EXSS 181 Final UNC
SMARTS goals
Specific Measurable Action-oriented Realistic Timely Self-determined
TARGET
Task Authority Recognition (sometimes referred to as reward) Grouping Evaluation Timing --used to influence motivation climate by using conditions that promote mastery/task climate
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake, voluntary
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
Personality
a pattern of characteristic thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguishes one person from another overtime
Stress
a relationship between the person and the environment that is taxing or exceeding the resources of the person and endangers his/her well-being
resilience
ability to bounce back from adversity or stressor
B=f(P,E)
behavior is a function of both the Person and his/her environment
2 theories that suggest situation influences personality development
behaviorism and social learning
2 aspects from cognitive evaluation theory that affect rewards
controlling aspect: more control = lower SD (affects autonomy) informational aspect: more info = more SD (affects competence)
Holistic Aggression
Intent to harm, Goal to harm, Anger
Instrumental Aggression
Intent to harm, Goal to win, No Anger
feedback and its functions
Information that is obtained about a behavior -motivational function -instructional function -informational function
integrated stage
Involves both social comparison and autonomous achievement strategies
Role Learner Characteristics
Person characteristics that are ascribed and achieved -ascribed: age, sex, social class, religion, etc. -achieved: skills, personality, confidence, leadership skills, motivation
Ego/Outcome achievement perspective
Relative to other people
Task/Mastery achievement perspective
Relative to your own past performance
Mastery-involving climate
emphasis on learning, effort, enjoyment of the activity, cooperation
cognitive appraisal
evaluation of whether the encounter has significance for the person's well-being -primary: what's at stake? -secondary: what can be done?
problems with PST
lack of conviction and time, lack of sport knowledge, lack of follow-up
Thought-stopping
learned response which teaches the user to recognize and change negative self-statements and thoughts; used to increase attention
Attentional Selectivity
letting some information into the processing system while other information is screened or ignored (spotlight)
3 socialization mechanisms
modeling, reinforcement, peer comparison
Attentional Alertness
more aroused = more narrowed focus/more alert
burnout
multidimensional, cognitive-affective syndrome characterized by emotional and physical exhaustion, reduced sense of accomplishment, and sport devaluation --stress is a symptom of burnout, not a driving force
anxiety
negative emotional state characterized by nervousness, worry, apprehension, and increased physiological activation
drive theory
the relationship between anxiety and performance is direct/linear -high arousal for expert, low arousal for novice
sport and exercise psychology
the scientific study of human behavior in sport and exercise, and the practical application of that knowledge
attribution theory and its 2 assumptions
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition 1. motivation influenced by attributions and emotional reactions 2. commonly cited reasons for success and failure
common coping strategies of athletes
thought stopping, narrowing focus, social support, PST, time management, training hard and smart
Interactionist Approach
traits and situation factors both interact to determine behavior (B = f(P,E))
Trait Approach
traits are consistent and generalizable (across situations and contexts); poor predictor of behavior alone as it's nonspecific
Concepts of ability
undifferentiated: does not differentiate between ability and effort differentiated: differentiate between ability and effort
broad internal focus
used to analyze and plan
positive youth development (PYD)
used to define promotion of desirable competencies that lead to positive developmental outcomes for youth -outcomes: communication and decision-making skills, problem-solving, goal setting, leadership, time management skills -examples: Girls on the Run, Upward Sports
psychological skills training
used to enhance performance or provide increasing satisfaction
broad external focus
used to rapidly assess a situation
Psychoneuromuscular theory (imagery)
vividly imagined events innervate muscles in similar way that physically practicing movement does
two characteristic to effective imagery
vividness and controllability
Attentional Focus
width- broad/narrow direction-External vs. Internal
Reasons for discontinuation in sport
-Other interests (sport & other) -Lack of ability -Lack of fun and excitement -Pressure, hard training -Dislike of coach -Lack of teamwork
negative approach to provide feedback
-attempts to eliminate undesirable behaviors thru punishment and criticism -focuses on punishing undesirable behaviors, which should lead to future redirection of these inappropriate behaviors
4 components of modeling processes
-attention: eliminate distraction -retention: mental practice -motor reproduction: turning thoughts into action -motivation: provide some rationale/connection why skill is important for them
Overtraining
Short cycle of high levels of training that are near or at maximal capacity
Reasons to Continue sport
Enjoyment, Increased self-esteem and confidence, Socializing
Overtraining syndrome
Excessive overload on an athlete without adequate rest -> decreased performance and inability to train
Ego-involving climate
performers are compared with one another (competition) and urged to compete to be the best
Dorsch (2009) and Socialization
-Are parents socialized through their children's sport participation? -Parents are socialized by child's sport participation (behavior, cognition, affect, relationships) -Putting your child in sport can socialize the parents, lots of cognitions and the parents need to learn how to act as a sport parents, train parents on how to encourage, watch children- rather than asking how they did ask if they had fun
key characteristics of aggressive acts
-Behavior -Involves harm or injury -Directed toward another living organism -Involves intent
Reasons for participating in sport
-Competence / Skill development -Fun -Affiliation -Excitement / challenge of competition -Fitness / Health / Appearance
common problems with goal-setting
-Convincing athletes to set goals -Failing to set specific goals -Setting too many goals too soon -Failing to adjust goals -Failing to recognize individual differences -Not providing follow up/evaluation
6 periods of sport psychology
-Early Years -Griffith Era -Preparation for the Future -Establishment of Academic Branch -Multidisciplinary Research -Contemporary
4 parts of attention/concentration
-Focusing on the relevant cues in the environment-selective attention -Maintaining attentional focus over time -Having awareness of the situation & performance errors -Shifting attentional focus when necessary
5 ways to promote cooperation
-Positive interdependence -have face-to-face interactions -encourage individual accountability -train social skills -provide opportunities for group evaluations
3 types of modeling effects
-Skill/behavior acquisition -Psychological responses -Response facilitation
on-site coping techniques of arousal
-Smile in response to tension -Enjoy the situation -Slow down -Stay focused in the present -Be prepared with a competition plan --set up stressful situations to practice competition
4 ways to measure degree of learning
-Verbal production -Recognition -Comprehension test -Actual performance
5 core principles of coaching behavior related to athletes' self-esteem, motivation
-Winning = maximum effort, improvement -Liberal use of contingent positive reinforcement -Establish norms that emphasize athletes' mutual obligations to help and support each other -Involve athletes in decisions about team rules and compliance -Self-monitor behavior and get feedback
self-determination continuum
-amotivation: absence of motivation (least self-determined) -external: extrinsic; performing an activity to receive a reward or avoid a punishment -introjected: extrinsic; performing a behavior to avoid guilt and anxiety -identifed: performing the behavior to achieve some valued, extrinsic outcome -integrated: performing a behavior because it is part of your sense of self (most self-determined)
six exercise adherence strategies
-behavior modification : prompts/contracting -reinforcement: self-monitoring attendance/participation, rewards/feedback -cognitive/behavioral: goal setting/SMARTS -social support: partner/group exercise; encouragement/assistance from family or friend -decision making: decision balance sheet -intrinsic approach: focus on experience, process orientation, self-determination, purpose/meaning
common issues for transitioning out of sport that affect athlete mental health
-bitterness of being forced to retire -lack of self-identity -loss of comradery with teammates and relationships with coaches -loss of confidence in ability to cope with life situations -inability to replace excitement of sport experience
ways a practitioner can facilitate recovery
-build rapport with injured person -teach PST -education -positive self-talk/thoughts -imagery/visualization -set realistic expectations -relaxation training -foster social support
Self-fulfilling Prophecy Effect (self-efficacy)
-coaches form expectations based on personal and performance cues -coaches' expectations affect their own behaviors -coaches' behavior affect athlete performance -athlete's performance confirms coach expectations
ways practitioners can promote more intrinsic forms of motivation
-desirable/undesirable defined in measurable terms -structure environment to optimally challenge athlete -determine significant reinforces -apply immediate/contingent feedback/reinforcement
goal-setting direct view
-directs attention to important elements -mobilizes effort (i.e., motivation) -prolongs effort (i.e., persistence) -fosters the development of new learning strategies
misconceptions of confidence
-either you have it, or you don't -only positive feedback can build confidence -success always builds confidence -confidence = outspoken arrogance -mistakes inevitably destroys confidence
3 characteristics of burnout
-emotional and physical exhaustion -reduced sense of personal accomplishment -devaluation of sport
cognitive functioning regarding exercise
-exercise = acute effects on memory and cognition -long-term outcomes = exercise protective against normal effects of aging on brain
relationship between exercise, depression, and anxiety
-exercise associated with lower levels of anxiety and depression -exercise is at least as effective as medication *not very strong causal evidence yet
3 predictors of goal involvement form Achievement Goal Theory
-goal orientation (mastery or outcome) -concept of ability -motivational climate
how does resilience differ from grit and persistence
-grit does not require a stressor -persistence is more motivational
two factors of resilience
-hardiness: (dispositional) ability to cope with difficulty -persistence: (situational) giving best effort despite difficulty
personality findings regarding exercise
-hardiness: personality with style that enables a person to withstand or cope with stressful situations --exercise + hardiness = less stress, better health --exercise + self-development = body satisfaction -> higher self-esteem
2 ways anxiety negatively affects performance
-increased muscle tension/coordination difficulties -attention/concentration changes
Hollander's Model of Personality
-internal psychological core (internal & constant; hardest to change) -typical responses -role-related behavior (external & dynamic; easiest to change)
aspects of affiliation in youth peer relationships central to youth sport socialization
-peer acceptance, status, and popularity -friendship -social support
Antecedents of Self-Efficacy
-performance accomplishments: most dependable/most powerful; coaching tactics to elicit feelings of successful performance -vicarious experience: modeling -verbal persuasion: deception = danger of undermining credibility and trust -imaginal experiences -physiological/psychological states
3 types of self-talk
-positive/motivational -instructional (used to cue techniques) -negative
types of mindfulness
-practical: paying attention on purpose in present moment and non judgmentally to unfold experiences by moment -research: self-regulation of attention to being a quality of non-elaborative awareness; orientation to experience -sports based: having nonjudgemental present moment acceptance of internal experiences an clarification of valued goals and enhanced attention to external cues
Camire et al. (2011) and PYD
-purpose: to present strategies coaches' implemented in practice to promote positive development with examples of challenges they have -research based -looked at positive youth development facilitation through sport, development of meaningful relationships w athletes -sport is a highly desirable setting to facilitate development and coaches can use the power of sport to positively influence lives: think of well thought philosophy to develop athletes, develop relationships with athletes, intentionally plan practices that teach life skills too, teach athletes how to transfer skills to real life
Kee and Wang (2008)
-relationships between mindfulness and flow disposition and mental skills adoption -concentrate on objectives, results and discussion -increased mindfulness = more challenge/skill balance, awareness, loss of self-consciousness, clear goals, better concentration
contributions to higher risk of burnout
-situational factors: overload on demands, monotonous training, lack of social support, low autonomy, low reward, lengthy season, poor team climate and interpersonal relationships -personality factors: perfectionism, type A personality, high trait anxiety, low self-confidence, tendency to make more attributions that have external locus of control
3 characteristics of attributions on motivation
-stability: expectancy of future success or failure ~stable = high expectancy of same result in future ~unstable = low expectancy of same result in future -locus of causality (internal/external) ~internal = increased success or failure ~external = decreased success or failure -locus of control (in control or not in control) ~ in control = increased motivation ~out control = decreased motivation
ways to improve concentration
-stimulation in practice -use nonjudgemental thinking; cue words -practice eye control -establish routines -monitor self -develop competition plans -overlearn skills
positive approach to providing feedback
-strengthens desired behavior by motivating participants to perform/exhibit them, and by reinforcing the behaviors when they occur
Horn (1995)
-suggests positive reinforcement needs to be contingent
guidelines of effectiveness of self-talk
-use short, specific phrases that are repetitive -speak in 1st person, present tense, and kindly to self -say with meaning and attention -specific task instructions > general instructions
4 steps of PST Program
1. Education and Assessment: psych skills taught/learned; assessment focuses on identification of psych skills that need to be improved 2. Acquisition: focuses on learning techniques; aims to learn goals out of training environment 3. Practice: aims for skills to be performed automatically and integrated into competition without disruption; and create real-world experience 4. Evaluation: feedback/assessment to determine progress
number one predictor of self-efficacy
performance accomplishments
Explanations for stress-injury relationship
1. attentional changes: stress creates narrowed attention by disrupting athlete's peripheral vision 2. muscle tension: high stress can be accompanied by increased muscle tension that interferes with coordination 3. toughness: rewarding attitude of max effort @ all times 4. worthlessness: feelings based on lack of contribution to winning, lack of playing time, possible removal from social interactions
sports confidence model
1. factors influencing sport confidence: demographics and personality, organizational culture 2. sources of sport confidence: achievement, self-regulation, social climate 3. constructs of sport confidence: confidence in decision-making skills, physical skills/training, resilience (interventions occur here) 4. consequences of sports confidence: increased ABCs
quick coherence technique (mindfulness)
1. heart focus 2. heart breathing 3. heart feeling
key components of sport competition process
1. objective competitive situation: standards set by past, idealized, or someone else's performance (requires area for comparison) 2. subjective competitive process: one's perceptions, interpretations, appraisals of competitive situations 3. response (competition): whether one approaches a competitive situation & how (behavioral, psychological, physiological) 4. consequences: longer-term effects/outcomes of competitive process (performance, attitudes, health)
3 concepts of mindfulness
1. present-moment focus 2. increase awareness 3. acceptance
5 stages of PST
1. problem identification 2. commitment 3. execution 4. environmental management 5. generalization
process goals
Actions an individual must engage in during performance to execute or perform well
2 major components of fair play
Adhering to both formal and unwritten rules that allow all contestants an equitable chance to pursue victory
Reframing
Changing a negative into a positive self-statement; used to control emotions
Social Comparison
Children focus on comparing their performance with that of others
imagery
Creating or recreating an experience on the mind; recalls memory info stored from experience and shaping into meaningful information -2 components: recall and construction
5-stage grief reaction
Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance & reorganization
Triple code model
Imagery comprises the image, somatic response, and image meaning
Bioinformational theory
Images are made of stimulus and response propositions. It is critical to imagine not only stimulus propositions (statements that describe the scenario to be imagined) but also response propositions (imaginer's response to the scenario).
psychological benefits of exercise
Increases in: assertiveness, confidence, emotional stability, internal locus of control, memory, self control, etc. Decreases in: substance abuse, anger, anxiety, confusion, depression, headache, hostility, tension
Socializing Agents
Individual people who personally interact with the role learner (ex: parents, friends, sibling, coaches, peers, etc.)
Seefeldt's Model of Moral Development
Level 1: External control: It's OK as long as I don't get caught Level 2: An eye-for-an-eye: It's OK to retaliate if I am wronged Level 3: Altruistic view: Treat others as you want to be treated Level 4: Following external rules: It's OK if it isn't against the rules Level 5: What is best for all involved: Considering the welfare of others
Assertive Behavior
No intent to harm, Legitimate force, Unusual effort & energy expenditure
Trait Approach: Big 5 Theory
OCEANS: -openness to experiences -conscientiousness -Extraversion/Introversion -agreeableness -neuroticism
narrow external focus
Used to focus exclusively on 1 or 2 environmental cues
narrow internal focus
Used to mentally rehearse an upcoming performance or control an emotional state
Reasons to start sport
Weight control and/or Health factors
performance goals
achievement based on personal outcome
state anxiety
actual apprehension and tension felt at a given time; changing mood state -cognitive anxiety: mental/thought component -somatic anxiety: physiological component/rxns
autogenic training
aims for 6 types of sensations; takes longer time to learn/requires extensive practice -sensations focused on: heaviness and warmth in extremities; regulation of HR and breathing; abdominal warmth and cool forehead
use of challenge appraisal as a technique for building resilience
allows for equal sympathetic activity but higher resilient individuals have faster parasympathetic activity
Reversal Theory
arousal affects performance based on interpretation; which affects performance/not actual amount of arousal
Catastrophe Theory
as arousal increases, performance increases to a point (like inverted-U); beyond optimal level = catastrophe
self-serving bias
attributions that help you increase or maintain your self-esteem and confidence -for success = internal and stable -for failure = external and unstable
3 psychological needs to encourage self-determination
autonomy, competence, relatedness
autonomous competence
children focus on mastering their environment through self-testing their abilities
3 ways of knowing
common sense, practical experience, science
Theory
composition of ideas intended to explain something
Coping
constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts used to manage specific external/internal demands that stressful ~problem-focused: efforts directed at changing transaction ~emotion-focused: efforts directed at changing emotion
socialization
continuous process where individuals learn skills, behaviors, attitudes and values that cause/enable function -into sport: influence of others and opportunity -> sport participation -through sport: sport participation -> learned attributes, values, behaviors, and skills -out of sport: influence of others and opportunities -> choose to focus on other activities, drop out of sport, barrier to participation
progressive relaxation and its assumptions
contraction/tension and relaxation of major groups in sequence progressing thru whole body -tension and relaxation cannot occur simultaneously -relaxation of muscles contributes to relaxation of mind
Moral reasoning
decision process where the rightness or wrongness of a course of action is determined
punishment
decreases the likelihood of a behavior
3 methods of arousal/anxiety control
deep-breathing, progressive relaxation (PMR), autogenic training
4 steps of scientific method
develop the problem, formulate a hypothesis, gather data, analyze and interpret results
Moral behavior
execution of an act that is deemed right or wrong
deep-breathing
expanding the diaphragm to increase one's intake of air to assist with relaxation and enhance vocal delivery decrease muscle tension -best used in competition during breaks
Norman Triplett
father of social psychology that studied performance psychology; experimented on social facilitation of cyclists
outcome goals
focus on a competitive result of an event
Achievement Goal Theory and its 2 assumptions
focuses on the manner in which success is defined both by the individual and within the achievement situation itself -people motivated to demonstrate competence -motivation influence by personal meaning one gives success/failure
Revised Frustration-Aggression Theory
frustration from failure or goal blockage -> increased arousal (pain/anger) -> socially learned cues signal appropriateness of aggression -> aggression as a result/action
arousal
general state of activation; intensity dimension of motivation at a particular moment
goal-setting indirect view
goal-setting increasing confidence, reducing anxiety, enhancing satisfaction = increased performance
what group is the highest at risk for injury?
high stress, low coping and support skills
reactions to athletic injuries
identity loss, fear/anxiety, lack of confidence, performance decrements, relief
reinforcement
increases the likelihood of a behavior -positive: adding stimulus to increase likelihood of behavior -negative: removing stimulus to increase likelihood of behavior
Symbolic learning theory (imagery)
individual creates motor program in CNS via visualization, mental blueprint is formed that will allow for execution of movement
Inverted-U Hypothesis
performance is optimal at a moderate level of arousal and falls off if athletes are not aroused enough or too aroused
Socializing Agencies
institutions or larger organizations in the culture (ex: school, sports club, media, etc.)
dual-process model of resilience
interaction between dispositional level of resilience and appraisal of stressor that results in resilient or non-resilient behaviors/outcomes -static: dispositional trait = general ability to bounce back -dynamic: coping process = continued positive adaptation despite adversity -situational: context-dependent = increased self-regulation, emotional regulation, coping skills, memory and problem-solving
Brustad (1993) and Sport Socialization
interested in youth attraction to activity; did questionnaires to measure several variables -Hypothesis: child gender, parent enjoyment, fitness, and importance -> parental encouragement -> child attraction to physical activity -Results: child gender and parent enjoyment -> parental encouragement -> child attraction to physical activity -Conclusion: social agents and role learner attributes are related to socialization outcomes
attentional distractors
internal: -Attending to Past Events -Attending to Future Events -Choking Under Pressure -Overanalyzing Body Mechanics -Fatigue -Inadequate Motivation external: -visual -auditory
Attributions
interpretations or explanations individuals give for success or failure
IZOF
optimal level varies by person & activity -has the most empirical evidence
social learning theory
people learn behaviors for certain situations via observation/modeling
Behaviorism
people learn behaviors for specific situations via rewards and punishments
competence motivation theory and its key assumptions
people motivated to feel competent where perceptions of control work to influence motivation thru affective or emotional states -perceptions of control work alone with self-worth and competence evaluations to influence motivation -perceptions of control, competence, self-esteem do not influence motivation directly -perceptions influence affective or emotional states (ex: enjoyment, anxiety, pride, shame) that influence motivation
motivational climate
perception of achievement promoted by SO *most influenced by a practitioner
Moral development
process of experience and growth through which a person develops the capacity to morally reason
Self-Regulation of Attention
process of regulating attention in order to bring a quality of non-elaborative awareness to current experience
learned helplessness
psychological state where people have learned that failure is inevitable and out of their control (stable, uncontrollable)
3 ares of sport psychologist
research, teaching, consulting (educational, counseling, clinical)
Self-talk
self-referenced thoughts, or thoughts that we think to ourselves about ourselves
ultimate goal of PST
self-regulation
goal involvement
situation specific state measure of how an individual relates to an achievement situation at a specific point in time --most positive outcomes = high task/high ego --most negative outcomes = low task, high ego
competition
social process that occurs when rewards are given based on how their performance compares with the performance of others
cooperation
social process through which performance is evaluated and rewarded in terms of the collective achievements of a group
multidimensional theory
somatic and cognitive anxiety influence performance differentially -cognitive is negative/linear -somatic is inverted u
staleness
state in which the athlete has difficulty maintaining standard training regimens and can no longer achieve previous performance results --physical and psychological symptom of overtraining syndrome)
self-efficacy
strength of a person's conviction that they can execute the behavior needed for a successful performance in a specific situation
autonomic flexibility response theory
stressor triggers sympathetic response -> resilience triggers parasympathetic activity and returns towards homeostasis -> predicted responses = increased resilient individuals = faster parasympathetic activity ; adaptive benefits = mental health, cognitive performance, CV responses, etc.
biofeedback
teaches control of physiological or autonomic responses to arousal
trait anxiety
tendency to become anxious in stressful situations; acquired behavior (part of one's personality)
self-regulation
the ability to work toward one's short and long-term goals by effectively monitoring and managing one's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
Attentional Capacity
the amount of information we can remember and attend to for a short time (controlled vs automatic processing)
self-confidence
the belief that you can successfully perform a desired behavior -stable trait
modeling
the cognitive, affective, and behavioral changes that result from observing others
Motivation
the direction and intensity of effort
Coleman Griffith
• "Father of Modern Sports Psychology"; created first research lab
Ego Goal Involvement
• avoid learning opportunities that have risk of displaying error • put in just enough effort to socially compare well or disguise poor ability • give up in face of failure
Task Goal Involvement
• choose learning opportunities at risk of displaying mistakes • high effort; persist in face of failure • continue to problem solve when encountering failure