secretion, and significantly reduced risk for type 2 diabetes Reduced risk for cancer Improved headache relief Decreased risk of developing Parkinson's disease Increased subjective arousal and mental alertness Improved physical endurance, concentration and vigilance (esp. mundane tasks) Reduced fatigue Increased secretion of gastric acids and urine output Bronchial relaxation in the lungs, thereby easing one's breathing
Dispositional (metabolic) tolerance of nicotine
Smokers develop increased rate of nicotine enzymatic breakdown
What led to European knowledge of the coca leaf and its stimulant properties and eventually led its use to become global?
Spanish invasion of central and south America
_________________ (also referred to as _________________) is a phenomenon that argues that the internal state of the organism during learning, needs to be re-enlisted at the time of testing, in order for optimal memory retrieval. Experimental demonstrations in animals and humans have utilized various drugs, such that *if you learn something in a drugged state, then you will remember things better when that drugged state is reenlisted*. The implication is that if you are tested for memory in the non-drugged state (but had learned the information in a drugged state), you will not retrieve information optimally. Conversely, if you had learned in a non-drugged state, and were being tested in a drugged state, your memory would not be optimal. Therefore, when studying, if using stimulants to stay awake longer, it is expected that the best condition for memory retrieval in an exam is to be flying high on stimulants. Not a good idea.
State-dependent learning, state-dependent memory
T/F Amphetamines have been used for a long time
T
T/F Cocaine & AMPH increase DA in the nucleus accumbens
T
T/F People who smoke will show higher rates of metabolizing caffeine
T
T/F The development of symptoms is NOT related to the quantity of caffeine consumed
T
T/F Women are now seen as likely to die from tobacco-related disease as men
T
Common methylated xanthines include coffee and what other two molecules?
Theobromine Theophylline
Street composition of cocaine
White powder (tiny crystals) - Snorted, injected, topical (applied to gums) Solid chunk - Smoked
Can caffeine cross the blood brain barrier? Why or why not?
YES its solubility in oil means that it can easily dissolve into the fatty membranes of cells so it can readily cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to access neurons in the brain
Amphetamine came to be used medically as...
a nasal and bronchial decongestant
Nicotine beats __________________ to receptors, which causes stimulation of __________________ neurons
acetylcholine dopamine
Caffeine exerts its stimulatory effects by occupying ________________ receptors What happens when adenosine accumulates in the brain? So what happens when caffeine occupies adenosine receptors? When caffeine prevents adenosine from binding to its receptor, it is acting as an adenosine _______________
adenosine it stimulates adenosine receptors on neurons, which will then cause less release of excitatory NTs, such as NE, serotonin (5HT) (monoamines), and glutamate adenosine cannot reduce excitation, which results in continued wakefulness and alertness antagonist
In general, meth causes you too... (appearance-wise)
age quickly
What creates a paradox regarding nicotine's classification as a stimulant
effect of taking the drug is normally calming and relaxing
Isolated and found to be the active ingredient of ma huang and similar plants Related to amphetamine
ephedrine
Carbon monoxide attaches to _______________ which prevents transport of _______________ to _______________ → _______________
hemoglobin oxygen lungs asphyxiation
Amphetamine or cocaine abuse can result in psychosis. However, paranoid delusions are rarely - if at all - observed. True or False?
false
Stimulants, like amphetamine, have been used in diet pills. This has been somewhat successful, with no evidence that a risk of dependence or addiction can develop. True or False?
false
The side effects of stimulant medication in ADHD include weight gain, an increase in appetite and excessive sleeping. True or False?
false
There is no evidence that stereotypic behavior (stereotypy) occurs in people who abuse illegal stimulants. True or False?
false
3 The prescription drug Ritalin contains amphetamine, while the prescription drug Adderol contains methylphenidate. True or False?
false the opposite
Cocaethylene is a potentially toxic product that is formed when cocaine and heroin are combined to form a "speedball." True or False?
false when an individual uses *alcohol and cocaine* at the same time, cocaethylene develops in the liver as a result
Getting through withdrawal is called the extinction phase, since the individual is trying to extinguish their craving and depression. True or False?
false when operant behavior that has been previously reinforced no longer produces reinforcing consequences the behavior gradually stops occurring
CPP with caffeine?
for LOW doses, animals do show preference for caffeine BUT with HIGH doses, they show aversion - because of overstimulation (uncomfortable, agitated)
What's interesting about the growth in # of coffee shops?
growth hasn't plateaued (leveled off → still growing)
Nicotine self administration
happens after a certain point, but when dose becomes too high, animals stop
If PFC function is weak, amygdala function is... results in?
high nervous breakdown possibility + relapse?
In women who use oral contraceptives, half-life for caffeine is ______________
increased
Nicotine effects on dopamine
increases activity of dopaminergic neurons in the mesolimbic system cholinergic receptors in mesocorticolimbic area stimulation of nicotinic receptors increases DA in the nucleus accumbens injections of a nicotine agonist into the ventral tegmental area will cause development of CPP
After repeated drug use what happens to the opponent process? Why? How is it compared to A state?
it gets stronger CNS adapts to new reality - opponent process needs to be used frequently, so it becomes strengthened (this is a form of tolerance) B state > A state
Is caffeine reinforcing?
it has NOT been found to be a powerful reinforcer in animal self-administration paradigms but it may be for some people - difficult to tell
Camellia sinensis
latin name for the tea plant
Oral delivery is ____________ reinforcing due to slower __________________ profile
less pharmacokinetic
Craving: ___________ regions more active in response to drug-related cues
limbic
Major site for metabolism (breakdown) of caffeine
liver
Female cocaine death rate is...than males'
lower
The plant _______________ was first used to treat asthma
ma huang
Caffeine and related members of the xanthine family are actually referred to as "_______________" since the basic xanthine has a _________ group attached to the molecule
methylxanthines methyl
Adenosine Where are adenosine receptors
molecule that accumulates in the brain through the day, and at night exerts sleep-inducing actions; if the actions of adenosine are blocked, this will prevent drowsiness, compromising our ability to go to sleep at night neuromodulator (modulates the activity of neurons that release neurotransmitters) presynaptic membrane of a cell
Most preventable cause of disease and premature death in the U.S.A
nicotine
Antagonist of alpha 4 beta 2 receptors causes...
no dopamine release
Septum
sheet of neurons cholinergic neurons in middle region
Caffeine is ingested, which means it has relatively _______ absorption Absorption happens mostly in the...
slow SI
Death rate for cocaine generally has...
stay constant, unlike heroin
Stereotypic (or stereotypical) behaviors are usually a pattern or sequence of movements that occur repeatedly. The condition is called '__________.' For example, if a rat is given amphetamine, it will move constantly in a circle, around and around, until the drug wears off.
stereotypy
B state gets ____________ with repeated use
stronger
Laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (LDTg)
structure within the dorsal lateral pons containing cholinergic neurons that project to the VTA and others that project to the brainstem and thalamus
Thought question: Why is prescribing amphetamine or methylphenidate for ADHD thought to be paradoxical?
the lack of stimulation seems to be the key to causing hyperactivity and distraction in someone with ADHD the biggest issue that ADHD causes is a lack of dopamine, or at least a dysfunction in its use in the brain but could become addicted to AMPJ/methylphenidate
Higher nicotine use rates among...
the poor, the least educated, and those with mental health or substance abuse disorders
Drugs that are similar to cocaine in its anesthetic properties have...
the suffix "-caine" novocaine lidocaine
Pharmacokinetics
the time course over which a drug can have a potential impact how long it takes for the drug to be absorbed, distributed, metabolized and excreted
Half life If 30 mg of a drug is circulating in the blood at time 0, and 15 mg is measured in the blood at time 30 minutes, then the drug's half-life is 30 minutes. This means, that by 60 minutes there should be _____ mg circulating in the blood
the time it takes for half of a given dose of drug to be metabolized 7.5
When caffeine is metabolized, the major metabolites are _________________ and _________________ (each of these has lost a ___________ group - i.e. they only have two, while caffeine has three)
theophylline theobromine methyl
Caffeine intolerance
there are a small subset of people who simply cannot tolerate caffeine at the physiological level - they react to it (analogous to an allergic reaction) and are medically restricted from consuming caffeinated products extreme agitation, hyperactivity, excess sympathetic nervous system activation
While smoking/while not smoking - appetite effects
while smoking appetite suppressed while not smoking appetite increased
Coffee is part of a chemical family called the '_____________'
xanthines
Chemicals that are not a natural part of our body are essentially ... which the liver breaks down
xenobiotics
The effects of cocaine or amphetamines by the oral or intranasal routes is markedly slower in onset than intravenous injection of these drugs. However, if you smoked crack cocaine or crystal Meth - would the psychoactive effects occur faster than intravenous delivery? Yes/No?
yes
