EXSS 181 Midterm 1

What are the 2 aspects from Cognitive Evaluation Theory that affect an individual's interpretation of a reward?

--Controlling: more controlling=undermine self-determination; affects autonomy perceptions --Informational aspect: more informational=enhance self-determination; affects competence perceptions

What are the 4 possible combinations of goal orientations?

--High task, low ego --High task, high ego --Low task, low ego --Low task, high ego

What does the interactionist approach to personality suggest about how personality develops?

--Person factors (traits) and situation factors interact to determine behavior --B=f(P,E) --combo of trait and situation theories --concept of state vs trait characteristics

Individualized Zones of Optimal Functioning

--The optimal level of arousal doesn't always occur at the midpoint --One's optimal level of state anxiety rests not at a single point, but a bandwidth

Describe and explain the 4 primary ways to measure degrees of learning

--Verbal production --Recognition --Comprehension Test --Actual performance

3 roles of sport psychologists

-Research (plan, design, implement, and evaluate research); -Teaching (university courses); -Consulting (help individuals and teams improve performance)

Stress

a relationship b/t the person and the environment that is appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person and endangers his/her well being --a product of the dynamic and transactional relationship b/t the person and environment

Competition: Zero-Sum

a situation where rewards are distributed unequally based on performance outcome --Win(+) + Loss(-)=0 --problem: does not consider the individual's perceptions of the competition itself or the win/loss outcome

What is a theory?

a supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained

Cognitive appraisal

an evaluation of whether the encounter has significance for the person's well-being --Primary appraisal: what is at stake? Is it relevant to my goals, beliefs? --Secondary appraisal: what can be done? can i manage, prevent, adapt to it?

Competition: Social Evaluation

comparison of performance to a standard, in the presence of at least one other person, who is aware of the competition goal, and can evaluate the performance

Coping

constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts used to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person --Problem-focused: efforts directed at changing the transaction (solving the problem) --Emotion-focused: efforts directed at changing the emotional response without changing the transaction

6 periods of sports psychology

--Early years(1895-1920): characterized by isolated studies --Griffith Era(1921-1938): sport psychology labs and psychological testing took place; Coleman Griffith became the first American to specialize in the area; lab at University of Illinois --Preparation for Future(1939-1965): characterized by the field's scientific development attributable to the educational efforts of Franklin Henry --Establishment of Academic Branch(1966-1977): sport and exercise psychology became a valued component of the academic discipline of physical education --Multidisciplinary Research(1978-2000): multidisciplinary science and practice, characterized by tremendous growth as the field became more accepted and respected by the public --Contemporary(2000-present): distinguished by continued growth worldwide, considerable diverse research, and interest in application and consulting

What are the 3 predictors of goal involvement (state) from achievement goal theory? Which one might be the most easily influenced by a practitioner?

--Goal orientation(dispositional): how does the individual typically define success/failure? (task/ego) --concept of ability: undifferentiated/differentiated --Motivational climate: mastery,performance

In what 2 key ways is anxiety described to affect performance?

--Increased muscle tension and coordination difficulties --Attention and concentration changes (narrowing of attention, attending to inappropriate cues)

What is feedback? 3 functions of feedback?

--Information that is obtained about a behavior; intrinsic--> visual, kinesthetic, tactile; augmented-->external source (coach) --Functions: informational, motivational, reinforcement

Explain the difference b/t internal psychological core, typical responses, and role-related behavior in Hollander's model of personality

--Internal psychological core: basic level, values, interests, motives, etc. --Typical responses: ways we learn to adjust to the environment, how we usually respond to the world around us --Role-related behavior: most changeable aspect of personality; different situations elicit different behaviors

Define and explain the differences b/t intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

--Intrinsic: behaviors demonstrated voluntarily, in the absence of constraints imposed by others; performing an activity for its own sake --Extrinsic: behaviors displayed for the purpose of achieving some end and not for its own sake

What are the 2 types of motivational climate? What individuals in the achievement goal environment may influence these goals?

--Mastery: emphasis on learning, effort, individual improvement, and cooperation tend to evoke task involvement --Performance: emphasis on competition, winning, and social comparison tend to evoke ego involvement

Vicarious Modeling

--Maximize model/observer similarity (age, gender, competence; coping vs. mastery) --Model verbalizations (problem-solving, self-confidence, positive vs. negative affect, task difficulty)

Difference b/t a coping and a mastery model? Is one better than the other (Weiss, et al., 1998 study)

--Moderate to large differences b/t control and modeling groups on skill, fear, and self-efficacy following the intervention --No differences b/t modeling groups

Who are the main historical figures? What did they do?

--Norman Triplett: key figure in history of social, sport, and exercise psychology; studied social facilitation of bikers; tested whether bikers rode faster when in groups than alone --Coleman Griffith: "Father of Modern Sport Psychology"; first research lab; 25 research articles

Social Learning Theory (Social Cognitive Theory)

--Observer processes modeled information and uses it to guide behavior attempts --Four processes are fundamental to success: attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation

Name the 5 big traits. What is the iceberg profile?

--Openness to experience --Conscientiousness --Extraversion/Introversion --Agreeableness --Neuroticism (emotionality) --Iceberg profile= a visual representation of desirable emotional health status characterized by low raw scores on the tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion.

4 ways to assess whether learning has occurred following modeling?

--Outcome vs process --Recall vs. recognition --Learning vs performance

What are the 2 assumptions of the Achievement goal theory?

--People are motivated to demonstrate competence --Motivation is influenced by the personal meaning one assigns to perceived success and failure

Describe the competence motivation model. What are its 3 key assumptions?

--Perceptions of control (over whether one can learn and perform skills) work along with self-worth and competence evaluations to influence motivation --Perceptions of control, competence, self-esteem do not influence motivation directly --Rather, these perceptions influence affective or emotional states (enjoyment, anxiety, pride, shame) that in turn influence motivation

What kind of feedback did Horn (1995) suggest was necessary for the most positive psychological outcomes?

--Positive contingent feedback

What are ways to promote cooperation in sport environments?

--Positive interdependence --Face-to-Face interaction --Individual accountability --Social Skills Training --Opportunities for group evaluation

Horn (1995) study found that more frequent positive feedback was associated with poorer positive psychological outcomes, why?

--Positive reinforcement not contingent --Criticism usually followed by technical instruction

Differences b/t the positive approach and the negative approach to providing feedback in coaching?

--Positive: strengthens desired behavior by motivating participants to perform or exhibit them, and by reinforcing the behaviors when they occur; focuses on correct performance --Negative: attempts to eliminate undesirable behaviors through punishment and criticism; focuses on errors; fear of failure is key problem

Positive/negative reinforcement? Punishment?

--Reinforcement: increases the likelihood of a behavior that precedes it --Punishment: decreases the likelihood of a behavior that precedes it --Add: positive reinforcement/punishment --Remove: punishment/negative reinforcement

Describe the self-serving bias and learned helplessness.

--Self-serving bias: making attributions that help you increase or maintain your self-esteem and confidence (for success=internal and stable; for failure=external and unstable) --Learned helplessness: a psychological state where people have learned that failure is inevitable and out of their control (tend to attribute failure to uncontrollable, stable causes)

What are the 3 characteristics of attributions? Example of each?

--Stability:stable/unstable (stable=your talent, unstable=good luck) --Locus of causality: internal/external (internal= your tremendous effort, external= easy competition) --Locus of control: in one's control/ out of one's control (in=strategy/plan, out=opponent's lack of physical conditioning)

What do the stability, causality, and controllability of attributions mean in terms of psychological outcomes when the athlete wins/succeeds? Loses/fails?

--Stable: greater expectation of the same outcome happening again --Unstable: lower expectation of the same outcome happening again --Internal: greater pride for success, or greater shame for failure --External: lower pride for success, lower shame for failure --In control: greater motivation --out control: lower motivation

What is the difference b/t state and trait anxiety? Common signs of state anxiety?

--State: the actual apprehension and tension felt at a given time (a changing mood state) --Trait: the tendency to become anxious in stressful situations (an acquired behavioral tendency that is part of one's personality) --common signs of state: cold, clammy hands, profuse sweating, negative self-talk, dazed look in eyes, cotton mouth

Stress process model

--Stress can be either positive (eustress) or negative (distress) -person-environment transaction-->cognitive appraisal-->coping-->stress/emotion outcome

Explain the findings of the Ryan (1977, 1980) scholarship studies?

--Study 1: scholarship athletes were less intrinsically motivated than non-scholarship athletes --Study 2: scholarship football athletes were less intrinsically motivated than non-scholarship athletes --Study 3: scholarship athletes were more intrinsically motivated than non-scholarship athletes in wrestling and female athletes

As a coach, what can you deal to prevent and/or help your athletes or exercisers manage performance anxiety?

--Tailor coaching strategies to individuals; understand which athletes' arousal needs to be enhanced, reduced, or maintained --Develop performers' confidence --For athletes: train yourself to cope with stress and manage psychological arousal

Define the task and ego achievement perspectives. What are the key differences b/t these perspectives?

--Task(mastery): possible for all participants to be successful; success more in participant's control; relative to your own past performance (personal best time/performance, learning or improve) --Ego(outcome): a limited number of people can be successful; success less in participant's hand; relative to other people (winning, beating a rival)

What are the common motivated/behavioral outcomes of task and ego involvement?

--Task: choose learning opportunities at risk of displaying mistakes; high effort; persist in face of failure; continue to problem solve when encountering failure --Ego: avoid learning opportunities that have risk of displaying error; put in just enough effort to socially compare well, or disguise poor ability; give up in face of failure

Multidimensional Theory

--Took issue with the assumption of IZOF that the components of anxiety affect performance in the same way --Somatic and cognitive anxiety influence performance differently --Cognitive=negative linear relationship with performance --Somatic=inverted-U relationship with performance

What are the 2 conceptions of ability and what outcomes might they influence?

--Undifferentiated concept of ability: an inability or a choice not to differentiate b/t ability and effort (working hard=ability) --Differentiated concept of ability: a person is able to, and choose to, differentiate b/t ability and effort

Reversal theory

--arousal effects performance based on interpretation

Inverted-U Hypothesis

--dissatisfied with Drive theory, many sport psychologists posited a different relationship b/t anxiety and performance --Argued performance is optimal at a moderate level of arousal and falls off if athletes are not aroused or too aroused

Catastrophe Theory

--explains the interaction of cognitive and somatic anxiety and the combined relationship on athletic performance --as arousal increases, performance increases to a point but if it goes beyond an optimal level, performance drops off sharply --returning to an optimal level after a catastrophe requires dramatically reducing anxiety below the normal optimal level then working back up

What are the 2 key assumptions of attribution theory (Weiner, 1979, 1985)?

--motivation is influenced by attributions --Commonly cited reasons for perceived success and failure: personal ability, personal effort, opponent's ability/effort, luck, refs, weather

How can SDT be used to inform coaching/teaching practice to enhance self-determined motivation for athletes/exercisers?

--provide participants some choice --Use small rewards as symbols of achievement, not to coerce or control --Help all participants feel included by the group

Identify and explain 3 ways of knowing. Advantages/disadvantages of each?

-Common sense (intuition, speculation); strength= easy and quick; limitations= not based on experience or data -Practical experience (observations, case studies); strengths= immediate, innovative; limitations= fails to explain mechanisms, susceptible to bias -Science (controlled, empirical investigations); strengths= reliable, objective; limitations= reductionistic, slow to evolve

4 steps of scientific method?

-Develop the problem (what is the purpose; independent/dependent variables) -Formulate hypotheses (must be testable) -Gather data -Analyze and interpret results

2 major types of questions in the field?

-Understanding the effects of psychological factors on sport/physical activity behavior and performance -Understanding the effects of participating in sport/physical activity on psychological development, health, and well-being

What are the key components of the sport competition process?

1. Objective competitive situation: standards set by an individual's past performance; an idealized performance; another individual's performance; must be at least 1 other person who is in a position to evaluate the performance 2.Subjective competitive situation: individual's perceptions, interpretations, and appraisals of the competitive situation (game importance, past experiences) 3.Response: whether an individual approaches a competitive situation and how he/she does so (behavioral: choices of an easy, optimal, or difficult standard, physiological: arousal level, psychological: state anxiety, self-talk) 4.consequences: longer-term effects/outcomes of the competitive process; performance=successful or unsuccessful; attitudes= self-perceptions, feelings of enjoyment, motivation; health= sleeping patterns, eating patterns, substance abuse

What does B= f(P,E) mean?

Behavior is a function of both the person and his/her environment -Is dynamic; precise prediction difficult; need to understand both person and context

What are some ways practitioners may promote more intrinsic forms of motivation in their athletes or exercisers?

Create an environment that meets people's needs for autonomy, competence, relatedness

Identify the IV and DV in the following statement: do 8 year old gymnasts learn new vaults faster if they are exposed to mastery versus coping models?

IV: Mastery vs. coping models DV: speed of learning

What is/are attributions? How do they relate to success and failure?

Interpretations or explanations individuals give for success or failure; they are why you think you were successful or unsuccessful

Modeling? 3 types of modeling effects?

the cognitive, affective, and behavioral changes that result from observing others --Skill/behavior acquisition: acquire motor coordination information; develop strategies to solve movement problem --Psychological responses: inhibition/disinhibition --Response facilitation(behaviors already learned)

Definition of motivation (2 parts)

the direction and intensity of effort --direction= approach/avoid or attraction --intensity=how much effort, persistence

Drive theory

the idea that the relationship b/t anxiety and performance is direct and linear

Should personality testing be used in athlete selection processes? Why or why not?

Problems with using personality tests: not sufficient evidence of reliability and validity; social desirability can be learned; doesn't account for non-psychological factors --not recommended

What are the importance of emotional states (enjoyment, anxiety, pride, shame) to this model?

They influence motivation

Describe the trait approach to personality. Why are traits a poor predictor of behavior on their own?

Traits are: --Consistent= therefore we expect behavior (and thoughts and emotions) to be similar from one situation to the next --Generalizable= therefore we expect people to behave similarly across contexts --Traits are weak predictors of behavior on their own b/c predispositions do not mean an individual will act on them in every situation; sport may be a context in which traits are suppressed exaggerated; don't take into account the environment

Difference b/t cognitive and somatic anxiety?

--Cognitive: mental component (worrying, distraction) --somatic: physiological component (changes in heart rate, muscle tension)

Key distinctions b/t competitive and cooperative learning environments?

--Cooperative: success defined by individual progress; effort is valued; person evaluated on effort,progress; mistakes viewed as part of learning --Competitive: succes defined by doing better than others; ability is valued; person evaluated on score, winning; mistakes viewed as failure

Be able to describe the motivational continuum and each type of motivation on it.

--Amotivation: see no link b/t actions and outcomes --External regulation: performing an activity to receive a reward or avoid a punishment --Introjected regulation: performing a behavior to avoid guilt and anxiety (sources are internalized) --Identified regulation: performing the behavior to achieve some valued, extrinsic outcome --Integrated regulation: performing a behavior b/c it is part of your sense of self --Intrinsic motivation: performing an activity for its own sake (gain knowledge, master task, experience pleasure)

Define and differentiate b/t arousal and anxiety.

--Arousal: a general state of activation from deep sleep to extreme excitement; an intensity dimension of motivation at a particular moment; neither positive or negative; includes physiological, cognitive, and behavioral dimensions; marked by higher heart rate, respiration, sweating. --Anxiety: a negative emotional state characterized by nervousness, worry, apprehension, and increased physiological activation

Name the 4 key components to the modeling process, and identify 1 way you could enhance each.

--Attention: eliminate distraction; focus on key points --Retention: mental practice (repeat aloud); immediate practice --Motor Reproduction: turning thoughts into action; break difficult skills into parts --Motivation: provide some rationale for why skill is important for them

What are the 3 stages of children's competence motivation? Why are they important?

--Autonomous Competence: (occurs roughly before age 4) children focus on mastering their environment through self-testing their abilities; children rarely compare themselves with others --Social Comparison: (begins at 5 years old) children focus on comparing their performance with others --Integrated stage: (no typical age) involves both social comparison and autonomous achievement strategies

What are the 3 psychological needs and how do they influence more intrinsic/self-determined motivation?

--Autonomy: need to perceive that one has a choice and are in control of one's behavior --Competence: need to feel effective at achieving desired outcomes --Relatedness: need to authentically connect with others and feel involved in social context

There are 2 theories that suggest that the situation influences personality development. Name them, and explain the basic premise of each.

--Behaviorism: people learn behaviors for specific situations via rewards and punishments --Social Learning Theory: people learn behaviors for certain situations via observational learning/modeling

Competition vs. cooperation

--Competition: a social process that occurs when rewards are given to people on the basis of how their performances compare with the performances of others doing the same task or same event --Cooperation: a social process through which performance is evaluated and rewarded in terms of the collective achievements of a group of people working together to reach a particular goal --It isn't competition itself that produces more negative results, but over-emphasis on winning; norm is often competition, so frequently helpful to increase emphasis on cooperation; competition can co-occur with cooperation

What is the TARGET acronym and how might it be used to influence motivational climate?

Task, Authority, Recognition(reward), grouping, evaluation, timing --conditions to promote mastery climate

What is personality?

That pattern of characteristics thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguishes one person from another and that persists over time and situations

Sport and Exercise Psychology

The scientific study of human behavior in sport and exercise, and the practical application of that knowledge